Parental alcohol use and risk of behavioral and emotional problems in offspring

Early-life risk factors for depression among young adults in the United States general population: Attributable risks and gender differences

BACKGROUND

This study adopts individual and societal-level approaches to examine the contribution of childhood risk factors to major depressive episodes (MDE) in 2526 American young adults.

METHODS

Nationally representative data from the 2017 U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics - Transition into Adulthood Supplement (PSID-TAS) were analyzed using multivariate methods to assess the impact of parental mental illness, childhood adversities, childhood mental disorders, and childhood physical conditions. Adjusted odds ratios and population attributable risk proportions (PARPs) are calculated to estimate the proportion of MDE cases related to risk factors.

RESULTS

The 12-month prevalence of positive screens for MDE was 25.4 %. Approximately 34 % of these were attributable to childhood mental disorders, 24 % to childhood physical conditions, 21 % to childhood adversities, and 16 % to parental mental illness. Childhood and parental depression were critical risk factors, both at the individual (odds ratio exceeding 2) and societal (PARP approximately 24 %) levels. Gender-specific risk factors were identified, with childhood physical abuse and childhood anxiety disorders constituting risk factors for females, and childhood externalizing disorders and childhood headaches as risk factors for males. Approximately 60 % of U.S. young adult MDE cases are attributable to risk factors before age 18.

LIMITATIONS

Possible over reporting of MDE may have biased the associations between predictors and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to depression at a young age-one's own or parental depression-is a robust risk factor for both genders. Policies and interventions focused at alleviating the societal burden of depression should value its generational transmission.

Risk of severe mood and anxiety disorders in the adult children of parents with alcohol use disorder: a nationwide cohort study

BACKGROUND

Growing up with parental alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a risk factor for psychiatric disorders. This study investigated the risk of mood disorders and of anxiety disorders in the adult children of parents with AUD, adjusted for sociodemographic factors.

METHODS

Individual-level register data on the total population were linked to follow children of parents with AUD from 1973 to 2018 to assess their risk of mood disorders and of anxiety disorders. AUD, mood disorders and anxiety disorders were defined with International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems codes from the National Patient Register. HRs of outcomes were calculated with Cox regression. Model 1 was adjusted for the child's sex, parental education and death of a parent. Model 2 was adjusted for those factors and parental diagnosis of mood or anxiety disorder.

RESULTS

Those with ≥1 parent with AUD (99 723 of 2 421 479 children) had a higher risk of mood disorder and of anxiety disorder than those whose parents did not have AUD (HR mood 2.32, 95% CI 2.26 to 2.39; HR anxiety 2.66, 95% CI 2.60 to 2.72). The risk remained elevated after adjustment for sociodemographic factors and parental psychiatric diagnosis (HR mood 1.67, 95% CI 1.63 to 1.72; HR anxiety 1.74, 95% CI 1.69 to 1.78). The highest risks were associated with AUD in both parents, followed by AUD in mothers and then in fathers.

CONCLUSION

Adult children of parents with AUD have a raised risk of mood and anxiety disorders even after adjustment for sociodemographic factors and parental mood or anxiety disorder. These population-level findings can inform future policies and interventions.

Family Functioning, Maternal Depression, and Adolescent Cognitive Flexibility and Its Associations with Adolescent Depression: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

This study explores family functioning and its associations with adolescent major depressive disorder (MDD), comparing its dynamics with healthy counterparts. Family functioning (cohesion, flexibility, communication, and satisfaction), maternal depressive symptoms, postpartum depression history, parental divorce, parental alcohol abuse, and the adolescents' cognitive flexibility, are examined. The research incorporates the perspectives of both adolescents and mothers.

METHODS

The sample includes 63 mother-teenager dyads in the clinical group and 43 in the control group. Instruments encompass the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES IV), Children's Depression Inventory (CDI-2), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), The Brixton Spatial Anticipation Test, and structured interviews.

RESULTS

Families of adolescents with MDD exhibit lower flexibility, cohesion, communication, and overall satisfaction. Depressed adolescents display reduced cognitive flexibility. Discrepancies were observed between adolescents' and mothers' perspectives as associated with adolescents' MDD. Teenagers emphasized the severity of maternal depressive symptoms, while mothers highlighted the importance of family cohesion and flexibility.

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasizes a holistic strategy in addressing adolescent depression, including family-based assessment and therapy. Screening for maternal depressive symptoms is identified as valuable. Cognitive flexibility also needs to be addressed during therapy for depression in adolescence.

Genotype-environment interplay in associations between maternal drinking and offspring emotional and behavioral problems

BACKGROUND

While maternal at-risk drinking is associated with children's emotional and behavioral problems, there is a paucity of research that properly accounts for genetic confounding and gene-environment interplay. Therefore, it remains uncertain what mechanisms underlie these associations. We assess the moderation of associations between maternal at-risk drinking and childhood emotional and behavioral problems by common genetic variants linked to environmental sensitivity (genotype-by-environment [G × E] interaction) while accounting for shared genetic risk between mothers and offspring (GE correlation).

METHODS

We use data from 109 727 children born to 90 873 mothers enrolled in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study. Women self-reported alcohol consumption and reported emotional and behavioral problems when children were 1.5/3/5 years old. We included child polygenic scores (PGSs) for traits linked to environmental sensitivity as moderators.

RESULTS

Associations between maternal drinking and child emotional (β1 = 0.04 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.03-0.05]) and behavioral (β1 = 0.07 [0.06-0.08]) outcomes attenuated after controlling for measured confounders and were almost zero when we accounted for unmeasured confounding (emotional: β1 = 0.01 [0.00-0.02]; behavioral: β1 = 0.01 [0.00-0.02]). We observed no moderation of these adjusted exposure effects by any of the PGS.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of strong evidence for G × E interaction may indicate that the mechanism is not implicated in this kind of intergenerational association. It may also reflect insufficient power or the relatively benign nature of the exposure in this sample.

Parental drinking, mental health and education, and extent of offspring's healthcare utilisation for anxiety/depression: A HUNT survey and registry study

AIMS

Certain risk constellations of parental drinking, mental health and years of education are prospectively associated with offspring's risk for a diagnosis of anxiety/depression, but it remains unknown how they may relate to other aspects of offspring's mental health. We examined whether such risk constellations were also prospectively associated with the extent of offspring's utilisation of healthcare services for anxiety/depression.

METHODS

The sample included 8773 adolescent offspring of 6696 two-parent families who participated in the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study in Norway. The exposures consisted of five parental risk constellations characterised by drinking frequencies and quantities, years of education and mental health previously derived based on the parental self-reports using latent profile analysis. The outcomes were the number of years in contact, and the total number of consultations/visits, with healthcare services for anxiety/depression in adolescents and young adults as recorded in healthcare registries in the period 2008-2014. Associations were examined using zero-inflated negative binomial regression models, accounting for demographics and offspring's early mental health.

RESULTS

Parental risk constellations were not significantly associated with the extent of offspring's healthcare utilisation for anxiety/depression during the seven-year study period, neither in respect of number of years nor in number of contacts.

CONCLUSIONS

Offspring of four risky constellations were no more likely to use healthcare services for longer time periods or have more consultations/visits than offspring of the lowest-risk constellation. Parental risk constellations appear more informative for understanding disorder aetiology than for understanding management and treatment of anxiety and depression during adolescence and early adulthood.

Preconceptional paternal alcohol consumption and the risk of child behavioral problems: a prospective cohort study

Animal studies demonstrated that paternal alcohol exposure before conception increases the risk of adverse neurodevelopment in offspring, but limited evidence is known in humans. Based on Shanghai-Minhang Birth Cohort Study, we aimed to examine associations between preconceptional paternal alcohol consumption and child behavioral problems. Paternal alcohol consumption during the last 3 months before conception was obtained by maternal report. Children born to fathers who drank alcohol at least once a week were classified as exposed. Child behavioral problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) at age of 2, 4, and 6. Negative binomial regression was used to estimate the rate ratio (RR) of CBCL raw scores in 796 offspring. The risks of rating scores on anxious/depressed were increased by 33% (RR 1.33, 95% CI 1.09, 1.61) and 37% (RR 1.37, 95% CI 1.02, 1.84) among boys in the exposed group at age of 4 and 6, respectively. We also found that risks of somatic complaints were increased by 18% (RR 1.18, 95%CI 1.00, 1.40) and 65% (RR 1.65, 95%CI 1.14, 2.38) among girls in the exposed group at age of 4 and 6. The increased risks of sleep problems (RR 1.25, 95% CI 1.00, 1.55) in girls at age 4, thought problems (RR 1.32, 95% CI 1.01, 1.73) in girls at age 6, rule-breaking behaviors (RR 1.35, 95% CI 1.09, 1.67) in boys at age 6 were also found. The risks of CBCL scores on anxious/depressed and sleep problems in girls at age 4, as well as the risks of somatic complaints and rule-breaking behaviors in boys at age 6 increased with the level of exposure to paternal alcohol consumption. Our findings provided preliminary evidence that preconceptional paternal alcohol consumption may increase risks of child behavioral problems.

Emotional and behavioural pathways to adolescent substance use and antisocial behaviour: results from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

This study examines the emotional and behavioural pathways to adolescent substance use and antisocial behaviour. Using a sample of 17,223 participants from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, we applied parallel-process growth mixture modelling on emotional and behavioural symptoms in those aged 3-14 and employed latent class analysis to identify patterns of substance use and antisocial behaviours at age 14. We then performed a multinomial regression analysis to explore the association between emotional and behavioural trajectories and patterns of adolescent substance use and antisocial behaviours, including sociodemographic, family, and maternal factors. We found five trajectories of emotional and behavioural symptoms and four classes of adolescence substance use and antisocial behaviour. Children and adolescents in the 'high externalising and internalising' and 'moderate externalising' trajectories were more likely to belong to any problematic behaviour class, especially the 'poly-substance use and antisocial behaviours' class. Inclusion in the 'moderate externalising and internalising (childhood limited)' class was associated with higher odds of belonging to the 'alcohol and tobacco' class. These associations remained significant after adjusting for important sociodemographic and contextual factors, such as maternal substance use, poverty, and parental status. Interventions on adolescent health promotion and risk behaviour prevention need to address the clustering of substance use and antisocial behaviour as well as the significant influence of early and chronic internalising and externalising symptoms on the aetiology of these behaviours.

Maternal and paternal depression and child mental health trajectories: evidence from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

BACKGROUND

The relationships between offspring depression profiles across adolescence and different timings of parental depression during the perinatal period remain unknown.

AIMS

To explore different timings of maternal and paternal perinatal depression in relation to patterns of change in offspring depressive mood over a 14 year period.

METHOD

Data were obtained from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Parental antenatal depression (ANTD) was assessed at 18 weeks gestation, and postnatal depression (PNTD) at 8 weeks postpartum. Population-averaged trajectories of offspring depressive symptoms were estimated using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ) on nine occasions between 10 and 24 years of age.

RESULTS

Full data were available for 5029 individuals. Offspring exposed to both timings of maternal depression had higher depressive symptoms across adolescence compared with offspring not exposed to ANTD or PNTD, characterised by higher depressive symptoms at age 16 (7.07 SMFQ points (95% CI = 6.19, 7.95; P < 0.001)) and a greater rate of linear change (0.698 SMFQ points (95% CI = 0.47, 0.93; P = 0.002)). Isolated maternal ANTD and to a lesser extent PNTD were also both associated with higher depressive symptoms at age 16, yet isolated maternal PNTD showed greater evidence for an increased rate of linear change across adolescence. A similar pattern was observed for paternal ANTD and PNTD, although effect sizes were attenuated.

CONCLUSIONS

This study adds to the literature demonstrating that exposure to two timings of maternal depression (ANTD and PNTD) is strongly associated with greater offspring trajectories of depressive symptoms.

Predicting alcohol use disorder remission: a longitudinal multimodal multi-featured machine learning approach

Predictive models for recovering from alcohol use disorder (AUD) and identifying related predisposition biomarkers can have a tremendous impact on addiction treatment outcomes and cost reduction. Our sample (N = 1376) included individuals of European (EA) and African (AA) ancestry from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) who were initially assessed as having AUD (DSM-5) and reassessed years later as either having AUD or in remission. To predict this difference in AUD recovery status, we analyzed the initial data using multimodal, multi-features machine learning applications including EEG source-level functional brain connectivity, Polygenic Risk Scores (PRS), medications, and demographic information. Sex and ancestry age-matched stratified analyses were performed with supervised linear Support Vector Machine application and were calculated twice, once when the ancestry was defined by self-report and once defined by genetic data. Multifeatured prediction models achieved higher accuracy scores than models based on a single domain and higher scores in male models when the ancestry was based on genetic data. The AA male group model with PRS, EEG functional connectivity, marital and employment status features achieved the highest accuracy of 86.04%. Several discriminative features were identified, including collections of PRS related to neuroticism, depression, aggression, years of education, and alcohol consumption phenotypes. Other discriminated features included being married, employed, medication, lower default mode network and fusiform connectivity, and higher insula connectivity. Results highlight the importance of increasing genetic homogeneity of analyzed groups, identifying sex, and ancestry-specific features to increase prediction scores revealing biomarkers related to AUD remission.

Parental alcohol intoxication and adverse health outcomes among offspring. A 4-year follow up HUNT study among 2399 Norwegian adolescents

This study aimed to investigate whether experience of parental alcohol intoxication was associated with adverse health outcomes among adolescents four years later. A population-based Norwegian cohort study of 2399 adolescents who participated in the Young-HUNT1 Survey 1995-97 (T1, 13-15 years old) was followed up four years later (T2) in 2000 (Young-HUNT2, 17-19 years old). Measures were based on adolescent self-report of exposure to parental alcohol intoxication, self-rated general health, mental distress (SCL-5) and lifetime hospital admission. Multivariable logistic regression analyses, adjusted for gender, age and parental education were applied. Results show that half of the adolescents (51%) had seen parents intoxicated at age 13-15 years. Four years later, those who had reported parental alcohol intoxication at T1 had increased odds of admission to hospital with odds ratios ranging from OR1.3; CI 1.0-1.7 to OR 2.2; CI 1.3-3.9, poorer self-rated health (odds ratio ranging from 1.8;1.2-2.6 to 2.0;1.1-3.7) and more mental distress (odds ratio ranging from 1.7;1.1-2.5 to 1.9;1.0-3.6). Furthermore, the increased frequency of experience of parental alcohol intoxication are associated with higher prevalence of admission to hospital and mental distress and lower levels of self-rated health. Findings from this large, representative population of Norwegian adolescents indicate that adverse health outcomes among adolescents in a general population are related to relatively common heavy drinking behaviours among parents.

Association of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Offspring Depression: A Negative Control Analysis of Maternal and Partner Consumption

BACKGROUND

Previous research has suggested that intrauterine alcohol exposure is associated with a variety of adverse outcomes in offspring. However, few studies have investigated its association with offspring internalizing disorders in late adolescence.

METHODS

Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), we investigated the associations of maternal drinking in pregnancy with offspring depression at age 18 and 24 (n = 13,480). We also examined partner drinking as a negative control for intrauterine exposure for comparison.

RESULTS

Offspring of mothers that consumed any alcohol at 18 weeks gestation were at increased risk of having a diagnosis of depression (fully adjusted model: OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.34), but there was no clear evidence of association between partners' alcohol consumption at 18 weeks gestation during pregnancy and increased risk of offspring depression (fully adjusted model: OR 0.87, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.01). Postestimation tests found a positive difference between the association of maternal and partner alcohol use on offspring depression, showing a stronger association for maternal compared with partner alcohol use (OR 1.41, CI 1.07 to 1.84).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal drinking in pregnancy was associated with increased risk of offspring depression at age 18. Residual confounding may explain this association, but the negative control comparison of paternal drinking provides some evidence that it may be causal, and this warrants further investigation.

Korean mothers' alcohol consumption trajectories from childbirth to 6 years postpartum and children's executive function difficulties at first grade

PURPOSE

This study aims to identify Korean mothers' alcohol consumption trajectories during early parenthood (from birth to 6 years postpartum) and to examine associations between these trajectories and their children's executive function difficulties at first grade (age 7).

METHODS

Participants were 1010 mothers and their children, a subset of the Panel Study of Korean Children. Mothers' postpartum alcohol consumption trajectories were identified using growth mixture modeling. Children's executive function difficulties by the trajectories were examined using factorial analysis of covariance.

RESULTS

Korean mothers' alcohol consumption trajectories during early parenthood were heterogeneous. Mothers developed one of four alcohol consumption patterns: stable low use (49.9%), increasing use (25.0%), chronic modest use (18.3%), and chronic high use (6.8%). Children's executive function difficulties as evaluated by first grade teachers differed by mothers' postpartum alcohol consumption trajectories. Children of chronic high users displayed more difficulties in planning-organization, behavioral control, and attention-concentration than did children of the other groups of mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers' chronic and excessive postpartum alcohol consumption during early parenthood can be a significant risk factor for difficulties in children's early executive function development. Early screening for mothers with unhealthy alcohol consumption habits is critical. Special attention and support should be afforded to their children's development and school adjustment.

Maternal Drinking and Child Emotional and Behavior Problems

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Maternal drinking is associated with child emotional and behavior problems. There is, however, a lack of studies that properly account for confounding. Our objective was to estimate the association between at-risk drinking in mothers of young children and child emotional and behavior problems, taking into account the passive transmission of familial risk.

METHODS

This population-based sample consists of 34 039 children nested within 21 911 nuclear families and 18 158 extended families from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study. Participants were recruited between 1999 and 2009 during routine ultrasound examinations. Data were collected during the 17th and 30th gestational week and when the children were 1.5, 3, and 5 years old. We applied a multilevel structural equation model that accounted for unobserved familial risks.

RESULTS

Children of mothers with at-risk drinking had a higher likelihood of behavior problems (β = 3.53; 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.01 to 4.05) than children of mothers with low alcohol consumption. This association was reduced after adjusting for factors in the extended family (β = 1.93; 95% CI 1.16 to 2.71) and the nuclear family (β = 1.20; 95% CI 0.39 to 2.01). Maternal at-risk drinking had a smaller association with child emotional problems (β = 1.80; 95% CI 1.26 to 2.34). This association was reduced after adjusting for factors in the extended family (β = 0.67; 95% CI -0.12 to 1.46) and the nuclear family (β = 0.58; 95% CI -0.31 to 1.48).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest an association between maternal at-risk drinking and child behavior problems. A reduction in maternal drinking may improve outcomes for children with such symptoms.

Examining the longitudinal nature of depressive symptoms in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)

Depression during adolescence is associated with a number of negative outcomes in later life. Research has examined the longitudinal nature of adolescent depression in order to identify patterns of depressive mood, the early antecedents and later consequences. However, rich longitudinal data is needed to better address these questions. The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) is an intergenerational birth cohort with nine repeated assessments of depressive symptoms throughout late childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. Depressive symptoms are measured using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ). Many studies have used ALSPAC to examine the longitudinal nature of depressive symptoms in combination with the wealth of early life exposure and later outcome data. This data note provides a summary of the SMFQ data, where the data are stored in ALSPAC, the characteristics and distribution of the SMFQ, and highlights some considerations for researchers wanting to use the SMFQ data in ALSPAC.

Examining the longitudinal nature of depressive symptoms in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)

Depression during adolescence is associated with a number of negative outcomes in later life. Research has examined the longitudinal nature of adolescent depression in order to identify patterns of depressive mood, the early antecedents and later consequences. However, rich longitudinal data is needed to better address these questions. The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) is an intergenerational birth cohort with nine repeated assessments of depressive symptoms throughout late childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. Depressive symptoms are measured using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ). Many studies have used ALSPAC to examine the longitudinal nature of depressive symptoms in combination with the wealth of early life exposure and later outcome data. This data note provides a summary of the SMFQ data, where the data are stored in ALSPAC, the characteristics and distribution of the SMFQ, and highlights some considerations for researchers wanting to use the SMFQ data in ALSPAC.

Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors Associated With Trajectories of Depression Symptoms From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

Importance

Less favorable trajectories of depressive mood from adolescence to early adulthood are associated with current and later psychopathology, impaired educational attainment, and social dysfunction, yet the genetic and environmental risk factors associated with these trajectories are not fully established. Examining what risk factors are associated with different trajectories of depressive mood could help identify the nature of depression symptoms and improve preventive interventions for those at most risk.

Objective

To examine the differential associations of genetic and environmental risk factors with trajectories of depression symptoms among individuals observed from ages 10 to 24 years.

Design, Setting, and Participants

In a longitudinal cohort study established in 1990 and currently ongoing (the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children [ALSPAC]), growth mixture modeling was used to identify trajectories of depression symptoms in 9394 individuals in the United Kingdom. Associations of different risk factors with these trajectories were then examined. Analysis was conducted between August 2018 and January 2019.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Trajectories were composed from depression symptoms measured using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire at 9 occasions from ages 10 to 24 years. Risk factors included sex, a polygenic risk score taken from a recent genome-wide association study of depression symptoms, maternal postnatal depression, partner cruelty to the offspring's mother when the child was aged 2 to 4 years, childhood anxiety at age 8 years, and being bullied at age 10 years.

Results

Data on all risk factors, confounders, and the outcome were available for 3525 individuals, including 1771 (50.2%) who were female. Trajectories were assessed between the mean (SD) age of 10.7 (0.3) years and mean (SD) age of 23.8 (0.5) years. Overall, 5 distinct trajectories of depression symptoms were identified: (1) stable low (2506 individuals [71.1%]), (2) adolescent limited (325 individuals [9.2%]), (3) childhood limited (203 individuals [5.8%]), (4) early-adult onset (393 individuals [11.1%]), and (5) childhood persistent (98 individuals [2.8%]). Of all the associations of risk factors with trajectories, sex (odds ratio [OR], 6.45; 95% CI, 2.89-14.38), the polygenic risk score for depression symptoms (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.10-1.96), and childhood anxiety (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.16-1.45) showed the strongest association with the childhood-persistent trajectory of depression symptoms compared with the stable-low trajectory. Maternal postnatal depression (OR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.41-4.07) had the strongest association with the early-adult-onset trajectory, while partner cruelty to mother (OR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.36-3.90) had the strongest association with the adolescent-limited trajectory. Bullying (OR, 8.08; 95% CI, 4.92-13.26) showed the strongest association with the childhood-limited trajectory.

Conclusions and Relevance

The least favorable trajectories of depression symptoms (childhood persistent and early-adult onset) were associated with both genetic and environmental risk factors, but the 2 trajectories of limited duration that had resolved by early adulthood (childhood limited and adolescent limited) were not associated with the polygenic risk score or maternal postnatal depression. Bullying was strongly associated with both the childhood-persistent and childhood-limited trajectories, suggesting that this risk factor may have a time-specific effect. These findings suggest that examining genetic and multiple time-specific environmental antecedents could help identify trajectories of varying onset and chronicity.

Identifying Critical Points of Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms from Childhood to Young Adulthood

Depression is a common mental illness and research has focused on late childhood and adolescence in an attempt to prevent or reduce later psychopathology and/or social impairments. It is important to establish and study population-averaged trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence as this could characterise specific changes in populations and help identify critical points to intervene with treatment. Multilevel growth-curve models were used to explore adolescent trajectories of depressive symptoms in 9301 individuals (57% female) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a UK based pregnancy cohort. Trajectories of depressive symptoms were constructed for males and females using the short mood and feelings questionnaire over 8 occasions, between 10 and 22 years old. Critical points of development such as age of peak velocity for depressive symptoms (the age at which depressive symptoms increase most rapidly) and the age of maximum depressive symptoms were also derived. The results suggested that from similar initial levels of depressive symptoms at age 11, females on average experienced steeper increases in depressive symptoms than males over their teenage and adolescent years until around the age of 20 when levels of depressive symptoms plateaued and started to decrease for both sexes. Females on average also had an earlier age of peak velocity of depressive symptoms that occurred at 13.5 years, compared to males who on average had an age of peak velocity at 16 years old. Evidence was less clear for a difference between the ages of maximum depressive symptoms which were on average 19.6 years for females and 20.4 for males. Identifying critical periods for different population subgroups may provide useful knowledge for treating and preventing depression and could be tailored to be time specific for certain groups. Possible explanations and recommendations are discussed.

Association of Constellations of Parental Risk With Children's Subsequent Anxiety and Depression: Findings From a HUNT Survey and Health Registry Study

IMPORTANCE

The research focus on children of parents with alcohol use disorder has eclipsed the potentially wider-reaching detrimental effects of subclinical parental drinking, both alone and in combination with other parental risk factors.

OBJECTIVE

To identify constellations of early parental risk characterized by variations in drinking, mental health, and education in both parents and examine their prospective associations with children's contact with the health care system for anxiety and/or depression (ie, diagnoses or treatment).

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This prospective study was based on linked survey and health registries data. The sample included 8773 children from 6696 two-parent families in Norway who participated in the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT) survey in 1995 to 1997 or 2006 to 2008, when the children were aged 13 to 19 years. Data were analyzed from January to September 2018.

EXPOSURES

Five constellations of early parental risks, characterized by variations in drinking frequencies and amounts, mental health, and education for both parents, as identified through latent profile analysis.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Children's diagnoses or treatment of anxiety and/or depression from 2008 to 2016 were recorded in 3 health registries. The primary outcome was the total number of registries where participants presented (ranging from 0 to 3).

RESULTS

Of the 8773 included children, 4404 (50.2%) were boys, and the mean (SD) age at the time of participation in the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study was 16.1 (1.8) years. Prevalence of anxiety and/or depression, as evidenced in at least 1 registry record, was 24.3% (2132 of 8773). Early parental risk profiles risks marked by (1) the lowest parental education (adjusted relative risk, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.01-1.25) and (2) elevated drinking in both parents and elevated mental health symptoms in fathers (adjusted relative risk, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.03-2.22) were associated with a significant increase in risk of anxiety and/or depression in children from those families compared with children from no-risk families.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Studies seeking to understand prospective associations of parental drinking with children's mental health need to consider additional risk factors in combination with one another as well as parental behaviors and characteristics below clinically defined levels. When accumulated at a family level, even seemingly innocuous characteristics contributed to meaningful increases in risk of anxiety and/or depression among children, potentially translating into poorer mental health outcomes for many young people.

The effect of parental drinking on alcohol use in young adults: the mediating role of parental monitoring and peer deviance

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Evidence demonstrating an association between parental alcohol use and offspring alcohol use from robust prospective studies is lacking. We tested the direct and indirect associations between parental and young adult alcohol use via early alcohol initiation, parental monitoring and associating with deviant peers.

DESIGN

Prospective birth cohort study. Path analysis was used to assess the possible association between parental alcohol use (assessed at 12 years) and alcohol use in young adults (assessed at 18 years) via potential mediators (assessed at 14 and 15.5 years, respectively).

SETTING

South West England.

PARTICIPANTS

Data were available on 3785 adolescents and their parents from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children.

MEASUREMENTS

The continuous Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) score was used as the primary outcome measure. Maternal alcohol use was defined as light (< 4 units on any day), moderate (≥ 4 units on 1-3 days) and high-risk (≥ 4 units on ≥ 4 days in 1 week). Partner alcohol use was also defined as light, moderate and high risk. Socio-economic variables were included as covariates.

FINDINGS

There was strong evidence of a total effect from maternal alcohol use to young adult alcohol use [moderate: b = 1.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.64, 1.49, P < 0.001; high risk: b = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.07, 2.35, P < 0.001]. The majority of this association was explained through early alcohol initiation (moderate: b = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.04, 0.25, P = 0.01; high risk: b = 0.24, 95% CI = 0.07, 0.40, P < 0.01) and early alcohol initiation/associating with deviant peers (moderate: b = 0.06, 95% CI = 0.02, 0.10, P < 0.01; high risk: b = 0.10, 95% CI = 0.03, 0.16, P < 0.01). There was strong evidence of a remaining direct effect (moderate: b = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.39, 1.22, P < 0.001; high risk: b = 1.28, 95% CI = 0.65, 1.91, P < 0.001). A similar pattern of results was evident for partner alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS

Young adults whose parents have moderate or high-risk alcohol consumption are more likely to consume alcohol than those with parents with lower alcohol consumption. This association appears to be partly accounted for by earlier alcohol use initiation and higher prevalence of association with deviant peers.

DNA methylation from birth to late adolescence and development of multiple-risk behaviours

BACKGROUND

Risk behaviours in adolescence are linked to poor educational attainment and health and other outcomes in young adulthood. We explored whether there are molecular mechanisms associated with the development, or the result, of multiple risk behaviours (MRBs).

METHODS

MRBs (antisocial behaviour and delinquency, traffic-related risk behaviour, risky sexual behaviour, lack of exercise) and their sumscore were characterized based on self-reported questions at age 7 and 17 within the ARIES subsample of the ALSPAC birth cohort, and were linked to DNA methylation at over 485,000 CpG sites at ages 0,7 and 17. Associations were determined for participants with complete data (n = 227-575).

RESULTS

There was weak evidence of associations between cumulative MRBs and methylation at cg01783492 and cg16720578 at age 17. DNA methylation at age 17 was associated with risky sexual behaviour (cg22883332), lack of exercise (cg03152353, cg20056908, cg20571116) and substance use (cg02188400, cg13906377). No associations between DNA methylation and individual risk behaviours at age 7 were observed. DNA methylation at age 7 might predispose for traffic-related risk behaviour (cg24683561) and substance use (cg08761410) at age 17.

LIMITATIONS

Main limitations are absence of information on directly measured blood cell type proportions and tissue specificity, and a modest sample size.

CONCLUSIONS

Cumulative MRB in late adolescence was associated with effects on DNA methylation. More specifically, risky sexual behaviour and sedentary behaviour are associated with changes in DNA methylation, while DNA methylation in childhood may predict later traffic-related risky behaviour. For substance use effects in both temporal directions were observed.