Inflammatory monocytes are detrimental to the host immune response during acute infection with Cryptococcus neoformans

CCR2+ monocytes are dispensable to resolve acute pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in WT and cystic fibrosis mice

Extravasation of CCR2-positive monocytes into tissue and to the site of injury is a fundamental immunological response to infections. Nevertheless, exuberant recruitment and/or activity of these monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages can propagate tissue damage, especially in chronic inflammatory disease conditions. We have previously shown that inhibiting the recruitment of CCR2-positive monocytes ameliorates lung tissue damage caused by chronic neutrophilic inflammation in cystic fibrosis mouse models. A potential concern with targeting monocyte recruitment for therapeutic benefit in cystic fibrosis, however, is whether they are essential for eradicating infections such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a pathogen that commonly colonizes and damages the lungs of patients with cystic fibrosis. In this study, we investigated the role of CCR2-positive monocytes in the immune response to acute pulmonary P. aeruginosa infection. Our data show that the altered host immune response caused by the lack of monocyte recruitment to the lungs does not impact P. aeruginosa lung colonization, clearance, and the severity of the infection. These results also hold up in a cystic fibrosis mouse background, which has a hyperinflammatory immune response yet exhibits reduced bactericidal activity. Thus, we lay the groundwork for future studies to investigate the use of CCR2 inhibitors as a potential therapy to ameliorate lung tissue damage in cystic fibrosis. This could be given alone or as an adjunct therapy with CFTR modulators that significantly improve clinical outcomes for eligible patients but do not completely resolve the persistent infection and inflammation that drive lung tissue damage.

iPSC-derived exosomes as amphotericin B carriers: a promising approach to combat cryptococcal meningitis

Background

Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is a significant global health issue, particularly affecting individuals with HIV. Amphotericin B (AmB) serves as the cornerstone treatment for CM; however, its clinical application is restricted due to limited penetration of the blood-brain barrier and associated nephrotoxicity.

Objective

This study investigates the use of exosomes derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-Exos) as carriers for AmB in treating CM, aiming to enhance therapeutic efficacy and safety and reduce AmB toxicity.

Methods

Exosomes were extracted from iPSC culture supernatants using ultrafiltration and ultracentrifugation. Their morphology and size were analyzed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and nanoparticle flow cytometry (nFCM). Purity was confirmed by Western blotting for markers CD9, CD63, and TSG101. AmB was loaded into iPSC-Exos using a co-incubation method. The cytotoxicity of the iPSC-Exo/AmB complex was evaluated on HEK 293 T and RAW264.7 cells using the CCK-8 assay, while apoptosis was assessed using live/dead cell staining and flow cytometry. The hemolytic effects were tested using rabbit red blood cells. In a C57BL/6 J mouse model of cryptococcal infection, treatment groups (AmB, iPSC-Exo/AmB, and iPSC-Exo) were administered corresponding drugs, with blood and brain samples collected for analysis. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of iPSC-Exo/AmB and conventional AmB against Cryptococcus was determined.

Results

The iPSC-Exo/AmB complex exhibited reduced cytotoxicity in vitro and decreased AmB-induced renal and hepatic toxicity in vivo. Its MIC against Cryptococcus was over eight times lower than conventional AmB, significantly reducing fungal burden in the mouse brain and lowering serum inflammatory factors.

Conclusion

The iPSC-Exo/AmB complex is a promising therapeutic strategy that enhances AmB efficacy while reducing toxicity, offering new hope for treating CM and other refractory fungal infections of the central nervous system.

A type VI secretion system in Burkholderia species cenocepacia and orbicola triggers distinct macrophage death pathways independent of the pyrin inflammasome

The Burkholderia cepacia complex contains opportunistic pathogens that cause chronic infections and inflammation in the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis. Two closely related species within this complex are Burkholderia cenocepacia and the recently classified Burkholderia orbicola. B. cenocepacia and B. orbicola encode a type VI secretion system and the effector TecA, which is detected by the pyrin/caspase-1 inflammasome, and triggers macrophage inflammatory death. We previously showed that the pyrin inflammasome was dispensable for lung inflammation in mice infected with B. orbicola AU1054, indicating this species activates an alternative pathway of macrophage inflammatory death. Notably, B. cenocepacia strains J2315 and K56-2 can damage macrophage phagosomes, and K56-2 triggers activation of the caspase-11 inflammasome, which detects cytosolic lipopolysaccharide. Here, we investigated inflammatory cell death in pyrin- (Mefv-/-) or caspase-1/caspase-11- (Casp1/11-/-) deficient mouse macrophages infected with B. cenocepacia J2315 or K56-2 or B. orbicola AU1054 or PC184. Macrophage inflammatory death was measured by cleavage of gasdermin D protein, the release of cytokines IL-1α and IL-1β, and plasma membrane rupture. We found that J2315 and K56-2 are detected by the caspase-11 inflammasome in Mefv-/- macrophages, resulting in IL-1β release. By contrast, inflammasome activation was not detected in Mefv-/- macrophages infected with AU1054 or PC184. Instead, AU1054 triggered an alternative macrophage inflammatory death pathway that required TecA and resulted in plasma membrane rupture and IL-1α release. Structural modeling of TecA orthologs in B. cenocepacia and B. orbicola suggested that amino acid changes in the latter may underlie its ability to trigger a non-inflammasome macrophage death pathway.

CSF1R inhibition by PLX5622 reduces pulmonary fungal infection by depleting MHCIIhi interstitial lung macrophages

PLX5622 is a small molecular inhibitor of the CSF1 receptor (CSF1R) and is widely used to deplete macrophages within the central nervous system (CNS). We investigated the impact of PLX5622 treatment in wild-type C57BL/6 mice and discovered that one-week treatment with PLX5622 was sufficient to deplete interstitial macrophages in the lung and brain-infiltrating Ly6Clow patrolling monocytes, in addition to CNS-resident macrophages. These cell types were previously indicated to act as infection reservoirs for the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. We found that PLX5622-treated mice had significantly reduced fungal lung infection and reduced extrapulmonary dissemination to the CNS but not to the spleen or liver. Fungal lung infection mapped to MHCIIhi interstitial lung macrophages, which underwent significant expansion during infection following monocyte replenishment and not local division. Although PLX5622 depleted CNS infiltrating patrolling monocytes, these cells did not accumulate in the fungal-infected CNS following pulmonary infection. In addition, Nr4a1-deficient mice, which lack patrolling monocytes, had similar control and dissemination of C. neoformans infection to wild-type controls. PLX5622 did not directly affect CD4 T-cell responses, or significantly affect production of antibody in the lung during infection. However, we found that mice lacking lymphocytes had reduced numbers of MHCIIhi interstitial macrophages in the lung, which correlated with reduced infection load. Accordingly, PLX5622 treatment did not alter fungal burdens in the lungs of lymphocyte-deficient mice. Our data demonstrate that PLX5622 may help reduce lung burden of pathogenic fungi that utilise CSF1R-dependent myeloid cells as infection reservoirs, an effect which is dependent on the presence of lymphocytes.

Innate cells and STAT1-dependent signals orchestrate vaccine-induced protection against invasive Cryptococcus infection

Fungal pathogens are underappreciated causes of significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. In previous studies, we determined that a heat-killed, Cryptococcus neoformans fbp1-deficient strain (HK-fbp1) is a potent vaccine candidate. We determined that vaccination with HK-fbp1 confers protective immunity against lethal Cryptococcosis in an interferon γ (IFNγ)-dependent manner. In this study, we set out to uncover cellular sources and relevant targets of the protective effects of IFNγ in response to the HK-fbp1 vaccine. We found that early IFNγ production peaks at day 3 and that monocytes and neutrophils are important sources of this cytokine after vaccination. Neutralization of IFNγ at day 3 results in impaired CCR2+ monocyte recruitment and reduced differentiation into monocyte-derived dendritic cells (Mo-DC). In turn, depletion of CCR2+ cells prior to immunization results in impaired activation of IFNγ-producing CD4 and CD8 T cells. Thus, monocytes are important targets of innate IFNγ and help promote further IFNγ production by lymphocytes. We employed monocyte-fate mapper and conditional STAT1 knockout mice to uncover that STAT1 activation in CD11c+ cells, including alveolar macrophages, Mo-DCs, and monocyte-derived macrophages (Mo-Mac) is essential for HK-fbp1 vaccine-induced protection. Altogether, our aggregate findings suggest critical roles for innate cells as orchestrators of vaccine-induced protection against Cryptococcus infection.IMPORTANCEThe number of patients susceptible to invasive fungal infections across the world continues to rise at an alarming pace yet current antifungal drugs are often inadequate. Immune-based interventions and novel antifungal vaccines hold the promise of significantly improving patient outcomes. In previous studies, we identified a Cryptococcus neoformans mutant strain (Fbp1-deficient) as a potent, heat-inactivated vaccine candidate capable of inducing homologous and heterologous antifungal protection. In this study, we used a combination of methods together with a cohort of conditional knockout mouse strains to interrogate the roles of innate cells in the orchestration of vaccine-induced antifungal protection. We uncovered novel roles for neutrophils and monocytes as coordinators of a STAT1-dependent cascade of responses that mediate vaccine-induced protection against invasive cryptococcosis. This new knowledge will help guide the future development of much-needed antifungal vaccines.

The role of lipids in regulating macrophage antifungal immunity

Macrophages are critical components of the antifungal immune response. Disturbance in the number or function of these innate immune cells can significantly increase susceptibility to invasive fungal infections. Pathogenic fungi cause billions of infections every year and have an unmet clinical need, with many infections associated with unacceptably high mortality rates that primarily affect vulnerable patients with underlying immune defects. Lipid metabolism has been increasingly appreciated to significantly influence macrophage function, particularly of macrophages residing in lipid-rich organs, such as the brain, or macrophages specialized at clearing dead cells including alveolar macrophages in the lungs. In this review, we provide an overview of macrophage lipid metabolism, and discuss how lipid recycling and dysregulation affect key macrophage functions relevant for antifungal immunity including phagocytosis, functional polarization, and inflammasome activation. We focus on the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, as this is the most common cause of death from fungal infection in humans and because several lines of evidence have already linked lipid metabolism in the regulation of C. neoformans and macrophage interactions.

Monocyte-regulated interleukin 12 production drives clearance of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile bacterium responsible for conditions ranging from mild skin and soft-tissue infections to serious disorders such as pneumonia and sepsis. Monocytes play a role in protection against pathogens by migrating to inflamed tissues and differentiating into macrophages but their specific role in the context of S. aureus pulmonary infection has not been fully elucidated. Using a CCR2-DTR transgenic mouse model we demonstrate that over the course of infection monocyte depletion resulted in worse airway clearance of S. aureus. The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of CCR2-DTR mice after S. aureus infection displayed significant decreases in interleukin-12 (IL-12), IFN-γ, IP-10, MIG and RANTES, all IFN-γ regulated, compared to wild-type (WT) infected controls. NK cells were identified as the main producers of IFN-γ, but both NK cells and IFN-γ were dispensable for clearance. We demonstrated through cytokine production and RNA-seq analysis that IL-12 and IL-12 regulated genes are strongly induced in monocytes upon S. aureus infection. Administration of IL-12 during infection restored the bacterial burdens in the BALF and lungs of monocyte-depleted CCR2-DTR mice to the levels of WT mice, independent of IFN-γ. In the absence of monocytes, alveolar macrophages are the primary phagocytic cells, and IL-12 influences their capacity to produce reactive oxygen species and clear S. aureus. These results show that production of IL-12 contributes to the control of S. aureus via its influence on alveolar macrophage function.

Inbred Mouse Models in Cryptococcus neoformans Research

Animal models are frequently used as surrogates to understand human disease. In the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus species complex, several variations of a mouse model of disease were developed that recapitulate different aspects of human disease. These mouse models have been implemented using various inbred and outbred mouse backgrounds, many of which have genetic differences that can influence host response and disease outcome. In this review, we will discuss the most commonly used inbred mouse backgrounds in C. neoformans infection models.

Dissecting and Visualizing the Functional Diversity of Cardiac Macrophages

Cardiac macrophages represent a functionally diverse population of cells involved in cardiac homeostasis, repair, and remodeling. With recent advancements in single-cell technologies, it is possible to elucidate specific macrophage subsets based on transcriptional signatures and cell surface protein expression to gain a deep understanding of macrophage diversity in the heart. The use of fate-mapping technologies and parabiosis studies have provided insight into the ontogeny and dynamics of macrophages identifying subsets derived from embryonic and adult definitive hematopoietic progenitors that include tissue-resident and bone marrow monocyte-derived macrophages, respectively. Within the heart, these subsets have distinct tissue niches and functional roles in the setting of homeostasis and disease, with cardiac resident macrophages representing a protective cell population while bone marrow monocyte-derived cardiac macrophages have a context-dependent effect, triggering both proinflammatory tissue injury, but also promoting reparative functions. With the increased understanding of the clinical relevance of cardiac macrophage subsets, there has been an increasing need to detect and measure cardiac macrophage compositions in living animals and patients. New molecular tracers compatible with positron emission tomography/computerized tomography and positron emission tomography/ magnetic resonance imaging have enabled investigators to noninvasively and serially visualize cardiac macrophage subsets within the heart to define associations with disease and measure treatment responses. Today, advancements within this thriving field are poised to fuel an era of clinical translation.

A Type VI Secretion System in Burkholderia Species cenocepacia and orbicola Triggers Distinct Macrophage Death Pathways Independent of the Pyrin Inflammasome

The Burkholderia cepacia complex contains opportunistic pathogens that cause chronic infections and inflammation in lungs of people with cystic fibrosis. Two closely related species within this complex are Burkholderia cenocepacia and the recently classified Burkholderia orbicola. B. cenocepacia and B. orbicola encode a type VI secretion system and the effector TecA, which is detected by the pyrin/caspase-1 inflammasome, and triggers macrophage inflammatory death. In our earlier study the pyrin inflammasome was dispensable for lung inflammation in mice infected with B. orbicola AU1054, indicating this species activates an alternative pathway of macrophage inflammatory death. Notably, B. cenocepacia J2315 and K56-2 can damage macrophage phagosomes and K56-2 triggers activation of the caspase-11 inflammasome, which detects cytosolic LPS. Here we investigated inflammatory cell death in pyrin-deficient ( Mefv -/- ) mouse macrophages infected with B. cenocepacia J2315 or K56-2 or B. orbicola AU1054 or PC184. Macrophage inflammatory death was measured by cleavage of gasdermin D protein, release of cytokines IL-1α and IL-1β and plasma membrane rupture. Findings suggest that J2315 and K56-2 are detected by the caspase-11 inflammasome in Mefv -/- macrophages, resulting in IL-1β release. In contrast, inflammasome activation is not detected in Mefv -/- macrophages infected with AU1054 or PC184. Instead, AU1054 triggers an alternative macrophage inflammatory death pathway that requires TecA and results in plasma membrane rupture and IL-1α release. Amino acid variation between TecA isoforms in B. cenocepacia and B. orbicola may explain how the latter species triggers a non-inflammasome macrophage death pathway.

Arginase inhibitor reduces fungal dissemination in murine pulmonary cryptococcosis by promoting anti-cryptococcal immunity

Elevation of arginase enzyme activity in the lung contributes to the pathogenesis of various chronic inflammatory diseases and infections. Inhibition of arginase expression and activity is able to alleviate those effects. Here, we investigated the immunomodulatory effect of arginase inhibitor in C. neoformans infection. In the pulmonary cryptococcosis model that was shown to recapitulate human infection, we found arginase expression was excessively induced in the lung during the late stage of infection. To inhibit the activity of arginase, we administered a specific arginase inhibitor, nor-NOHA, during C. neoformans infection. Inhibition of arginase reduced eosinophil infiltration and level of IL-13 secretion in the lungs. Whole lung transcriptome RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that treatment with nor-NOHA resulted in shifting the Th2-type gene expression patterns induced by C. neoformans infection to the Th1-type immune profile, with higher expression of cytokines Ifng, Il6, Tnfa, Csf3, chemokines Cxcl9 and Cxcl10 and transcription factor Stat1. More importantly, mice treated with arginase inhibitor had more infiltrating brain leukocytes and enhanced gene expression of Th1-associated cytokines and chemokines that are known to be essential for protection against C. neoformans infection. Inhibition of arginase dramatically attenuated spleen and brain infection, with improved survival. Taken together, these studies demonstrated that inhibiting arginase activity induced by C. neoformans infection can modulate host immune response by enhancing protective type-1 immune response during C. neoformans infection. The inhibition of arginase activity could be an immunomodulatory target to enhance protective anti-cryptococcal immune responses.

Batf3-dependent orchestration of the robust Th1 responses and fungal control during cryptococcal infection, the role of cDC1

While type I conventional dendritic cells (cDC1s) are vital for generating adaptive immunity against intracellular pathogens and tumors, their role in defense against fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans remains unclear. We investigated the role of the cDC1 subset in a fungus-restricting mouse model of cryptococcal infection. The cDC1 subset displayed a unique transcriptional signature with highly upregulated T-cell recruitment, polarization, and activation pathways compared to other DC subsets. Using Batf3-/- mice, which lack the cDC1 population, our results support that Batf3-dependent cDC1s are pivotal for the development of the effective immune response against cryptococcal infection, particularly within the lung and brain. Deficiency in Batf3 cDC1 led to diminished CD4 accumulation and decreased IFNγ production across multiple organs, supporting that cDC1s are a major driver of potent Th1 responses during cryptococcal infection. Consistently, mice lacking Batf3-cDC1 demonstrated markedly diminished fungicidal activity and weaker containment of the fungal pathogen. In conclusion, Batf3-dependent cDC1 can function as a linchpin in mounting Th1 response, ensuring effective fungal control during cryptococcal infection. Harnessing cDC1 pathways may present a promising strategy for interventions against this pathogen.IMPORTANCECryptococcus neoformans causes severe meningoencephalitis, accounting for an estimated 200,000 deaths each year. Central to mounting an effective defense against these infections is T-cell-mediated immunity, which is orchestrated by dendritic cells (DCs). The knowledge about the role of specific DC subsets in shaping anti-cryptococcal immunity is limited. Here, we demonstrate that Batf3 cDC1s are important drivers of protective Th1 CD4 T-cell responses required for clearance of cryptococcal infection. Deficiency of Batf3 cDC1 in the infected mice leads to significantly reduced Th1 response and exacerbated fungal growth to the point where depleting the remaining CD4 T cells no longer affects fungal burden. Unveiling this pivotal role of cDC1 in antifungal defense is likely to be important for the development of vaccines and therapies against life-threatening fungal pathogens.

Cryptococcal meningitis

Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii species complexes cause meningoencephalitis with high fatality rates and considerable morbidity, particularly in persons with deficient T cell-mediated immunity, most commonly affecting people living with HIV. Whereas the global incidence of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis (HIV-CM) has decreased over the past decade, cryptococcosis still accounts for one in five AIDS-related deaths globally due to the persistent burden of advanced HIV disease. Moreover, mortality remains high (~50%) in low-resource settings. The armamentarium to decrease cryptococcosis-associated mortality is expanding: cryptococcal antigen screening in the serum and pre-emptive azole therapy for cryptococcal antigenaemia are well established, whereas enhanced pre-emptive combination treatment regimens to improve survival of persons with cryptococcal antigenaemia are in clinical trials. Short courses (≤7 days) of amphotericin-based therapy combined with flucytosine are currently the preferred options for induction therapy of cryptococcal meningitis. Whether short-course induction regimens improve long-term morbidity such as depression, reduced neurocognitive performance and physical disability among survivors is the subject of further study. Here, we discuss underlying immunology, changing epidemiology, and updates on the management of cryptococcal meningitis with emphasis on HIV-associated disease.

Non-self glycan structures as possible modulators of cancer progression: would polysaccharides from Cryptococcus spp. impact this phenomenon?

Invasive fungal infections (IFI) are responsible for a large number of annual deaths. Most cases are closely related to patients in a state of immunosuppression, as is the case of patients undergoing chemotherapy. Cancer patients are severely affected by the worrisome proportions that an IFI can take during cancer progression, especially in an already immunologically and metabolically impaired patient. There is scarce knowledge about strategies to mitigate cancer progression in these cases, beyond conventional treatment with antifungal drugs with a narrow therapeutic range. However, in recent years, ample evidence has surfaced describing the possible interferences that IFI may have both on the progression of pre-existing cancers and in the induction of newly transformed cells. The leading gambit for modulation of tumor progression comes from the ability of fungal virulence factors to modulate the host's immune system, since they are found in considerable concentrations in the tumor microenvironment during infection. In this context, cryptococcosis is of particular concern, since the main virulence factor of the pathogenic yeast is its polysaccharide capsule, which carries constituents with high immunomodulatory properties and cytotoxic potential. Therefore, we open a discussion on what has already been described regarding the progression of cryptococcosis in the context of cancer progression, and the possible implications that fungal glycan structures may take in both cancer development and progression.

Innate Pulmonary Phagocytes and Their Interactions with Pathogenic Cryptococcus Species

Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes over 180,000 annual deaths in HIV/AIDS patients. Innate phagocytes in the lungs, such as dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, are the first cells to interact with the pathogen. Neutrophils, another innate phagocyte, are recruited to the lungs during cryptococcal infection. These innate cells are involved in early detection of C. neoformans, as well as the removal and clearance of cryptococcal infections. However, C. neoformans has developed ways to interfere with these processes, allowing for the evasion of the host's innate immune system. Additionally, the innate immune cells have the ability to aid in cryptococcal pathogenesis. This review discusses recent literature on the interactions of innate pulmonary phagocytes with C. neoformans.

Alternatively activated lung alveolar and interstitial macrophages promote fungal growth

How lung macrophages, especially interstitial macrophages (IMs), respond to invading pathogens remains elusive. Here, we show that mice exhibited a rapid and substantial expansion of macrophages, especially CX3CR1+ IMs, in the lung following infection with Cryptococcus neoformans, a pathogenic fungus leading to high mortality among patients with HIV/AIDS. The IM expansion correlated with enhanced CSF1 and IL-4 production and was affected by the deficiency of CCR2 or Nr4a1. Both alveolar macrophages (AMs) and IMs were observed to harbor C. neoformans and became alternatively activated following infection, with IMs being more polarized. The absence of AMs by genetically disrupting CSF2 signaling reduced fungal loads in the lung and prolonged the survival of infected mice. Likewise, infected mice depleted of IMs by the CSF1 receptor inhibitor PLX5622 displayed significantly lower pulmonary fungal burdens. Thus, C. neoformans infection induces alternative activation of both AMs and IMs, which facilitates fungal growth in the lung.

Immunity to fungi in the lung

The respiratory tree maintains sterilizing immunity against human fungal pathogens. Humans inhale ubiquitous filamentous molds and geographically restricted dimorphic fungal pathogens that form small airborne conidia. In addition, pathogenic yeasts, exemplified by encapsulated Cryptococcus species, and Pneumocystis pose significant fungal threats to the lung. Classically, fungal pneumonia occurs in immune compromised individuals, specifically in patients with HIV/AIDS, in patients with hematologic malignancies, in organ transplant recipients, and in patients treated with corticosteroids and targeted biologics that impair fungal immune surveillance in the lung. The emergence of fungal co-infections during severe influenza and COVID-19 underscores the impairment of fungus-specific host defense pathways in the lung by respiratory viruses and by medical therapies to treat viral infections. Beyond life-threatening invasive syndromes, fungal antigen exposure can exacerbate allergenic disease in the lung. In this review, we discuss emerging principles of lung-specific antifungal immunity, integrate the contributions and cooperation of lung epithelial, innate immune, and adaptive immune cells to mucosal barrier immunity, and highlight the pathogenesis of fungal-associated allergenic disease. Improved understanding of fungus-specific immunity in the respiratory tree has paved the way to develop improved diagnostic, pre-emptive, therapeutic, and vaccine approaches for fungal diseases of the lung.

Recruited monocytes/macrophages drive pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation and irreversible lung tissue remodeling in cystic fibrosis

Persistent neutrophil-dominated lung inflammation contributes to lung damage in cystic fibrosis (CF). However, the mechanisms that drive persistent lung neutrophilia and tissue deterioration in CF are not well characterized. Starting from the observation that, in patients with CF, c-c motif chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2)⁺ monocytes/macrophages are abundant in the lungs, we investigate the interplay between monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils in perpetuating lung tissue damage in CF. Here we show that CCR2⁺ monocytes in murine CF lungs drive pathogenic transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) signaling and sustain a pro-inflammatory environment by facilitating neutrophil recruitment. Targeting CCR2 to lower the numbers of monocytes in CF lungs ameliorates neutrophil inflammation and pathogenic TGF-β signaling and prevents lung tissue damage. This study identifies CCR2⁺ monocytes as a neglected contributor to the pathogenesis of CF lung disease and as a therapeutic target for patients with CF, for whom lung hyperinflammation and tissue damage remain an issue despite recent advances in CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-specific therapeutic agents.

Cutting Edge: Neutrophils License the Maturation of Monocytes into Effective Antifungal Effectors

Neutrophils are critical for the direct eradication of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia, but whether they mediate antifungal defense beyond their role as effectors is unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that neutrophil depletion impairs the activation of protective antifungal CCR2+ inflammatory monocytes. In the absence of neutrophils, monocytes displayed limited differentiation into monocyte-derived dendritic cells, reduced formation of reactive oxygen species, and diminished conidiacidal activity. Upstream regulator analysis of the transcriptional response in monocytes predicted a loss of STAT1-dependent signals as the potential basis for the dysfunction seen in neutrophil-depleted mice. We find that conditional removal of STAT1 on CCR2+ cells results in diminished antifungal monocyte responses, whereas exogenous administration of IFN-γ to neutrophil-depleted mice restores monocyte-derived dendritic cell maturation and reactive oxygen species production. Altogether, our findings support a critical role for neutrophils in antifungal immunity not only as effectors but also as important contributors to antifungal monocyte activation, in part by regulating STAT1-dependent functions.

Cryptococcus escapes host immunity: What do we know?

Cryptococcus is an invasive fungus that seriously endangers human life and health, with a complex and well-established immune-escaping mechanism that interferes with the function of the host immune system. Cryptococcus can attenuate the host’s correct recognition of the fungal antigen and escape the immune response mediated by host phagocytes, innate lymphoid cells, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes with antibodies, and peripheral cytokines. In addition, the capsule, melanin, dormancy, Titan cells, biofilm, and other related structures of Cryptococcus are also involved in the process of escaping the host’s immunity, as well as enhancing the ability of Cryptococcus to infect the host.

Cryptococcus neoformans Infection in the Central Nervous System: The Battle between Host and Pathogen

Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans) is a pathogenic fungus with a global distribution. Humans become infected by inhaling the fungus from the environment, and the fungus initially colonizes the lungs. If the immune system fails to contain C. neoformans in the lungs, the fungus can disseminate to the blood and invade the central nervous system, resulting in fatal meningoencephalitis particularly in immunocompromised individuals including HIV/AIDS patients. Following brain invasion, C. neoformans will encounter host defenses involving resident as well as recruited immune cells in the brain. To overcome host defenses, C. neoformans possesses multiple virulence factors capable of modulating immune responses. The outcome of the interactions between the host and C. neoformans will determine the disease progression. In this review, we describe the current understanding of how C. neoformans migrates to the brain across the blood–brain barrier, and how the host immune system responds to the invading organism in the brain. We will also discuss the virulence factors that C. neoformans uses to modulate host immune responses.

Macrophage Fate Mapping

Tissue-resident macrophages are present in all tissues where they perform homeostatic and immune surveillance functions. In many tissues, resident macrophages develop from embryonic progenitors, which mature into a self-maintaining population through local proliferation. However, tissue-resident macrophages can be supported by recruited monocyte-derived macrophages during scenarios such as tissue growth, infection, or sterile inflammation. Circulating blood monocytes arise from hematopoietic stem cell progenitors and possess unique gene profiles that support additional functions within the tissue. Determining cell origins (ontogeny) and cellular turnover within tissues has become important to understanding monocyte and macrophage contributions to tissue homeostasis and disease. Fate mapping, or lineage tracing, is a promising approach to tracking cells based on unique gene expression driving reporter systems, often downstream of a Cre-recombinase-mediated excision event, to express a fluorescent protein. This approach is typically deployed temporally with developmental stage, disease onset, or in association with key stages of inflammation resolution. Importantly, myeloid fate mapping can be combined with many emerging technologies, including single-cell RNA-sequencing and spatial imaging. The application of myeloid cell fate mapping approaches has allowed for impactful discoveries regarding myeloid ontogeny, tissue residency, and monocyte fate within disease models. This protocol outline will discuss a variety of myeloid fate mapping approaches, including constitutive and inducible labeling approaches in adult and embryo tissues. This article outlines basic approaches and models used in mice for fate mapping macrophages. © 2022 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Adult Fate Mapping Basic Protocol 2: Embryonic Fate Mapping.

A cardioimmunologist's toolkit: genetic tools to dissect immune cells in cardiac disease

Cardioimmunology is a field that encompasses the immune cells and pathways that modulate cardiac function in homeostasis and regulate the temporal balance between tissue injury and repair in disease. Over the past two decades, genetic fate mapping and high-dimensional sequencing techniques have defined increasing functional heterogeneity of innate and adaptive immune cell populations in the heart and other organs, revealing a complexity not previously appreciated and challenging established frameworks for the immune system. Given these rapid advances, understanding how to use these tools has become crucial. However, cardiovascular biologists without immunological expertise might not be aware of the strengths and caveats of immune-related tools and how they can be applied to examine the pathogenesis of myocardial diseases. In this Review, we guide readers through case-based examples to demonstrate how tool selection can affect data quality and interpretation and we provide critical analysis of the experimental tools that are currently available, focusing on their use in models of ischaemic heart injury and heart failure. The goal is to increase the use of relevant immunological tools and strategies among cardiovascular researchers to improve the precision, translatability and consistency of future studies of immune cells in cardiac disease.

The Inflammasome NLRC4 Protects against Cryptococcus gattii by Inducing the Classic Caspase-1 to Activate the Pyroptosis Signal

Cryptococcus is one of the most pathogenic invasive fungi, and its interaction with the host's natural immunity, especially the role of the inflammasome family, has not been fully elucidated. As an important member of the inflammasome family, NOD-like receptor (NLR) family caspase recruitment domain (CARD) containing 4 (NLRC4) has been proven to protect lungs from damage from a variety of pathogens. In this study, we investigated the protective effect and mechanism of NLRC4 on cryptococcal pulmonary infection using NLRC4-/-mice in vivo and NLRC4-/-macrophages in vitro models stimulated by cryptococcal cells. We apply small animal fluorescence imaging to detect the fungal burden in the lungs and living body micro-CT scans of mice and in vitro tissue micro-CT scans to compare differences in infection foci nodules and histopathological lesions, and the activation of caspase-1 and downstream cytokines were detected by Western bolt and ELISA, etc. The results demonstrated that cryptococcal infection can activate the Nod-like receptors of caspase-1 activation and NLRC4 inflammasomes in macrophages and dendritic cells and affect downstream IL-1β and IL-18 release. After cryptococcal infection, the survival rate, lung fungal burden, and histopathological damage of NLRC4^−/− mice were significantly impaired. NLRC4^−/− macrophages showed a lower release of inflammatory factors, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Collectively, our results demonstrated that the activation of caspase-1 and downstream cytokines mediated by NLRC4 inflammasome in immune cells during Cryptococcus infection can enhance pyroptosis of macrophages, affect the phagocytic ability of macrophages, and inhibit the intracellular parasitism of cryptococcus, eventually reducing the burden of fungi.

Interferon-γ promotes monocyte-mediated lung injury during influenza infection

Influenza A virus (IAV) infection triggers an exuberant host response that promotes acute lung injury. However, the host response factors that promote the development of a pathologic inflammatory response to IAV remain incompletely understood. In this study, we identify an interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-regulated subset of monocytes, CCR2⁺ monocytes, as a driver of lung damage during IAV infection. IFN-γ regulates the recruitment and inflammatory phenotype of CCR2⁺ monocytes, and mice deficient in CCR2 (CCR2^-/-) or IFN-γ (IFN-γ^-/-) exhibit reduced lung inflammation, pathology, and disease severity. Adoptive transfer of wild-type (WT) (IFN-γR1^+/+) but not IFN-γR1^-/- CCR2⁺ monocytes restore the WT-like pathological phenotype of lung damage in IAV-infected CCR2^-/- mice. CD8⁺ T cells are the main source of IFN-γ in IAV-infected lungs. Collectively, our data highlight the requirement of IFN-γ signaling in the regulation of CCR2⁺ monocyte-mediated lung pathology during IAV infection.

Talaromyces marneffei Infection: Virulence, Intracellular Lifestyle and Host Defense Mechanisms

Talaromycosis (Penicilliosis) is an opportunistic mycosis caused by the thermally dimorphic fungus Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei. Similar to other major causes of systemic mycoses, the extent of disease and outcomes are the results of complex interactions between this opportunistic human pathogen and a host’s immune response. This review will highlight the current knowledge regarding the dynamic interaction between T. marneffei and mammalian hosts, particularly highlighting important aspects of virulence factors, intracellular lifestyle and the mechanisms of immune defense as well as the strategies of the pathogen for manipulating and evading host immune cells.

Cryptococcus neoformans in Association with Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus has Pro- (IL-6/STAT3 Overproduction) and Anti-inflammatory (CCL2/ERK1/2 Downregulation) Effects on Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells

Cryptococcosis (caused, for example, by Cryptococcus neoformans) and allergic asthma (caused, for example, by Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus) target the respiratory tract (the lung and bronchial epithelium). C. neoformans and D. pteronyssinus can coexist in the same indoor environment, and exposure to both can cause alterations in the local airway inflammatory milieu and exacerbation of airway inflammatory diseases. Here, we evaluated the effects of the association between C. neoformans and D. pteronyssinus in the modulation of airway inflammatory responses in an in vitro experimental model using human bronchial epithelial cells. BEAS-2B cells were cultivated and stimulated with D. pteronyssinus (10 μg/mL) and/or C. neoformans (MOI 100) for 24 h. No cytotoxic effect was observed in cells stimulated by C. neoformans and/or D. pteronyssinus. The production of IL-8, IL-6, and/or CCL2, but not IL-10, as well as the activation of NF-kB, STAT3, STAT6, and/or ERK1/2 were increased in cells stimulated by C. neoformans or D. pteronyssinus compared to controls. C. neoformans in association with D. pteronyssinus inhibited the CCL2‑ERK1/2 signaling pathway in cells treated with both pathogens compared to cells stimulated by D. pteronyssinus alone. In addition, their association induced an additive effect on the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway in cells compared to cells stimulated with D. pteronyssinus or C. neoformans only. D. pteronyssinus increased the internalization and growth of C. neoformans in BEAS-2B cells. D. pteronyssinus in association with C. neoformans promoted pro- and anti-inflammatory responses, which can modulate cryptococcal infection and asthmaticus status.

Macrophages in Microbial Pathogenesis: Commonalities of Defense Evasion Mechanisms

Macrophages are key arsenals of the immune system against invaders. After compartmental isolation of a pathogen in phagosomes, the host immune response attempts to neutralize the pathogen. However, pathogens possess the ability to subvert these assaults and can also convert macrophages into their replicative niche. The multiple host defense evasion mechanisms employed by these pathogens like phagosome maturation arrest, molecular mimicry through secretory antigens, interference with host signaling, active radical neutralization, inhibition of phagosome acidification, alteration of programmed cell death and many other mechanisms. Macrophage biology as a part of the host-pathogen interaction has expanded rapidly in the past decade. The present review aims to shed some light upon the macrophage defense evasion strategies employed by infecting pathogens. We have also incorporated recent knowledge in the field of macrophage dynamics during infection and evolutionary perspectives of macrophage dynamics.

Trafficking of Mononuclear Phagocytes in Healthy Arteries and Atherosclerosis

Monocytes and macrophages play essential roles in all stages of atherosclerosis – from early precursor lesions to advanced stages of the disease. Intima-resident macrophages are among the first cells to be confronted with the influx and retention of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins at the onset of hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis development. In this review, we outline the trafficking of monocytes and macrophages in and out of the healthy aorta, as well as the adaptation of their migratory behaviour during hypercholesterolemia. Furthermore, we discuss the functional and ontogenetic composition of the aortic pool of mononuclear phagocytes and its link to the atherosclerotic disease process. The development of mouse models of atherosclerosis regression in recent years, has enabled scientists to investigate the behaviour of monocytes and macrophages during the resolution of atherosclerosis. Herein, we describe the dynamics of these mononuclear phagocytes upon cessation of hypercholesterolemia and how they contribute to the restoration of tissue homeostasis. The aim of this review is to provide an insight into the trafficking, fate and disease-relevant dynamics of monocytes and macrophages during atherosclerosis, and to highlight remaining questions. We focus on the results of rodent studies, as analysis of cellular fates requires experimental manipulations that cannot be performed in humans but point out findings that could be replicated in human tissues. Understanding of the biology of macrophages in atherosclerosis provides an important basis for the development of therapeutic strategies to limit lesion formation and promote plaque regression.

ADAM10 partially protects mice against influenza pneumonia by suppressing specific myeloid cell population

The influenza virus infection poses a serious health threat worldwide. Myeloid cells play pivotal roles in regulating innate and adaptive immune defense. A disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) family of proteins contributes to various immune responses; however, the role of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 10 (ADAM10) in influenza virus infection remains largely unknown. Herein, we investigated its role, focusing on myeloid cells, during influenza virus infection in mice. ADAM10 gene (Adam10)^flox/flox/Lyz2-Cre (Adam10^ΔLyz2) and control Adam10^flox/flox mice were intranasally infected with 200 plaque-forming units of influenza virus A/H1N1/PR8/34. Adam10^ΔLyz2 mice exhibited a significantly higher mortality rate, stronger lung inflammation, and a higher virus titer in the lungs than control mice. Macrophages and inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and CCL2, were increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from Adam10^ΔLyz2 mice following infection. CD11b⁺Ly6G^-F4/80⁺ myeloid cells, which had an inflammatory monocyte/macrophage-like phenotype, were significantly increased in the lungs of Adam10^ΔLyz2 mice. Adoptive transfer experiments suggested that these cells likely contributed to the poorer prognosis in Adam10^ΔLyz2 mice. Seven days after infection, CD11b⁺Ly6G^-F4/80⁺ lung cells exhibited significantly higher arginase-1 expression levels in Adam10^ΔLyz2 mice than in control mice, whereas an arginase-1 inhibitor improved the prognosis of Adam10^ΔLyz2 mice. Enhanced granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)/GM-CSF receptor signaling likely contributed to this process. Collectively, these results indicate that myeloid ADAM10 protects against influenza virus pneumonia and may be a promising therapeutic target.

The Burkholderia cenocepacia Type VI Secretion System Effector TecA Is a Virulence Factor in Mouse Models of Lung Infection

Burkholderia cenocepacia is a member of the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc), a group of bacteria with members responsible for causing lung infections in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. The most severe outcome of Bcc infection in CF patients is cepacia syndrome, a disease characterized by necrotizing pneumonia with bacteremia and sepsis. B. cenocepacia is strongly associated with cepacia syndrome, making it one of the most virulent members of the Bcc. Mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of B. cenocepacia in lung infections and cepacia syndrome remain to be uncovered. B. cenocepacia is primarily an intracellular pathogen and encodes the type VI secretion system (T6SS) effector TecA, which is translocated into host phagocytes. TecA is a deamidase that inactivates multiple Rho GTPases, including RhoA. Inactivation of RhoA by TecA triggers assembly of the pyrin inflammasome, leading to secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β, from macrophages. Previous work with the B. cenocepacia clinical isolate J2315 showed that TecA increases immunopathology during acute lung infection in C57BL/6 mice and suggested that this effector acts as a virulence factor by triggering assembly of the pyrin inflammasome. Here, we extend these results using a second B. cenocepacia clinical isolate, AU1054, to demonstrate that TecA exacerbates weight loss and lethality during lung infection in C57BL/6 mice and mice engineered to have a CF genotype. Unexpectedly, pyrin was dispensable for TecA virulence activity in both mouse infection models. Our findings establish that TecA is a B. cenocepacia virulence factor that exacerbates lung inflammation, weight loss, and lethality in mouse infection models.

Transcriptional Changes in Pulmonary Phagocyte Subsets Dictate the Outcome Following Interaction With The Fungal Pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

With over 220,000 cases and 180,000 deaths annually, Cryptococcus neoformans is the most common cause of fungal meningitis and a leading cause of death in HIV/AIDS patients in Sub-Saharan Africa. Either C. neoformans can be killed by innate airway phagocytes, or it can survive intracellularly. Pulmonary murine macrophage and dendritic cell (DC) subsets have been identified in the naïve lung, and we hypothesize that each subset has different interactions with C. neoformans. For these studies, we purified murine pulmonary macrophage and DC subsets from naïve mice - alveolar macrophages, Ly6c^- and Ly6c⁺ monocyte-like macrophages, interstitial macrophages, CD11b⁺ and CD103⁺ DCs. With each subset, we examined cryptococcal association (binding/internalization), fungicidal activity, intracellular fungal morphology, cytokine secretion and transcriptional profiling in an ex vivo model using these pulmonary phagocyte subsets. Results showed that all subsets associate with C. neoformans, but only female Ly6c^- monocyte-like macrophages significantly inhibited growth, while male CD11b⁺ DCs significantly enhanced fungal growth. In addition, cytokine analysis revealed that some subsets from female mice produced increased amounts of cytokines compared to their counterparts in male mice following exposure to C. neoformans. In addition, although cells were analyzed ex vivo without the influence of the lung microenviroment, we did not find evidence of phagocyte polarization following incubation with C. neoformans. Imaging flow cytometry showed differing ratios of cryptococcal morphologies, c-shaped or budding, depending on phagocyte subset. RNA sequencing analysis revealed the up- and down-regulation of many genes, from immunological pathways (including differential regulation of MHC class I in the antigen processing pathway and the cell adhesion pathway) and pathways relating to relating to metabolic activity (genes in the Cytochrome P450 family, genes related to actin binding, calcium voltage channels, serine proteases, and phospholipases). Future studies gaining a more in-depth understanding on the functionality of individual genes and pathways specific to permissive and non-permissive pulmonary phagocytes will allow identification of key targets when developing therapeutic strategies to prevent cryptococcal meningitis.

CCR2 Signaling Promotes Brain Infiltration of Inflammatory Monocytes and Contributes to Neuropathology during Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis

Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis (CM) is a leading cause of central nervous system (CNS) infection-related mortality worldwide, with surviving patients often developing neurological deficiencies. While CNS inflammation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of CM, little is known about the relative contribution of the specific inflammatory/immune pathways to CNS pathology versus fungal clearance. Increased cerebrospinal fluid level of C-C chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) ligand CCL2 is associated with disease deterioration in patients with CM. Using a murine model, we investigated the role of the CCR2 pathway in the development of CNS inflammation and pathology during CM. We found that CCR2-deficient mice exhibited improved 28-day survival and alleviated neurological disease scores despite a brain fungal burden higher than that of the WT mice. Reduced CM pathology in CCR2-deficient mice was accompanied by markedly decreased neuronal cell death around cryptococcal microcysts and restored expression of genes involved in neurotransmission, connectivity, and neuronal cell structure in the brains. Results show that CCR2 axis is the major pathway recruiting CD45hiCD11b+Ly6C+ inflammatory monocyte to the brain and indirectly modulates the accumulation of CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells. In particular, CCR2 axis promotes recruitment of interferon gamma (IFN-γ)-producing CD4+ T cells and classical activation of myeloid cells. In this context, CCR2 deletion limits the immune network dysregulation we see in CM and attenuates neuropathology. Thus, the CCR2 axis is a potential target for interventions aimed to limit inflammatory CNS pathology in CM patients. IMPORTANCE Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis (CM) causes nearly 200,000 deaths worldwide each year, and survivors frequently develop long-lasting neurological sequelae. The high rate of mortality and neurologic sequelae in CM patients indicate that antifungal therapies alone are often insufficient to control disease progression. Here, we reveal that CM disease progression in mice is accompanied by inflammatory monocytes infiltration at the periphery of the infected foci that overlap locally perturbed neuronal function and death. Importantly, we identified that CCR2 signaling is a critical pathway driving neuroinflammation, especially inflammatory monocyte recruitment, as well as CNS pathology and mortality in CM mice. Our results imply that targeting the CCR2 pathway may be beneficial as a therapy complementary to antifungal drug treatment, helping to reduce CNS damage and mortality in CM patients.

Lactic acid in macrophage polarization: The significant role in inflammation and cancer

Metabolite lactic acid has always been regarded as a metabolic by-product rather than a bioactive molecule. Recently, this view has changed since it was discovered that lactic acid can be used as a signal molecule and has novel signal transduction functions both intracellular and extracellular, which can regulate key functions in the immune system. In recent years, more and more evidence has shown that lactic acid is closely related to the metabolism and polarization of macrophages. During inflammation, lactic acid is a regulator of macrophage metabolism, and it can prevent excessive inflammatory responses; In malignant tumors, lactic acid produced by tumor tissues promotes the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages, which in turn promotes tumor progression. In this review, we examined the relationship between lactic acid and macrophage metabolism. We further discussed how lactic acid plays a role in maintaining the homeostasis of macrophages, as well as the biology of macrophage polarization and the M1/M2 imbalance in human diseases. Potential methods to target lactic acid in the treatment of inflammation and cancer will also be discussed so as to provide new strategies for the treatment of diseases.

Macrophage-derived cytokines in pneumonia: Linking cellular immunology and genetics

Macrophages represent the first line of anti-pathogen defense - they encounter invading pathogens to perform the phagocytic activity, to deliver the plethora of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and to shape the tissue microenvironment. Throughout pneumonia course, alveolar macrophages and infiltrated blood monocytes produce increasing cytokine amounts, which activates the antiviral/antibacterial immunity but can also provoke the risk of the so-called cytokine "storm" and normal tissue damage. Subsequently, the question of how the cytokine spectrum is shaped and balanced in the pneumonia context remains a hot topic in medical immunology, particularly in the COVID19 pandemic era. The diversity in cytokine profiles, involved in pneumonia pathogenesis, is determined by the variations in cytokine-receptor interactions, which may lead to severe cytokine storm and functional decline of particular tissues and organs, for example, cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Cytokines and their receptors form unique profiles in individual patients, depending on the (a) microenvironmental context (comorbidities and associated treatment), (b) lung monocyte heterogeneity, and (c) genetic variations. These multidisciplinary strategies can be proactively considered beforehand and during the pneumonia course and potentially allow the new age of personalized immunotherapy.

Evolution and Diversity of Immune Responses during Acute HIV Infection

Understanding the earliest immune responses following HIV infection is critical to inform future vaccines and therapeutics. Here, we review recent prospective human studies in at-risk populations that have provided insight into immune responses during acute infection, including additional relevant data from non-human primate (NHP) studies. We discuss the timing, nature, and function of the diverse immune responses induced, the onset of immune dysfunction, and the effects of early anti-retroviral therapy administration. Treatment at onset of viremia mitigates peripheral T and B cell dysfunction, limits seroconversion, and enhances cellular antiviral immunity despite persistence of infection in lymphoid tissues. We highlight pertinent areas for future investigation, and how application of high-throughput technologies, alongside targeted NHP studies, may elucidate immune response features to target in novel preventions and cures.

It's all in your head: antifungal immunity in the brain

As the incidence rate of invasive fungal infections has increased with the use of modern medical interventions, so too has the occurrence of fungi invading the brain. Fungi such as Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus often infect immunocompromised individuals, and can use several strategies to invade the central nervous system (CNS) by penetrating the blood-brain barrier. Once in the brain parenchyma the specialized resident immune cells need to effectively recognize the fungus and mount an appropriate immune response to clear the infection, without causing debilitating immune-mediated toxicity and neuronal damage. Here we review the current knowledge pertaining to the antifungal response of the CNS and highlight areas where future research is required.

Role of pulmonary microorganisms in the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic obstructive respiratory disease characterized by irreversible airway limitation and persistent respiratory symptoms. The main clinical symptoms of COPD are dyspnoea, chronic cough, and sputum. COPD is often accompanied by other respiratory diseases, which can cause worsening of the disease. COPD patients with dyspnoea and aggravation of cough and sputum symptoms represent acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD). There is mounting evidence suggesting that dysbiosis of pulmonary microbiota participates in the disease. However, investigations of dysbiosis of pulmonary microbiota and the disease are still in initial phases. To screen, diagnose, and treat this respiratory disease, integrating data from different studies can improve our understanding of the occurrence and development of COPD and AECOPD. In this review, COPD epidemiology and the primary triggering mechanism are explored. Emerging knowledge regarding the association of inflammation, caused by pulmonary microbiome imbalance, and changes in lung microbiome flora species involved in the development of the disease are also highlighted. These data will further our understanding of the pathogenesis of COPD and AECOPD and may yield novel strategies for the use of pulmonary microbiota as a potential therapeutic intervention.

Animal Models of Cryptococcus neoformans in Identifying Immune Parameters Associated With Primary Infection and Reactivation of Latent Infection

Cryptococcus species are environmental fungal pathogens and the causative agents of cryptococcosis. Infection occurs upon inhalation of infectious particles, which proliferate in the lung causing a primary infection. From this primary lung infection, fungal cells can eventually disseminate to other organs, particularly the brain, causing lethal meningoencephalitis. However, in most cases, the primary infection resolves with the formation of a lung granuloma. Upon severe immunodeficiency, dormant cryptococcal cells will start proliferating in the lung granuloma and eventually will disseminate to the brain. Many investigators have sought to study the protective host immune response to this pathogen in search of host parameters that keep the proliferation of cryptococcal cells under control. The majority of the work assimilates research carried out using the primary infection animal model, mainly because a reactivation model has been available only very recently. This review will focus on anti-cryptococcal immunity in both the primary and reactivation models. An understanding of the differences in host immunity between the primary and reactivation models will help to define the key host parameters that control the infections and are important for the research and development of new therapeutic and vaccine strategies against cryptococcosis.

Intracellular Cryptococcus neoformans disrupts the transcriptome profile of M1- and M2-polarized host macrophages

Macrophages serve as a first line of defense against infection with the facultative intracellular pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans (Cn). However, the ability of these innate phagocytic cells to destroy ingested Cn is strongly influenced by polarization state with classically (M1) activated macrophages better able to control cryptococcal infections than alternatively (M2) activated cells. While earlier studies have demonstrated that intracellular Cn minimally affects the expression of M1 and M2 markers, the impact on the broader transcriptome associated with these states remains unclear. To investigate this, an in vitro cell culture model of intracellular infection together with RNA sequencing-based transcriptome profiling was used to measure the impact of Cn infection on gene expression in both polarization states. The gene expression profile of both M1 and M2 cells was extensively altered to become more like naive (M0) macrophages. Gene ontology analysis suggested that this involved changes in the activity of the Janus kinase-signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT), p53, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways. Analyses of the principle polarization markers at the protein-level also revealed discrepancies between the RNA- and protein-level responses. In contrast to earlier studies, intracellular Cn was found to increase protein levels of the M1 marker iNos. In addition, common gene expression changes were identified that occurred post-Cn infection, independent of polarization state. This included upregulation of the transcriptional co-regulator Cited1, which was also apparent at the protein level in M1-polarized macrophages. These changes constitute a transcriptional signature of macrophage Cn infection and provide new insights into how Cn impacts gene expression and the phenotype of host phagocytes.

The Diverse Roles of Monocytes in Cryptococcosis

Monocytes are considered to play a central role in the pathogenesis of Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells are key components for the control of infection, but paradoxically they can also contribute to detrimental host responses and may even support fungal proliferation and dissemination. Simultaneously, the C. neoformans polysaccharide capsule can impair the functions of monocytes. Although monocytes are often seen as simple precursor cells, they also function as independent immune effector cells. In this review, we summarize these monocyte-specific functions during cryptococcal infection and the influence of C. neoformans on monocyte responses. We also cover the most recent findings on the functional and phenotypic heterogeneity of monocytes and discuss how new advanced technologies provide a platform to address outstanding questions in the field.

Pathogen and host genetics underpinning cryptococcal disease

Cryptococcosis is a severe fungal disease causing 220,000 cases of cryptococcal meningitis yearly. The etiological agents of cryptococcosis are taxonomically grouped into at least two species complexes belonging to the genus Cryptococcus. All of these yeasts are environmentally ubiquitous fungi (often found in soil, leaves and decaying wood, tree hollows, and associated with bird feces especially pigeon guano). Infection in a range of animals including humans begins following inhalation of spores or aerosolized yeasts. Recent advances provide fundamental insights into the factors from both the pathogen and its hosts which influence pathogenesis and disease. The complex interactions leading to disease in mammalian hosts have also updated from the availability of better genomic tools and datasets. In this review, we discuss recent genetic research on Cryptococcus, covering the epidemiology, ecology, and evolution of Cryptococcus pathogenic species. We also discuss the insights into the host immune response obtained from the latest genetic modified host models as well as insights from monogenic disorders in humans. Finally we highlight outstanding questions that can be answered in the near future using bioinformatics and genomic tools.

Monocytes and the Host Response to Fungal Pathogens

Monocytes and their derivatives, including macrophages and dendritic cells, play diverse roles in the response to fungal pathogens. Sensing of fungi by monocytes triggers signaling pathways that mediate direct effects like phagocytosis and cytokine production. Monocytes can also present fungal antigens to elicit adaptive immune responses. These monocyte-mediated pathways may be either beneficial or harmful to the host. In some instances, fungi have developed mechanisms to evade the consequences of monocyte activation and subvert these cells to promote disease. Thus, monocytes are critically involved in mediating the outcomes of these often highly fatal infections. This review will highlight the roles of monocytes in the immune response to some of the major fungi that cause invasive human disease, including Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, Candida, Histoplasma, Blastomyces, and Coccidioides, and discuss potential strategies to manipulate monocyte responses in order to enhance anti-fungal immunity in susceptible hosts.

Pulmonary Macrophage and Dendritic Cell Responses to Cryptococcus neoformans

The fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans can cause life-threatening infections in immune compromised individuals. This pathogen is typically acquired via inhalation, and enters the respiratory tract. Innate immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) are the first host cells that encounter C. neoformans, and the interactions between Cryptococcus and innate immune cells play a critical role in the progression of disease. Cryptococcus possesses several virulence factors and evasion strategies to prevent its killing and destruction by pulmonary phagocytes, but these phagocytic cells can also contribute to anti-cryptococcal responses. This review will focus on the interactions between Cryptococcus and primary macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), dealing specifically with the cryptococcal/pulmonary cell interface.

l-Serine Lowers the Inflammatory Responses during Pasteurella multocida Infection

Pasteurella multocida causes a variety of infectious diseases in various species of mammals and birds, resulting in enormous economic loss to the modern livestock and poultry industry. However, the mechanism of host-pathogen interaction is unclear. Here, we found that l-serine levels were significantly decreased in murine lungs infected with P. multocida.

Pasteurella multocida causes a variety of infectious diseases in various species of mammals and birds, resulting in enormous economic loss to the modern livestock and poultry industry. However, the mechanism of host-pathogen interaction is unclear. Here, we found that l-serine levels were significantly decreased in murine lungs infected with P. multocida. Exogenous l-serine supplementation significantly increased the survival rate of mice and decreased the colonization of P. multocida in the lungs of mice. Notably, l-serine decreased the macrophage- and neutrophil-mediated inflammatory responses in mice during P. multocida infection.

Immune Reconstitution Disorders: Spotlight on Interferons

Three decades of research in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and HIV/AIDS fields have shaped a picture of immune restoration disorders. This manuscript overviews the molecular biology of interferon networks, the molecular pathogenesis of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, and post-hematopoietic stem cell transplantation immune restoration disorders (IRD). It also summarizes the effects of thymic involution on T cell diversity, and the results of the assessment of diagnostic biomarkers of IRD, and tested targeted immunomodulatory treatments.

Pulmonary Iron Limitation Induced by Exogenous Type I IFN Protects Mice from Cryptococcus gattii Independently of T Cells

Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii cause fatal infection in immunodeficient and immunocompetent individuals. While these fungi are sibling species, C. gattii infects very few AIDS patients, while C. neoformans infection is an AIDS-defining illness, suggesting that the host response to HIV selects C. neoformans over C. gattii. We used a viral mimic molecule (pICLC) to stimulate the immune response, and pICLC treatment improved mouse outcomes from both species. pICLC-induced action against C. neoformans was due to activation of well-defined immune pathways known to deter C. neoformans, whereas these immune pathways were dispensable for pICLC treatment of C. gattii. Since these immune pathways are eventually destroyed by HIV/AIDS, our data help explain why the antiviral immune response in AIDS patients is unable to control C. neoformans infection but is protective against C. gattii. Furthermore, pICLC induced tighter control of iron in the lungs of mice, which inhibited C. gattii, thus suggesting an entirely new mode of nutritional immunity activated by viral signals.

Cryptococcus neoformans causes deadly mycosis primarily in AIDS patients, whereas Cryptococcus gattii infects mostly non-HIV patients, even in regions with high burdens of HIV/AIDS and an established environmental presence of C. gattii. As HIV induces type I IFN (t1IFN), we hypothesized that t1IFN would differentially affect the outcome of C. neoformans and C. gattii infections. Exogenous t1IFN induction using stabilized poly(I·C) (pICLC) improved murine outcomes in either cryptococcal infection. In C. neoformans-infected mice, pICLC activity was associated with C. neoformans containment and classical Th1 immunity. In contrast, pICLC activity against C. gattii did not require any immune factors previously associated with C. neoformans immunity: T, B, and NK cells, IFN-γ, and macrophages were all dispensable. Interestingly, C. gattii pICLC activity depended on β-2-microglobulin, which impacts iron levels among other functions. Iron supplementation reversed pICLC activity, suggesting C. gattii pICLC activity requires iron limitation. Also, pICLC induced a set of iron control proteins, some of which were directly inhibitory to cryptococcus in vitro, suggesting t1IFN regulates iron availability in the pulmonary air space fluids. Thus, exogenous induction of t1IFN significantly improves the outcome of murine infection by C. gattii and C. neoformans but by distinct mechanisms; the C. gattii effect was mediated by iron limitation, while the effect on C. neoformans infection was through induction of classical T-cell-dependent immunity. Together this difference in types of T-cell-dependent t1IFN immunity for different Cryptococcus species suggests a possible mechanism by which HIV infection may select against C. gattii but not C. neoformans.