Interaction of the Human Papillomavirus E6 Oncoprotein with Sorting Nexin 27 Modulates Endocytic Cargo Transport Pathways

Cyclodextrin-based delivery systems for chemical and genetic drugs: Current status and future

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic polysaccharides characterized by their unique hollow structure, making them highly effective carriers for pharmaceutical agents. CD-based delivery systems are extensively utilized to enhance drug stability, increase solubility, improve oral bioavailability, and facilitate controlled release and targeted delivery. This review initially provides a concise overview of nano drug delivery systems, followed by a detailed introduction of the structural features and benefits of CDs. It further summarizes the applications of CD-based delivery systems and offers insights for the rational design of drug delivery systems. In this review, CD-based delivery systems are categorized into several types, such as covalently modified CD derivatives, non-modified CD inclusion complexes, poly-cyclodextrins and others. The application of CD-based systems for the delivery of genetic therapeutic agents and co-delivery of gene and drug is also presented. Finally, this review discusses potential challenges and opportunities that may arise in the future. With the development of nanotechnology and optimization of preparation process, CD-based drug delivery systems will provide a more effective, precise and safe approach to drug therapy.

HPV-18 E6 enhances the interaction between EMILIN2 and SNX27 to promote WNT signaling

Oncogenic HPV E6 proteins have a PDZ-binding motif (PBM) which plays important roles in both the viral life cycle and tumor development. The PBM confers interaction with a large number of different PDZ domain-containing substrates, one of which is Sorting Nexin 27. This protein is part of the retromer complex and plays an important role in endocytic sorting pathways. It has been shown that at least two SNX27 interacting partners, GLUT1 and TANC2, are aberrantly trafficked due to the E6 PBM-dependent interaction with SNX27. To investigate further which other components of the endocytic trafficking pathway might be affected by the SNX27-HPV E6 interaction, we analyzed the SNX27 proteome interaction profile in a previously described HeLa cell line expressing GFP-SNX27, both in the presence and absence of the HPV-18 E6 oncoprotein. In this study, we identify a novel interacting partner of SNX27, secreted glycoprotein EMILIN2, whose release is blocked by HPV18 E6 in a PBM-dependent manner. Mechanistically, E6 can block EMILIN2 interaction with the WNT1 ligand, thereby enhancing WNT1 signaling and promoting cell proliferation.

IMPORTANCE

This study demonstrates that HPV E6 blocks EMILIN2 inhibition of WNT1 signaling, thereby enhancing cell proliferation in HPV-positive tumor cells. This involves a novel mechanism whereby the E6 PBM actually contributes toward enhancing the interaction between SNX27 and EMILIN2, suggesting that the mode of recognition of SNX27 by E6 and EMILIN2 is different. This is the first example of the E6 PBM altering a PDZ domain-containing protein to enhance potential substrate recognition.

HPV16 E7 modulates the cell surface expression of MET and CD109 via the AP2 complex

Multiple cellular pathways are affected by HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins, including endocytic and cellular trafficking. HPV-16 E7 can target the adaptor protein (AP) complex, which contains proteins important during endocytosis transport. To further investigate the role of HPV E7 during this process, we analysed the expression of cell surface proteins in NIKS cells expressing HPV-16 E7. We show that different cell surface proteins are regulated by HPV-16 E7 via interaction with AP2. We observed that the expression of MET and CD109 membrane protein seems to be upregulated in cells expressing E7. Moreover, the interaction of MET and CD109 with AP2 proteins is disrupted by HPV-16 E7. In addition, in the absence of HPV-16 E7, there is a downregulation of the cell membrane expression of MET and CD109 in HPV-positive cell lines. These results expand our knowledge of the functions of E7 and open new potential cellular pathways affected by this oncoprotein.

Porcine deltacoronavirus accessory protein NS6 harnesses VPS35-mediated retrograde trafficking to facilitate efficient viral infection

IMPORTANCE

Retrograde transport has been reported to be closely associated with normal cellular biological processes and viral replication. As an emerging enteropathogenic coronavirus with zoonotic potential, porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) has attracted considerable attention. However, whether retrograde transport is associated with PDCoV infection remains unclear. Our present study demonstrates that retromer protein VPS35 acts as a critical host factor that is required for PDCoV infection. Mechanically, VPS35 interacts with PDCoV NS6, mediating the retrograde transport of NS6 from endosomes to the Golgi and preventing it from lysosomal degradation. Recombinant PDCoVs with an NS6 deletion display resistance to VPS35 deficiency. Our work reveals a novel evasion mechanism of PDCoV that involves the manipulation of the retrograde transport pathway by VPS35, providing new insight into the mechanism of PDCoV infection.

Genome editing mRNA nanotherapies inhibit cervical cancer progression and regulate the immunosuppressive microenvironment for adoptive T-cell therapy

CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing is promising for therapy of cervical cancer by precisely targeting human papillomavirus (HPV). To develop CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing nanotherapies, a pH-responsive hybrid nonviral nanovector was constructed for co-delivering Cas9 mRNA and guide RNAs (gRNAs) targeting E6 or E7 oncogenes. The pH-responsive nanovector was fabricated using an acetalated cyclic oligosaccharide (ACD), in combination with low molecular weight polyethyleneimine. Thus obtained hybrid ACD nanoparticles (defined as ACD NP) showed efficient loading for both Cas9 mRNA and E6 or E7 gRNA, giving rise to two pH-responsive genome editing nanotherapies E6/ACD NP and E7/ACD NP, respectively. Cellularly, ACD NP exhibited high transfection but low cytotoxicity in HeLa cervical carcinoma cells. Also, efficient genome editing of target genes was achieved in HeLa cells, with minimal off-target effects. In mice bearing HeLa xenografts, treatment with E6/ACD NP or E7/ACD NP afforded effective editing of target oncogenes and considerable antitumor activities. More importantly, treatment with E6/ACD NP or E7/ACD NP notably promoted CD8+ T cell survival by reversing the immunosuppressive microenvironment, thereby leading to synergistic antitumor effects by combination therapy using the gene editing nanotherapies and adoptive T-cell transfer. Consequently, our pH-responsive genome editing nanotherapies deserve further development for the treatment of HPV-associated cervical cancer, and they can also serve as promising nanotherapies to improve efficacies of other immune therapies against different advanced cancers by regulating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.

Additive energetic contributions of multiple peptide positions determine the relative promiscuity of viral and human sequences for PDZ domain targets

Protein-protein interactions that involve recognition of short peptides are critical in cellular processes. Protein-peptide interaction surface areas are relatively small and shallow, and there are often overlapping specificities in families of peptide-binding domains. Therefore, dissecting selectivity determinants can be challenging. PDZ domains are a family of peptide-binding domains located in several intracellular signaling and trafficking pathways. These domains are also directly targeted by pathogens, and a hallmark of many oncogenic viral proteins is a PDZ-binding motif. However, amidst sequences that target PDZ domains, there is a wide spectrum in relative promiscuity. For example, the viral HPV16 E6 oncoprotein recognizes over double the number of PDZ domain-containing proteins as the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) in the cell, despite similar PDZ targeting-sequences and identical motif residues. Here, we determine binding affinities for PDZ domains known to bind either HPV16 E6 alone or both CFTR and HPV16 E6, using peptides matching WT and hybrid sequences. We also use energy minimization to model PDZ-peptide complexes and use sequence analyses to investigate this difference. We find that while the majority of single mutations had marginal effects on overall affinity, the additive effect on the free energy of binding accurately describes the selectivity observed. Taken together, our results describe how complex and differing PDZ interactomes can be programmed in the cell.

Additive energetic contributions of multiple peptide positions determine the relative promiscuity of viral and human sequences for PDZ domain targets

Protein-protein interactions that include recognition of short sequences of amino acids, or peptides, are critical in cellular processes. Protein-peptide interaction surface areas are relatively small and shallow, and there are often overlapping specificities in families of peptide-binding domains. Therefore, dissecting selectivity determinants can be challenging. PDZ domains are an example of a peptide-binding domain located in several intracellular signaling and trafficking pathways, which form interactions critical for the regulation of receptor endocytic trafficking, tight junction formation, organization of supramolecular complexes in neurons, and other biological systems. These domains are also directly targeted by pathogens, and a hallmark of many oncogenic viral proteins is a PDZ-binding motif. However, amidst sequences that target PDZ domains, there is a wide spectrum in relative promiscuity. For example, the viral HPV16 E6 oncoprotein recognizes over double the number of PDZ domain-containing proteins as the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) in the cell, despite similar PDZ targeting-sequences and identical motif residues. Here, we determine binding affinities for PDZ domains known to bind either HPV16 E6 alone or both CFTR and HPV16 E6, using peptides matching WT and hybrid sequences. We also use energy minimization to model PDZ-peptide complexes and use sequence analyses to investigate this difference. We find that while the majority of single mutations had a marginal effect on overall affinity, the additive effect on the free energy of binding accurately describes the selectivity observed. Taken together, our results describe how complex and differing PDZ interactomes can be programmed in the cell.

HPV-18E6 Inhibits Interactions between TANC2 and SNX27 in a PBM-Dependent Manner and Promotes Increased Cell Proliferation

While a great deal is known about the role of the E6 PDZ binding motif (PBM) in modulating the cellular proteins involved in regulating cell polarity, much less is known about the consequences of E6's interactions with SNX27 and the endocytic sorting machinery. We reasoned that a potential consequence of such interactions could be to affect the fate of multiple SNX27 endosomal partners, such as transmembrane proteins or soluble accessory proteins.

The emerging roles of retromer and sorting nexins in the life cycle of viruses

Retromer and sorting nexins (SNXs) transport cargoes from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network or plasma membrane. Recent studies have unveiled the emerging roles for retromer and SNXs in the life cycle of viruses, including members of Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae and Retroviridae. Key components of retromer/SNXs, such as Vps35, Vps26, SNX5 and SNX27, can affect multiple steps of the viral life cycle, including facilitating the entry of viruses into cells, participating in viral replication, and promoting the assembly of virions. Here we present a comprehensive updated review on the interplay between retromer/SNXs and virus, which will shed mechanistic insights into controlling virus infection.

PDZ-Containing Proteins Targeted by the ACE2 Receptor

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a main receptor for SARS-CoV-2 entry to the host cell. Indeed, the first step in viral entry is the binding of the viral trimeric spike (S) protein to ACE2. Abundantly present in human epithelial cells of many organs, ACE2 is also expressed in the human brain. ACE2 is a type I membrane protein with an extracellular N-terminal peptidase domain and a C-terminal collectrin-like domain that ends with a single transmembrane helix and an intracellular 44-residue segment. This C-terminal segment contains a PDZ-binding motif (PBM) targeting protein-interacting domains called PSD-95/Dlg/ZO-1 (PDZ). Here, we identified the human PDZ specificity profile of the ACE2 PBM using the high-throughput holdup assay and measuring the binding intensities of the PBM of ACE2 against the full human PDZome. We discovered 14 human PDZ binders of ACE2 showing significant binding with dissociation constants' values ranging from 3 to 81 μM. NHERF, SHANK, and SNX27 proteins found in this study are involved in protein trafficking. The PDZ/PBM interactions with ACE2 could play a role in ACE2 internalization and recycling that could be of benefit for the virus entry. Interestingly, most of the ACE2 partners we identified are expressed in neuronal cells, such as SHANK and MAST families, and modifications of the interactions between ACE2 and these neuronal proteins may be involved in the neurological symptoms of COVID-19.

The biology of papillomavirus PDZ associations: what do they offer papillomaviruses?

The high-risk α-type papillomaviruses have a C-terminal PDZ-binding motif (PBM) on one of the two major oncoproteins E6 or E7; the vast majority on E6. The PBM is essential for the high-risk HPV life cycle, for episomal maintenance of the virus genome, and for maintaining the mitotic stability of the infected cell. The question is why only these viruses have PBMs - are there specific constraints imposed by the mucosal epithelium in which these viruses replicate? However the low-risk α-HPVs, such as HPV-6 and HPV-11 replicate extremely efficiently without a PBM, while viruses of the alpha8 group, such as HPV-40, replicate well with a very primitive PBM. So what does PDZ-binding capacity contribute to the fitness of the virus?

The Not-So-Good, the Bad and the Ugly: HPV E5, E6 and E7 Oncoproteins in the Orchestration of Carcinogenesis

Infection with HPV starts with the access of the viral particles to basal cells in the epidermis, potentially via microtraumas to the skin. The basal cells are able to keep away these pathogens in normal circumstances through a robust immune response from the host, as HPV infections are, in general, cleared within 2 to 3 weeks. However, the rare instances of persistent infection and/or in cases where the host immune system is compromised are major risk factors for the development of lesions potentially leading to malignancy. Evolutionarily, obligatory pathogens such as HPVs would not be expected to risk exposing the host to lethal cancer, as this would entail challenging their own life cycle, but infection with these viruses is highly correlated with cancer and malignancy-as in cancer of the cervix, which is almost always associated with these viruses. Despite this key associative cause and the availability of very effective vaccines against these viruses, therapeutic interventions against HPV-induced cancers are still a challenge, indicating the need for focused translational research. In this review, we will consider the key roles that the viral proteins play in driving the host cells to carcinogenesis, mainly focusing on events orchestrated by early proteins E5, E6 and E7-the not-so-good, the bad and the ugly-and discuss and summarize the major events that lead to these viruses mechanistically corrupting cellular homeostasis, giving rise to cancer and malignancy.

Computational Analysis of Domains Vulnerable to HPV-16 E6 Oncoprotein and Corresponding Hot Spot Residues

BACKGROUND

Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is the primary cause of cancers in cervix, head and neck regions. Oncoprotein E6 of HPV-16, after infecting human body, alters host protein- protein interaction networks. E6 interacts with several proteins, causing the infection to progress into cervical cancer. The molecular basis for these interactions is the presence of short linear peptide motifs on E6 identical to those on human proteins.

METHODS

Motifs of LXXLL and E/DLLL/V-G after identification on E6, were analyzed for their dynamic fluctuations by use of elastic network models. Correlation analysis of amino acid residues of E6 was also performed in specific regions of motifs.

RESULTS

Arginine, Leucine, Glutamine, Threonine and Glutamic acid have been identified as hot spot residues of E6 which can subsequently provide a platform for drug designing and understanding of pathogenesis of cervical cancer. These amino acids play a significant role in stabilizing interactions with host proteins, ultimately causing infections and cancers.

CONCLUSION

Our study validates the role of linear binding motifs of E6 of HPV in interacting with these proteins as an important event in the propagation of HPV in human cells and its transformation into cervical cancer. The study further predicts the domains of protein kinase and armadillo as part of the regions involved in the interaction of E6AP, Paxillin and TNF R1, with viral E6.

Human papillomavirus E6 and E7: What remains?

Decades of research on the human papillomavirus oncogenes, E6 and E7, have given us huge amounts of data on their expression, functions and structures. We know much about the very many cellular proteins and pathways that they influence in one way or another. However, much of this information is quite discrete, referring to one activity examined under one condition. It is now time to join the dots to try to understand a larger picture: how, where and when do all these interactions occur... and why? Examining these questions will also show how many of the yet obscure cellular processes work together for cellular and tissue homeostasis in health and disease.

Host PDZ-containing proteins targeted by SARS-CoV-2

Small linear motifs targeting protein interacting domains called PSD‐95/Dlg/ZO‐1 (PDZ) have been identified at the C terminus of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) proteins E, 3a, and N. Using a high‐throughput approach of affinity‐profiling against the full human PDZome, we identified sixteen human PDZ binders of SARS‐CoV‐2 proteins E, 3A, and N showing significant interactions with dissociation constants values ranging from 3 to 82 μm. Six of them (TJP1, PTPN13, HTRA1, PARD3, MLLT4, LNX2) are also recognized by SARS‐CoV while three (NHERF1, MAST2, RADIL) are specific to SARS‐CoV‐2 E protein. Most of these SARS‐CoV‐2 protein partners are involved in cellular junctions/polarity and could be also linked to evasion mechanisms of the immune responses during viral infection. Among the binders of the SARS‐CoV‐2 proteins E, 3a, or N, seven significantly affect viral replication under knock down gene expression in infected cells. This PDZ profiling identifying human proteins potentially targeted by SARS‐CoV‐2 can help to understand the multifactorial severity of COVID19 and to conceive effective anti‐coronaviral agents for therapeutic purposes.

Toward Understanding the Molecular Role of SNX27/Retromer in Human Health and Disease

Aberrations in membrane trafficking pathways have profound effects in cellular dynamics of cellular sorting processes and can drive severe physiological outcomes. Sorting nexin 27 (SNX27) is a metazoan-specific sorting nexin protein from the PX-FERM domain family and is required for endosomal recycling of many important transmembrane receptors. Multiple studies have shown SNX27-mediated recycling requires association with retromer, one of the best-known regulators of endosomal trafficking. SNX27/retromer downregulation is strongly linked to Down's Syndrome (DS) via glutamate receptor dysfunction and to Alzheimer's Disease (AD) through increased intracellular production of amyloid peptides from amyloid precursor protein (APP) breakdown. SNX27 is further linked to addiction via its role in potassium channel trafficking, and its over-expression is linked to tumorigenesis, cancer progression, and metastasis. Thus, the correct sorting of multiple receptors by SNX27/retromer is vital for normal cellular function to prevent human diseases. The role of SNX27 in regulating cargo recycling from endosomes to the cell surface is firmly established, but how SNX27 assembles with retromer to generate tubulovesicular carriers remains elusive. Whether SNX27/retromer may be a putative therapeutic target to prevent neurodegenerative disease is now an emerging area of study. This review will provide an update on our molecular understanding of endosomal trafficking events mediated by the SNX27/retromer complex on endosomes.

Targeting Endosomal Recycling Pathways by Bacterial and Viral Pathogens

Endosomes are essential cellular stations where endocytic and secretory trafficking routes converge. Proteins transiting at endosomes can be degraded via lysosome, or recycled to the plasma membrane, trans-Golgi network (TGN), or other cellular destinations. Pathways regulating endosomal recycling are tightly regulated in order to preserve organelle identity, to maintain lipid homeostasis, and to support other essential cellular functions. Recent studies have revealed that both pathogenic bacteria and viruses subvert host endosomal recycling pathways for their survival and replication. Several host factors that are frequently targeted by pathogens are being identified, including retromer, TBC1D5, SNX-BARs, and the WASH complex. In this review, we will focus on the recent advances in understanding how intracellular bacteria, human papillomavirus (HPV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) hijack host endosomal recycling pathways. This exciting work not only reveals distinct mechanisms employed by pathogens to manipulate host signaling pathways, but also deepens our understanding of the molecular intricacies regulating endosomal receptor trafficking.

The human papillomavirus oncoproteins: a review of the host pathways targeted on the road to transformation

Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) is the causal factor in over 99 % of cervical cancer cases, and a significant proportion of oropharyngeal and anogenital cancers. The key drivers of HPV-mediated transformation are the oncoproteins E5, E6 and E7. Together, they act to prolong cell-cycle progression, delay differentiation and inhibit apoptosis in the host keratinocyte cell in order to generate an environment permissive for viral replication. The oncoproteins also have key roles in mediating evasion of the host immune response, enabling infection to persist. Moreover, prolonged infection within the cellular environment established by the HR-HPV oncoproteins can lead to the acquisition of host genetic mutations, eventually culminating in transformation to malignancy. In this review, we outline the many ways in which the HR-HPV oncoproteins manipulate the host cellular environment, focusing on how these activities can contribute to carcinogenesis.

Role of PDZ-binding motif from West Nile virus NS5 protein on viral replication

West Nile virus (WNV) is a Flavivirus, which can cause febrile illness in humans that may progress to encephalitis. Like any other obligate intracellular pathogens, Flaviviruses hijack cellular protein functions as a strategy for sustaining their life cycle. Many cellular proteins display globular domain known as PDZ domain that interacts with PDZ-Binding Motifs (PBM) identified in many viral proteins. Thus, cellular PDZ-containing proteins are common targets during viral infection. The non-structural protein 5 (NS5) from WNV provides both RNA cap methyltransferase and RNA polymerase activities and is involved in viral replication but its interactions with host proteins remain poorly known. In this study, we demonstrate that the C-terminal PBM of WNV NS5 recognizes several human PDZ-containing proteins using both in vitro and in cellulo high-throughput methods. Furthermore, we constructed and assayed in cell culture WNV replicons where the PBM within NS5 was mutated. Our results demonstrate that the PBM of WNV NS5 is important in WNV replication. Moreover, we show that knockdown of the PDZ-containing proteins TJP1, PARD3, ARHGAP21 or SHANK2 results in the decrease of WNV replication in cells. Altogether, our data reveal that interactions between the PBM of NS5 and PDZ-containing proteins affect West Nile virus replication.

Molecular basis of the interaction of the human tyrosine phosphatase PTPN3 with the hepatitis B virus core protein

Interactions between the hepatitis B virus core protein (HBc) and host cell proteins are poorly understood, although they may be essential for the propagation of the virus and its pathogenicity. HBc has a C-terminal PDZ (PSD-95, Dlg1, ZO-1)-binding motif (PBM) that is responsible for interactions with host PDZ domain-containing proteins. In this work, we focused on the human protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 3 (PTPN3) and its interaction with HBc. We solved the crystal structure of the PDZ domain of PTPN3 in complex with the PBM of HBc, revealing a network of interactions specific to class I PDZ domains despite the presence of a C-terminal cysteine in this atypical PBM. We further showed that PTPN3 binds the HBc protein within capsids or as a homodimer. We demonstrate that overexpression of PTPN3 significantly affects HBV infection in HepG2 NTCP cells. Finally, we performed proteomics studies on both sides by pull-down assays and screening of a human PDZ domain library. We identified a pool of human PBM-containing proteins that might interact with PTPN3 in cells and that could be in competition with the HBc PBM during infection, and we also identified potential cellular partners of HBc through PDZ-PBM interactions. This study opens up many avenues of future investigations into the pathophysiology of HBV.

A ubiquitin variant-based affinity approach selectively identifies substrates of the ubiquitin ligase E6AP in complex with HPV-11 E6 or HPV-16 E6

The E6 protein of both mucosal high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) such as HPV-16, which have been causally associated with malignant tumors, and low-risk HPVs such as HPV-11, which cause the development of benign tumors, interacts with the cellular E3 ubiquitin ligase E6-associated protein (E6AP). This indicates that both HPV types employ E6AP to organize the cellular proteome to viral needs. However, whereas several substrate proteins of the high-risk E6-E6AP complex are known, e.g. the tumor suppressor p53, potential substrates of the low-risk E6-E6AP complex remain largely elusive. Here, we report on an affinity-based enrichment approach that enables the targeted identification of potential substrate proteins of the different E6-E6AP complexes by a combination of E3-selective ubiquitination in whole-cell extracts and high-resolution MS. The basis for the selectivity of this approach is the use of a ubiquitin variant that is efficiently used by the E6-E6AP complexes for ubiquitination but not by E6AP alone. By this approach, we identified ∼190 potential substrate proteins for low-risk HPV-11 E6 and high-risk HPV-16 E6. Moreover, subsequent validation experiments in vitro and within cells with selected substrate proteins demonstrate the potential of our approach. In conclusion, our data represent a reliable repository for potential substrates of the HPV-16 and HPV-11 E6 proteins in complex with E6AP.

Human Papillomavirus E7 Oncoprotein Subverts Host Innate Immunity via SUV39H1-Mediated Epigenetic Silencing of Immune Sensor Genes

Subversion of innate immunity by oncoviruses, such as human papillomavirus (HPV), favors carcinogenesis because the mechanism(s) of viral immune evasion can also hamper cancer immunosurveillance. Previously, we demonstrated that high-risk (hr) HPVs trigger simultaneous epigenetic silencing of multiple effectors of innate immunity to promote viral persistence. Here, we expand on those observations and show that the HPV E7 oncoprotein upregulates the H3K9-specific methyltransferase, whose action shuts down the host innate immune response. Specifically, we demonstrate that SUV39H1 contributes to chromatin repression at the promoter regions of the viral nucleic acid sensors RIG-I and cGAS and the adaptor molecule STING in HPV-transformed cells. Inhibition of SUV39H1 leads to transcriptional activation of these genes, especially RIG-I, followed by increased beta interferon (IFN-β) and IFN-λ1 production after poly(dA·dT) or RIG-I agonist M8 transfection. Collectively, our findings provide new evidence that the E7 oncoprotein plays a central role in dampening host innate immunity and raise the possibility that targeting the downstream effector SUV39H1 or the RIG-I pathway is a viable strategy to treat viral and neoplastic disease.IMPORTANCE High-risk HPVs are major viral human carcinogens responsible for approximately 5% of all human cancers. The growth of HPV-transformed cells depends on the ability of viral oncoproteins to manipulate a variety of cellular circuits, including those involved in innate immunity. Here, we show that one of these strategies relies on E7-mediated transcriptional activation of the chromatin repressor SUV39H1, which then promotes epigenetic silencing of RIG-I, cGAS, and STING genes, thereby shutting down interferon secretion in HPV-transformed cells. Pharmacological or genetic inhibition of SUV39H1 restored the innate response in HPV-transformed cells, mostly through activation of RIG-I signaling. We also show that IFN production upon transfection of poly(dA·dT) or the RIG-I agonist M8 predominantly occurs through RIG-I signaling. Altogether, the reversible nature of the modifications associated with E7-mediated SUV39H1 upregulation provides a rationale for the design of novel anticancer and antiviral therapies targeting these molecules.

PDZ Domain-Containing Protein NHERF-2 Is a Novel Target of Human Papillomavirus 16 (HPV-16) and HPV-18

Cancer-causing human papillomavirus (HPV) E6 oncoproteins have a class I PDZ-binding motif (PBM) on their C termini, which play critical roles that are related to the HPV life cycle and HPV-induced malignancies. E6 oncoproteins use these PBMs to interact with, to target for proteasome-mediated degradation, a plethora of cellular substrates that contain PDZ domains and that are involved in the regulation of various cellular pathways. In this study, we show that both HPV-16 and HPV-18 E6 oncoproteins can interact with Na⁺/H⁺ exchange regulatory factor 2 (NHERF-2), a PDZ domain-containing protein, which among other cellular functions also behaves as a tumor suppressor regulating endothelial proliferation. The interaction between the E6 oncoproteins and NHERF-2 is PBM dependent and results in proteasome-mediated degradation of NHERF-2. We further confirmed this effect in cells derived from HPV-16- and HPV-18-positive cervical tumors, where we show that NHERF-2 protein turnover is increased in the presence of E6. Finally, our data indicate that E6-mediated NHERF-2 degradation results in p27 downregulation and cyclin D1 upregulation, leading to accelerated cellular proliferation. To our knowledge, this is the first report to demonstrate that E6 oncoproteins can stimulate cell proliferation by indirectly regulating p27 through targeting a PDZ domain-containing protein.IMPORTANCE This study links HPV-16 and HPV-18 E6 oncoproteins to the modulation of cellular proliferation. The PDZ domain-containing protein NHERF-2 is a tumor suppressor that has been shown to regulate endothelial proliferation; here, we demonstrate that NHERF-2 is targeted by HPV E6 for proteasome-mediated degradation. Interestingly, this indirectly affects p27, cyclin D1, and CDK4 protein levels and, consequently, affects cell proliferation. Hence, this study provides information that will improve our understanding of the molecular basis for HPV E6 function, and it also highlights the importance of the PDZ domain-containing protein NHERF-2 and its tumor-suppressive role in regulating cell proliferation.

Differential effect of GLUT1 overexpression on survival and tumor immune microenvironment of human papilloma virus type 16-positive and -negative cervical cancer

Glucose transporter-1 (GLUT1) has been proposed as a prognosticator in various cancers associated with therapeutic resistance and immune evasion; however little data is available on the role of GLUT1 in cervical cancer. Most cervical cancers are caused by human papilloma virus (HPV), but studies on the treatment response and prognosis depending on the HPV subtype, are conflicting. This hypothesis-generating study aims to investigate the prognostic impact of GLUT1 in cervical cancer, in conjunction with HPV subtype. Clinicopathologic factors, along with mRNA expression data were obtained using The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Tumor HPV status and immune cell scores were extracted from previous publications. In total, 298 patients were analyzed. High GLUT1 expression was associated with old age, squamous cell carcinoma, high tumor stage, pelvic lymph node metastases, and low hysterectomy rate. Multivariate survival analysis revealed that high GLUT1 expression (Hazard ratio (HR) 2.57, p = 0.002) and HPV16 subtype (HR 0.56, p = 0.033) were independent prognostic factors for overall survival. In the subgroup analysis, poor prognostic impact of high GLUT1 expression was maintained in HPV16-positive group (p < 0.001), but not in HPV16-negative group (p = 0.495). Decreased immune cell scores of CD8⁺ T cells, B cells, and Th1 cells by high GLUT1 expression were observed only in HPV16-positive group. In conclusion, these results suggested that GLUT1 expression and HPV16 subtype might have an independent prognostic value in cervical cancer. GLUT1-mediated immunomodulation might be an important cause of treatment failure, especially in HPV16-positive group.

mTOR Senses Intracellular pH through Lysosome Dispersion from RHEB

Acidity, generated in hypoxia or hypermetabolic states, perturbs homeostasis and is a feature of solid tumors. That acid peripherally disperses lysosomes is a three-decade-old observation, yet one little understood or appreciated. However, recent work has recognized the inhibitory impact this spatial redistribution has on mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), a key regulator of metabolism. This finding argues for a paradigm shift in localization of mTORC1 activator Ras homolog enriched in brain (RHEB), a conclusion several others have now independently reached. Thus, mTORC1, known to sense amino acids, mitogens, and energy to restrict biosynthesis to times of adequate resources, also senses pH and, via dampened mTOR-governed synthesis of clock proteins, regulates the circadian clock to achieve concerted responses to metabolic stress. While this may allow cancer to endure metabolic deprivation, immune cell mTOR signaling likewise exhibits pH sensitivity, suggesting that suppression of antitumor immune function by solid tumor acidity may additionally fuel cancers, an obstacle potentially reversible through therapeutic pH manipulation.

Choosing the right path: membrane trafficking and infectious entry of small DNA tumor viruses

To infect mammalian cells, all infectious viruses must cross a common set of biophysical membrane barriers to gain access to the cell. The virus capsid proteins attach to a host cell, become endocytosed, and traffic the viral genome to sites of replication. To do this they must interact with the membrane-confined organelles that control endocytosis, endosomal sorting, processing, and degradation of biological molecules. In this review, we highlight some recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms that small non-enveloped DNA tumor viruses, such as Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and Polyomaviruses (PyV) employ to attain infectious entry. These viruses exploit different pathways to mediate entry, uncoating and subsequent transport to the nucleus via the Trans Golgi Network (TGN) or the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). Understanding how the viral capsid proteins interact with cellular membranous organelles sheds light on the novel ways by which viruses can hi-jack endocytic transport pathways and provides unique insights into how the highly complex machinery controlling cargo fate determination is regulated within the cell.

Hallmarks of HPV carcinogenesis: The role of E6, E7 and E5 oncoproteins in cellular malignancy

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infectious agent worldwide, being also responsible for 5% of all human cancers. The integration and hypermethylation mechanisms of the HPV viral genome promote the unbalanced expression of the E6, E7 and E5 oncoproteins, which are crucial factors for the carcinogenic cascade in HPV-induced cancers. This review highlights the action of E6, E7 and E5 over key regulatory targets, promoting all known hallmarks of cancer. Both well-characterized and novel targets of these HPV oncoproteins are described, detailing their mechanisms of action. Finally, this review approaches the possibility of targeting E6, E7 and E5 for therapeutic applications in the context of cancer.

To degrade or not to degrade: mechanisms and significance of endocytic recycling

Newly endocytosed integral cell surface proteins are typically either directed for degradation or subjected to recycling back to the plasma membrane. The sorting of integral cell surface proteins, including signalling receptors, nutrient transporters, ion channels, adhesion molecules and polarity markers, within the endolysosomal network for recycling is increasingly recognized as an essential feature in regulating the complexities of physiology at the cell, tissue and organism levels. Historically, endocytic recycling has been regarded as a relatively passive process, where the majority of internalized integral proteins are recycled via a nonspecific sequence-independent 'bulk membrane flow' pathway. Recent work has increasingly challenged this view. The discovery of sequence-specific sorting motifs and the identification of cargo adaptors and associated coat complexes have begun to uncover the highly orchestrated nature of endosomal cargo recycling, thereby providing new insight into the function and (patho)physiology of this process.

Cancer exosomes induce tumor innervation

Patients with densely innervated tumors suffer with increased metastasis and decreased survival as compared to those with less innervated tumors. We hypothesize that in some tumors, nerves are acquired by a tumor-induced process, called axonogenesis. Here, we use PC12 cells as an in vitro neuronal model, human tumor samples and murine in vivo models to test this hypothesis. When appropriately stimulated, PC12 cells extend processes, called neurites. We show that patient tumors release vesicles, called exosomes, which induce PC12 neurite outgrowth. Using a cancer mouse model, we show that tumors compromised in exosome release are less innervated than controls. Moreover, in vivo pharmacological blockade of exosome release similarly attenuates tumor innervation. We characterize these nerves as sensory in nature and demonstrate that axonogenesis is potentiated by the exosome-packaged axonal guidance molecule, EphrinB1. These findings indicate that tumor released exosomes induce tumor innervation and exosomes containing EphrinB1 potentiate this activity.

Papillomaviruses and Endocytic Trafficking

Endocytic trafficking plays a major role in transport of incoming human papillomavirus (HPVs) from plasma membrane to the trans Golgi network (TGN) and ultimately into the nucleus. During this infectious entry, several cellular sorting factors are recruited by the viral capsid protein L2, which plays a critical role in ensuring successful transport of the L2/viral DNA complex to the nucleus. Later in the infection cycle, two viral oncoproteins, E5 and E6, have also been shown to modulate different aspects of endocytic transport pathways. In this review, we highlight how HPV makes use of and perturbs normal endocytic transport pathways, firstly to achieve infectious virus entry, secondly to produce productive infection and the completion of the viral life cycle and, finally, on rare occasions, to bring about the development of malignancy.

Human papillomavirus type 16 antagonizes IRF6 regulation of IL-1β

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) and other oncoviruses have been shown to block innate immune responses and to persist in the host. However, to avoid viral persistence, the immune response attempts to clear the infection. IL-1β is a powerful cytokine produced when viral motifs are sensed by innate receptors that are members of the inflammasome family. Whether oncoviruses such as HPV16 can activate the inflammasome pathway remains unknown. Here, we show that infection of human keratinocytes with HPV16 induced the secretion of IL-1β. Yet, upon expression of the viral early genes, IL-1β transcription was blocked. We went on to show that expression of the viral oncoprotein E6 in human keratinocytes inhibited IRF6 transcription which we revealed regulated IL-1β promoter activity. Preventing E6 expression using siRNA, or using E6 mutants that prevented degradation of p53, showed that p53 regulated IRF6 transcription. HPV16 abrogation of p53 binding to the IRF6 promoter was shown by ChIP in tissues from patients with cervical cancer. Thus E6 inhibition of IRF6 is an escape strategy used by HPV16 to block the production IL-1β. Our findings reveal a struggle between oncoviral persistence and host immunity; which is centered on IL-1β regulation.

Emerging Role of Retromer in Modulating Pathogen Growth

Intracellular pathogens have developed elegant mechanisms to modulate host endosomal trafficking. The highly conserved retromer pathway has emerged as an important target of viruses and intravacuolar bacteria. Some pathogens require retromer function to survive. For others, retromer activity restricts intracellular growth; these pathogens must disrupt retromer function to survive. In this review, we discuss recent paradigm changes to the current model for retromer assembly and cargo selection. We highlight how the study of pathogen effectors has contributed to these fundamental insights, with a special focus on the biology and structure of two recently described bacterial effectors, Chlamydia trachomatis IncE and Legionella pneumophila RidL. These two pathogens employ distinct strategies to target retromer components and overcome restriction of intracellular growth imposed by retromer.

The HPV E6/E7 Oncogenes: Key Factors for Viral Carcinogenesis and Therapeutic Targets

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced cancers are expected to remain a major health problem worldwide for decades. The growth of HPV-positive cancer cells depends on the sustained expression of the viral E6 and E7 oncogenes which act in concert with still poorly defined cellular alterations. E6/E7 constitute attractive therapeutic targets since E6/E7 inhibition rapidly induces senescence in HPV-positive cancer cells. This cellular response is linked to the reconstitution of the antiproliferative p53 and pRb pathways, and to prosenescent mTOR signaling. Hypoxic HPV-positive cancer cells could be a major obstacle for treatment strategies targeting E6/E7 since they downregulate E6/E7 but evade senescence through hypoxia-induced mTOR impairment. Prospective E6/E7 inhibitors may therefore benefit from a combination with treatment strategies directed against hypoxic tumor cells.

The human papillomavirus replication cycle, and its links to cancer progression: a comprehensive review

HPVs (human papillomaviruses) infect epithelial cells and their replication cycle is intimately linked to epithelial differentiation. There are over 200 different HPV genotypes identified to date and each displays a strict tissue specificity for infection. HPV infection can result in a range of benign lesions, for example verrucas on the feet, common warts on the hands, or genital warts. HPV infects dividing basal epithelial cells where its dsDNA episomal genome enters the nuclei. Upon basal cell division, an infected daughter cell begins the process of keratinocyte differentiation that triggers a tightly orchestrated pattern of viral gene expression to accomplish a productive infection. A subset of mucosal-infective HPVs, the so-called ‘high risk’ (HR) HPVs, cause cervical disease, categorized as low or high grade. Most individuals will experience transient HR-HPV infection during their lifetime but these infections will not progress to clinically significant cervical disease or cancer because the immune system eventually recognizes and clears the virus. Cancer progression is due to persistent infection with an HR-HPV. HR-HPV infection is the cause of >99.7% cervical cancers in women, and a subset of oropharyngeal cancers, predominantly in men. HPV16 (HR-HPV genotype 16) is the most prevalent worldwide and the major cause of HPV-associated cancers. At the molecular level, cancer progression is due to increased expression of the viral oncoproteins E6 and E7, which activate the cell cycle, inhibit apoptosis, and allow accumulation of DNA damage. This review aims to describe the productive life cycle of HPV and discuss the roles of the viral proteins in HPV replication. Routes to viral persistence and cancer progression are also discussed.

Updated Insight into the Physiological and Pathological Roles of the Retromer Complex

Retromer complexes mediate protein trafficking from the endosomes to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) or through direct recycling to the plasma membrane. In yeast, they consist of a conserved trimer of the cargo selective complex (CSC), Vps26-Vps35-Vps29 and a dimer of sorting nexins (SNXs), Vps5-Vps17. In mammals, the CSC interacts with different kinds of SNX proteins in addition to the mammalian homologues of Vps5 and Vps17, which further diversifies retromer functions. The retromer complex plays important roles in many cellular processes including restriction of invading pathogens. In this review, we summarize some recent developments in our understanding of the physiological and pathological functions of the retromer complex.

Structural basis for the hijacking of endosomal sorting nexin proteins by Chlamydia trachomatis

During infection chlamydial pathogens form an intracellular membrane-bound replicative niche termed the inclusion, which is enriched with bacterial transmembrane proteins called Incs. Incs bind and manipulate host cell proteins to promote inclusion expansion and provide camouflage against innate immune responses. Sorting nexin (SNX) proteins that normally function in endosomal membrane trafficking are a major class of inclusion-associated host proteins, and are recruited by IncE/CT116. Crystal structures of the SNX5 phox-homology (PX) domain in complex with IncE define the precise molecular basis for these interactions. The binding site is unique to SNX5 and related family members SNX6 and SNX32. Intriguingly the site is also conserved in SNX5 homologues throughout evolution, suggesting that IncE captures SNX5-related proteins by mimicking a native host protein interaction. These findings thus provide the first mechanistic insights both into how chlamydial Incs hijack host proteins, and how SNX5-related PX domains function as scaffolds in protein complex assembly.