The Chlamydia trachomatis secreted effector TmeA hijacks the N-WASP-ARP2/3 actin remodeling axis to facilitate cellular invasion

Pathogenicity and virulence of Chlamydia trachomatis: Insights into host interactions, immune evasion, and intracellular survival

Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular pathogen and the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infections and infectious blindness worldwide. All Chlamydia species share a unique biphasic developmental cycle, alternating between infectious elementary bodies (EBs) and replicative reticulate bodies (RBs). The pathogenesis of C. trachomatis is driven by a sophisticated arsenal of adhesins, conventional type III secretion system effector proteins, and inclusion membrane proteins that subvert host cellular processes to establish infection and promote survival. In this review, we highlight the molecular mechanisms underlying C. trachomatis infection, focusing on key stages of its developmental cycle, including adhesion, invasion, replication, and egress. We delve into its interactions with host cytoskeletal structures, immune signaling pathways, and intracellular trafficking systems, as well as its strategies for immune evasion and persistence. Understanding these mechanisms offers critical insights into C. trachomatis pathogenesis and identifies promising avenues for therapeutic and vaccine development.

Chlamydia trachomatis TmeA promotes pedestal-like structure formation through N-WASP and TOCA-1 interactions

Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) is the causative agent of several human diseases, including the sexually transmitted infection chlamydia and the eye infection trachoma. As an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen, invasion is critical for establishing infection and subsequent pathogenesis. During invasion, C.t. secretes effector proteins via its type III secretion system (T3SS), which manipulate host actin cytoskeletal regulation to promote bacterial entry. Previous studies identified the T3SS effector protein TmeA as a key factor in C.t. invasion, as it recruits and activates N-WASP. This interaction, in turn, activates the Arp2/3 complex, driving cytoskeletal rearrangements at the invasion site to drive C.t. uptake. In this study, we define the role of the N-WASP CRIB domain in mediating this interaction and demonstrate that TmeA functions as a mimic of Cdc42 as part of its established role in activating N-WASP. Additionally, we identified TOCA-1 as another host protein that directly interacts with TmeA. In other bacterial pathogens, notably an enterohemorrhagic E. coli, N-WASP and TOCA-1 are hijacked to mediate pedestal formation. Using siRNA-mediated knockdown of N-WASP and TOCA-1, followed by transmission electron microscopy, we found that both proteins are important for C.t.-mediated pedestal-like structure formation. Collectively, these findings expand our understanding of the intricacies of C.t. invasion, highlighting how TmeA-mediated interactions with N-WASP and TOCA-1 contribute to pedestal-like structure formation, which may represent an early step in C.t. infection.

IMPORTANCE

Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that poses a significant threat to human health, being associated with various diseases, including chlamydia-the most prevalent bacterial sexually transmitted infection-and trachoma. Although often asymptomatic, chlamydia infections can lead to severe complications, such as infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and an increased risk of cervical and ovarian cancers. As an intracellular pathogen, host cell invasion is critical for C.t. survival and pathogenesis. In this study, we provide new insights into the interactions between the C.t. invasion effector protein TmeA and the host proteins N-WASP and TOCA-1, revealing that both host proteins are involved in pedestal-like structure formation during early stages of C.t. infection. These findings deepen our understanding of the mechanisms underlying TmeA-mediated host cell invasion and highlight a key pathway contributing to C.t.-mediated pathogenesis.

Human Papillomavirus Type 16 Stimulates WAVE1- and WAVE2-Dependent Actin Protrusions for Endocytic Entry

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) is an etiological agent of human cancers that requires endocytosis to initiate infection. HPV16 entry into epithelial cells occurs through a non-canonical endocytic pathway that is actin-driven, but it is not well understood how HPV16-cell surface interactions trigger actin reorganization in a way that facilitates entry. This study provides evidence that Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein family verprolin-homologous proteins 1 and 2 (WAVE1 and WAVE2) are molecular mediators of actin protrusions that occur at the cellular surface upon HPV addition to cells, and that this stimulation is a key step prior to endocytosis and intracellular trafficking. We demonstrate through post-transcriptional gene silencing and genome editing that WAVE1 and WAVE2 are critical for efficient HPV16 infection, and that restoration of each in knockout cells rescues HPV16 infection. Cells lacking WAVE1, WAVE2, or both internalize HPV16 at a significantly reduced rate. Microscopic analysis of fluorescently labeled cells revealed that HPV16, WAVE1, WAVE2, and actin are all colocalized at the cellular dorsal surface within a timeframe that precedes endocytosis. Within that same timeframe, we also found that HPV16-treated cells express cellular dorsal surface filopodia, which does not occur in cells lacking WAVE1 and WAVE2. Taken together, this study provides evidence that WAVE1 and WAVE2 mediate a key step prior to HPV entry into cells that involves actin reorganization in the form of cellular dorsal surface protrusions.

The N-terminus of the Chlamydia trachomatis effector Tarp engages the host Hippo pathway

Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) is an obligate, intracellular Gram-negative bacteria and the leading bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the United States. Chlamydia manipulates the host cell biology using various secreted bacterial effectors during its intracellular development. The early effector translocated actin-recruiting phosphoprotein (Tarp), important for Chlamydia entry, has a well-characterized C-terminal region which can polymerize and bundle F-actin. In contrast, not much is known about the function of the N-terminus of Tarp (N-Tarp), though present in many Chlamydia spp. To address this, we use Drosophila melanogaster as an in vivo cell biology platform to study N-Tarp-host interactions. Transgenic expression of N-Tarp in Drosophila results in developmental phenotypes consistent with altered host Salvador-Warts-Hippo signaling, a conserved signaling cascade that regulates host cell proliferation and survival. We studied the N-Tarp function in larval imaginal wing discs, which are sensitive to perturbations in Hippo signaling. N-Tarp causes wing disc overgrowth and a concomitant increase in adult wing size, phenocopying overexpression of the Hippo co-activator Yorkie. N-Tarp also causes upregulation of Hippo target genes. Last, N-Tarp-induced phenotypes can be rescued by reducing the levels of Yorkie or the Hippo target genes CycE and Drosophila inhibitor of apoptosis 1 (Diap1). Thus, we provide evidence that the N-terminal region of the Chlamydia effector Tarp is sufficient to alter host Hippo signaling and acts upstream of the co-activator Yorkie.

IMPORTANCE

The survival of obligate intracellular bacteria like Chlamydia depends on the survival of the host cell itself. It is not surprising that Chlamydia-infected cells are resistant to cell death, though the exact molecular mechanism is largely unknown. Here, we establish that the N-terminal region of the well-known Ct early effector Tarp can alter Hippo signaling in vivo. Only recently implicated in Chlamydia infection, the Hippo pathway is known to promote cell survival. Our findings illuminate one possible mechanism for Chlamydia to promote host cell survival during infection. We further demonstrate the utility of Drosophila melanogaster as a tool in the study of effector function.

Chlamydia trachomatis invasion: a duet of effectors

Members of the genus Chlamydia require an intracellular niche for growth and replication, thus highlighting the extreme significance of its ability to invade epithelial cells-the favored host cell in vivo. Because epithelial cells are not phagocytic, the uptake of Chlamydia must be driven by the pathogen. To this end, two bacterial proteins, translocated actin-recruiting protein (TarP) and translocated membrane effector A (TmeA), identified in Chlamydia trachomatis are translocated from the infectious chlamydial elementary bodies to the host cell cytosol to facilitate extensive remodeling of the cortical actin network to produce protrusive structures designed for pathogen engulfment. Notably, both effectors act by promoting highly localized actin nucleation at sites of bacterial adhesion. However, they have non-redundant functions, with both required for optimal actin remodeling dynamics and efficient invasion. Finally, these effectors also mediate the latter stages of the invasion process, specifically by modulating host dynamin 2, a large GTPase critical to closure and scission of invaginating vesicles harboring elementary bodies. In summary, TarP and TmeA orchestrate major aspects of C. trachomatis invasion.

The Chlamydia trachomatis secreted effector protein CT181 binds to Mcl-1 to prolong neutrophil survival

Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t) infections can lead to severe complications due to the pathogen's ability to evade the host immune response, often resulting in asymptomatic infections. The mechanisms underlying this immune subversion remain incompletely understood but likely involve specific bacterial effector proteins. Here, we identify CT181 as a novel effector that directly binds to Mcl-1, a key regulator of neutrophil survival. While a C.t. CT181 mutant exhibited only modest defects in epithelial cell replication and inclusion development, it was essential for C.t. survival in neutrophils, correlating with Mcl-1 stabilization. Using a murine infection model, we demonstrate that CT181 is required for C.t. colonization and cytokine production in vivo. Our findings establish CT181 as the first bacterial effector protein known to bind Mcl-1 to enhance neutrophil survival, revealing a critical strategy by which C.t. promotes immune dysregulation, facilitating bacterial persistence while driving C.t. pathogenesis.

Hijacking host cell vesicular transport: New insights into the nutrient acquisition mechanism of Chlamydia

Chlamydia infection is an important cause of public health diseases, and no effective vaccine is currently available. Owing to its unique intracellular lifestyle, Chlamydia requires a variety of nutrients and substrates from host cells, particularly sphingomyelin, cholesterol, iron, amino acids, and the mannose-6-phosphate receptor, which are essential for inclusion development. Here, we summarize the recent advances in Chlamydia nutrient acquisition mechanism by hijacking host cell vesicular transport, which plays an important role in chlamydial growth and development. Chlamydia obtains the components necessary to complete its intracellular developmental cycle by recruiting Rab proteins (major vesicular trafficking regulators) and Rab effector proteins to the inclusion, interfering with Rab-mediated multivesicular trafficking, reorienting the nutrition of host cells, and reconstructing the intracellular niche environment. Consequently, exploring the role of vesicular transport in nutrient acquisition offers a novel perspective on new approaches for preventing and treating Chlamydia infection.

Chlamydia trachomatis TmeA promotes pedestal formation through N-WASP and TOCA-1 interactions

Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) is the causative agent of several human diseases, including the sexually transmitted infection chlamydia and eye infection trachoma. As an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen, invasion is essential for establishing infection and subsequent pathogenesis. To facilitate invasion, C.t. secretes effector proteins through its type III secretion system (T3SS). These effectors facilitate bacterial entry by manipulating multiple pathways involved in host actin cytoskeletal regulation. Previous studies have demonstrated that the T3SS effector protein TmeA is crucial for C.t. invasion, as it recruits and activates N-WASP. This interaction leads to recruitment and activation of the Arp2/3 complex, promoting cytoskeletal rearrangements at the invasion site to facilitate C.t. uptake. In this study, we define the role of the N-WASP CRIB domain in mediating this interaction, showing that TmeA acts as a functional mimic of Cdc42 in activating N-WASP. Additionally, we identified TOCA-1 as another host protein that directly interacts with TmeA. In other bacterial pathogens, notably Enterohemorrhagic E. coli, N-WASP and TOCA-1 are hijacked to mediate pedestal formation. Using siRNA to knockdown N-WASP and TOCA-1, followed by transmission electron microscopic, we observed that both N-WASP and TOCA-1 are important for in C.t.-mediated pedestal formation. Collectively, these findings reveal a unique mechanism of TmeA-mediated invasion, where direct interactions with N-WASP and TOCA-1 facilitate pedestal formation.

WAVE1 and WAVE2 facilitate human papillomavirus-driven actin polymerization during cellular entry

Human PapillomavirusType 16 (HPV16) is an etiological agent of human cancers that requires endocytosis to initiate infection. HPV16 entry into epithelial cells occurs through a non-canonical endocytic pathway that is actin-driven, but it is not well understood how HPV16-cell surface interactions trigger actin reorganization in a way that facilitates entry. This study provides evidence that Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein family verprolin-homologous proteins 1 and 2 (WAVE1 and WAVE2) are molecular mediators of the actin polymerization that facilitates HPV endocytosis and intracellular trafficking. We demonstrate through post-transcriptional gene silencing and genome editing that WAVE1 and WAVE2 are critical for efficient HPV16 infection, and that restoration of each in knockout cells rescues HPV16 infection. Cells lacking WAVE1, WAVE2, or both, internalize HPV16 at a significantly reduced rate. Analysis of fluorescently labeled cells exposed to HPV16 and acquired by confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed that HPV16, WAVE1, WAVE2, and actin are all colocalized at the cellular dorsal surface. We also found that HPV16 stimulates WAVE1 and WAVE2-mediated cellular dorsal surface filopodia formation during the viral endocytic process. Taken together, this study provides evidence that the HPV endocytic process needed for infection is controlled by actin reorganization into filopodial protrusions and that this process is mediated by WAVE1 and WAVE2.

The N-terminus of the Chlamydia trachomatis effector Tarp engages the host Hippo pathway

Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate, intracellular Gram-negative bacteria and the leading bacterial STI in the United States. Chlamydia's developmental cycle involves host cell entry, replication within a parasitophorous vacuole called an inclusion, and induction of host cell lysis to release new infectious particles. During development, Chlamydia manipulates the host cell biology using various secreted bacterial effectors. The early effector Tarp is important for Chlamydia entry via its well-characterized C-terminal region which can polymerize and bundle F-actin. In contrast, not much is known about the function of Tarp's N-terminus (N-Tarp), though this N-terminal region is present in many Chlamydia species. To address this, we use Drosophila melanogaster as an in vivo cell biology platform to study N-Tarp-host interactions. Drosophila development is well-characterized such that developmental phenotypes can be traced back to the perturbed molecular pathway. Transgenic expression of N-Tarp in Drosophila tissues results in phenotypes consistent with altered host Hippo signaling. The Salvador-Warts-Hippo pathway is a conserved signaling cascade that regulates host cell proliferation and survival during normal animal development. We studied N-Tarp function in larval imaginal wing discs, which are sensitive to perturbations in Hippo signaling. N-Tarp causes wing disc overgrowth and a concomitant increase in adult wing size, phenocopying overexpression of the Hippo co-activator Yorkie. N-Tarp also causes upregulation of Hippo target genes. Last, N-Tarp-induced phenotypes can be rescued by reducing the levels of Yorkie, or the Hippo target genes CycE and Diap1. Thus, we provide the first evidence that the N-terminal region of the Chlamydia effector Tarp is sufficient to alter host Hippo signaling and acts upstream of the co-activator Yorkie. Chlamydia alters host cell apoptosis during infection, though the exact mechanism remains unknown. Our findings implicate the N-terminal region of Tarp as a way to manipulate the host Hippo signaling pathway, which directly influences cell survival.

The Chlamydia pneumoniae effector SemD exploits its host's endocytic machinery by structural and functional mimicry

To enter epithelial cells, the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia pneumoniae secretes early effector proteins, which bind to and modulate the host-cell's plasma membrane and recruit several pivotal endocytic host proteins. Here, we present the high-resolution structure of an entry-related chlamydial effector protein, SemD. Co-crystallisation of SemD with its host binding partners demonstrates that SemD co-opts the Cdc42 binding site to activate the actin cytoskeleton regulator N-WASP, making active, GTP-bound Cdc42 superfluous. While SemD binds N-WASP much more strongly than Cdc42 does, it does not bind the Cdc42 effector protein FMNL2, indicating effector protein specificity. Furthermore, by identifying flexible and structured domains, we show that SemD can simultaneously interact with the membrane, the endocytic protein SNX9, and N-WASP. Here, we show at the structural level how a single effector protein can hijack central components of the host's endocytic system for efficient internalization.

Brucella NpeA is a secreted Type IV effector containing an N-WASP-binding short linear motif that promotes niche formation

The modulation of actin polymerization is a common theme among microbial pathogens. Even though microorganisms show a wide repertoire of strategies to subvert the activity of actin, most of them converge in the ones that activate nucleating factors, such as the Arp2/3 complex. Brucella spp. are intracellular pathogens capable of establishing chronic infections in their hosts. The ability to subvert the host cell response is dependent on the capacity of the bacterium to attach, invade, avoid degradation in the phagocytic compartment, replicate in an endoplasmic reticulum-derived compartment and egress. Even though a significant number of mechanisms deployed by Brucella in these different phases have been identified and characterized, none of them have been described to target actin as a cellular component. In this manuscript, we describe the identification of a novel virulence factor (NpeA) that promotes niche formation. NpeA harbors a short linear motif (SLiM) present within an amphipathic alpha helix that has been described to bind the GTPase-binding domain (GBD) of N-WASP and stabilizes the autoinhibited state. Our results show that NpeA is secreted in a Type IV secretion system-dependent manner and that deletion of the gene diminishes the intracellular replication capacity of the bacterium. In vitro and ex vivo experiments demonstrate that NpeA binds N-WASP and that the short linear motif is required for the biological activity of the protein.IMPORTANCEThe modulation of actin-binding effectors that regulate the activity of this fundamental cellular protein is a common theme among bacterial pathogens. The neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) is a protein that several pathogens target to hijack actin dynamics. The highly adapted intracellular bacterium Brucella has evolved a wide repertoire of virulence factors that modulate many activities of the host cell to establish successful intracellular replication niches, but, to date, no effector proteins have been implicated in the modulation of actin dynamics. We present here the identification of a virulence factor that harbors a short linear motif (SLiM) present within an amphipathic alpha helix that has been described to bind the GTPase-binding domain (GBD) of N-WASP stabilizing its autoinhibited state. We demonstrate that this protein is a Type IV secretion effector that targets N-WASP-promoting intracellular survival and niche formation.

Dynamin-dependent entry of Chlamydia trachomatis is sequentially regulated by the effectors TarP and TmeA

Chlamydia invasion of epithelial cells is a pathogen-driven process involving two functionally distinct effectors - TarP and TmeA. They collaborate to promote robust actin dynamics at sites of entry. Here, we extend studies on the molecular mechanism of invasion by implicating the host GTPase dynamin 2 (Dyn2) in the completion of pathogen uptake. Importantly, Dyn2 function is modulated by TarP and TmeA at the levels of recruitment and activation through oligomerization, respectively. TarP-dependent recruitment requires phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and the small GTPase Rac1, while TmeA has a post-recruitment role related to Dyn2 oligomerization. This is based on the rescue of invasion duration and efficiency in the absence of TmeA by the Dyn2 oligomer-stabilizing small molecule activator Ryngo 1-23. Notably, Dyn2 also regulated turnover of TarP- and TmeA-associated actin networks, with disrupted Dyn2 function resulting in aberrant turnover dynamics, thus establishing the interdependent functional relationship between Dyn2 and the effectors TarP and TmeA.

Global mapping of the Chlamydia trachomatis conventional secreted effector - host interactome reveals CebN interacts with nucleoporins and Rae1 to impede STAT1 nuclear translocation

Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.), the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infections, employs a type III secretion system (T3SS) to translocate two classes of effectors, inclusion membrane proteins and conventional T3SS (cT3SS) effectors, into the host cell to counter host defense mechanisms. Here we employed three assays to directly evaluate secretion during infection, validating secretion for 23 cT3SS effectors. As bioinformatic analyses have been largely unrevealing, we conducted affinity purification-mass spectrometry to identify host targets and gain insights into the functions of these effectors, identifying high confidence interacting partners for 21 cT3SS effectors. We demonstrate that CebN localizes to the nuclear envelope in infected and bystander cells where it interacts with multiple nucleoporins and Rae1, blocking STAT1 nuclear import following IFN-γ stimulation. By building a cT3SS effector-host interactome, we have identified novel pathways that are targeted during bacterial infection and have begun to address how C.t. effectors combat cell autonomous immunity.

Contributions of diverse models of the female reproductive tract to the study of Chlamydia trachomatis-host interactions

Chlamydia trachomatis is a common cause of sexually transmitted infections in humans with devastating sequelae. Understanding of disease on all scales, from molecular details to the immunology underlying pathology, is essential for identifying new ways of preventing and treating chlamydia. Infection models of various complexity are essential to understand all aspects of chlamydia pathogenesis. Cell culture systems allow for research into molecular details of infection, including characterization of the unique biphasic Chlamydia developmental cycle and the role of type-III-secreted effectors in modifying the host environment to allow for infection. Multicell type and organoid culture provide means to investigate how cells other than the infected cells contribute to the control of infection. Emerging comprehensive three-dimensional biomimetic systems may fill an important gap in current models to provide information on complex phenotypes that cannot be modeled in simpler in vitro models.

Molecular pathogenesis of Chlamydia trachomatis

Chlamydia trachomatis is a strict intracellular human pathogen. It is the main bacterial cause of sexually transmitted infections and the etiologic agent of trachoma, which is the leading cause of preventable blindness. Despite over 100 years since C. trachomatis was first identified, there is still no vaccine. However in recent years, the advancement of genetic manipulation approaches for C. trachomatis has increased our understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of C. trachomatis and progress towards a vaccine. In this mini-review, we aimed to outline the factors related to the developmental cycle phase and specific pathogenesis activity of C. trachomatis in order to focus priorities for future genetic approaches. We highlight the factors known to be critical for developmental cycle stages, gene expression regulatory factors, type III secretion system and their effectors, and individual virulence factors with known impacts.

Dynamin-dependent entry of Chlamydia trachomatis is sequentially regulated by the effectors TarP and TmeA

Chlamydia invasion of epithelial cells is a pathogen-driven process involving two functionally distinct effectors - TarP and TmeA. They collaborate to promote robust actin dynamics at sites of entry. Here, we extend studies on the molecular mechanism of invasion by implicating the host GTPase dynamin 2 (Dyn2) in the completion of pathogen uptake. Importantly, Dyn2 function is modulated by TarP and TmeA at the levels of recruitment and activation through oligomerization, respectively. TarP-dependent recruitment requires phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and the small GTPase Rac1, while TmeA has a post-recruitment role related to Dyn2 oligomerization. This is based on the rescue of invasion duration and efficiency in the absence of TmeA by the Dyn2 oligomer-stabilizing small molecule activator Ryngo 1-23. Notably, Dyn2 also regulated turnover of TarP- and TmeA-associated actin networks, with disrupted Dyn2 function resulting in aberrant turnover dynamics, thus establishing the interdependent functional relationship between Dyn2 and the effectors TarP and TmeA.

Identification and Preliminary Characterization of Novel Type III Secreted Effector Proteins in Chlamydia trachomatis

Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular pathogen that replicates in a host-derived vacuole termed the inclusion. Central to pathogenesis is a type III secretion system that translocates effector proteins into the host cell, which are predicted to play major roles in host cell invasion, nutrient acquisition, and immune evasion. However, until recently, the genetic intractability of C. trachomatis hindered identification and characterization of these important virulence factors. Here, we sought to expand the repertoire of identified effector proteins and confirm they are secreted during C. trachomatis infection. Utilizing bioinformatics, we identified 18 candidate substrates that had not been previously assessed for secretion, of which we show four to be secreted, using Yersinia pseudotuberculosis as a surrogate host. Using adenylate cyclase (CyaA), BlaM, and glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) secretion assays, we identified nine novel substrates that were secreted in at least one assay. Interestingly, only three of the substrates, shown to be translocated by C. trachomatis, were similarly secreted by Y. pseudotuberculosis. Using large-scale screens to determine subcellular localization and identify effectors that perturb crucial host cell processes, we identified one novel substrate, CT392, that is toxic when heterologously expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Toxicity required both the N- and C-terminal regions of the protein. Additionally, we show that these newly described substrates traffic to distinct host cell compartments, including vesicles and the cytoplasm. Collectively, our study expands the known repertoire of C. trachomatis secreted factors and highlights the importance of testing for secretion in the native host using multiple secretion assays when possible.

Chlamydia trachomatis TmeB antagonizes actin polymerization via direct interference with Arp2/3 activity

Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular pathogen that actively promotes invasion of epithelial cells. A virulence-associated type III secretion system contributes to chlamydial entry and at least four effectors have been described that are deployed during this time. Two of these invasion-related effectors, the translocated membrane-associated effectors A and B (TmeA and TmeB), are encoded in a bi-cistronic operon. TmeA directly activates host N-WASP to stimulate Arp2/3-dependent actin polymerization. According to current working models, TmeA-mediated N-WASP activation contributes to invasion. TmeB has not been functionally characterized. Unlike a tmeA null strain, loss of tmeB does not impact invasion efficiency of C. trachomatis. Using strains deficient for multiple genes, we provide evidence that TmeA is dispensable for invasion in the absence of TmeB. Our data indicate that overabundance of TmeB interferes with invasion and that this activity requires active Arp2/3 complex. We further show that TmeB is capable of interfering with Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization. In aggregate, these data point to opposing functions for TmeA and TmeB that manifest during the invasion process. These studies raise intriguing questions regarding the dynamic interplay between TmeA, TmeB, and branched actin polymerization during chlamydial entry.

Advances in genetic manipulation of Chlamydia trachomatis

Chlamydia trachomatis, one species of Chlamydia spp., has the greatest impact on human health and is the main cause of bacterial sexually transmitted diseases and preventable blindness among all Chamydia spp. species. The obligate intracellular parasitism and unique biphasic developmental cycle of C. trachomatis are the main barriers for the development of tools of genetic manipulation. The past decade has witnessed significant gains in genetic manipulation of C. trachomatis, including chemical mutagenesis, group II intron-based targeted gene knockout, fluorescence-reported allelic exchange mutagenesis (FRAEM), CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) and the recently developed transposon mutagenesis. In this review, we discuss the current status of genetic manipulations of C. trachomatis and highlights new challenges in the nascent field of Chlamydia genetics.

The Chlamydia trachomatis type III-secreted effector protein CteG induces centrosome amplification through interactions with centrin-2

The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center of the cell and is crucial for mitotic spindle assembly, chromosome segregation, and cell division. Centrosome duplication is tightly controlled, yet several pathogens, most notably oncogenic viruses, perturb this process leading to increased centrosome numbers. Infection by the obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) correlates with blocked cytokinesis, supernumerary centrosomes, and multipolar spindles; however, the mechanisms behind how C.t. induces these cellular abnormalities remain largely unknown. Here we show that the secreted effector protein, CteG, binds to centrin-2 (CETN2), a key structural component of centrosomes and regulator of centriole duplication. Our data indicate that both CteG and CETN2 are necessary for infection-induced centrosome amplification, in a manner that requires the C-terminus of CteG. Strikingly, CteG is important for in vivo infection and growth in primary cervical cells but is dispensable for growth in immortalized cells, highlighting the importance of this effector protein to chlamydial infection. These findings begin to provide mechanistic insight into how C.t. induces cellular abnormalities during infection, but also indicate that obligate intracellular bacteria may contribute to cellular transformation events. Centrosome amplification mediated by CteG-CETN2 interactions may explain why chlamydial infection leads to an increased risk of cervical or ovarian cancer.

A single chlamydial protein reshapes the plasma membrane and serves as recruiting platform for central endocytic effector proteins

Uptake of obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens into mammalian epithelial cells is critically dependent on modulation of the host's endocytic machinery. It is an open question how the invading pathogens generate a membrane-bound vesicle appropriate to their size. This requires extensive deformation of the host plasma membrane itself by pathogen-derived membrane-binding proteins, accompanied by substantial F-actin-based forces to further expand and finally pinch off the vesicle. Here we show that upon adhesion to the host cell, the human pathogenic bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae secretes the scaffolding effector protein CPn0677, which binds to the inner leaflet of the invaginating host's PM, induces inwardly directed, negative membrane curvature, and forms a recruiting platform for the membrane-deforming BAR-domain containing proteins Pacsin and SNX9. In addition, while bound to the membrane, CPn0677 recruits monomeric G-actin, and its C-terminal region binds and activates N-WASP, which initiates branching actin polymerization via the Arp2/3 complex. Together, these membrane-bound processes enable the developing endocytic vesicle to engulf the infectious elementary body, while the associated actin network generates the forces required to reshape and detach the nascent vesicle from the PM. Thus, Cpn0677 (now renamed SemD) acts as recruiting platform for central components of the endocytic machinery during uptake of chlamydia.

In Search of a Mechanistic Link between Chlamydia trachomatis-Induced Cellular Pathophysiology and Oncogenesis

Centrosome duplication and cell cycle progression are essential cellular processes that must be tightly controlled to ensure cellular integrity. Despite their complex regulatory mechanisms, microbial pathogens have evolved sophisticated strategies to co-opt these processes to promote infection. While misregulation of these processes can greatly benefit the pathogen, the consequences to the host cell can be devastating. During infection, the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis induces gross cellular abnormalities, including supernumerary centrosomes, multipolar spindles, and defects in cytokinesis. While these observations were made over 15 years ago, identification of the bacterial factors responsible has been elusive due to the genetic intractability of Chlamydia. Recent advances in techniques of genetic manipulation now allows for the direct linking of bacterial virulence factors to manipulation of centrosome duplication and cell cycle progression. In this review, we discuss the impact, both immediate and downstream, of C. trachomatis infection on the host cell cycle regulatory apparatus and centrosome replication. We highlight links between C. trachomatis infection and cervical and ovarian cancers and speculate whether perturbations of the cell cycle and centrosome are sufficient to initiate cellular transformation. We also explore the biological mechanisms employed by Inc proteins and other secreted effector proteins implicated in the perturbation of these host cell pathways. Future work is needed to better understand the nuances of each effector's mechanism and their collective impact on Chlamydia's ability to induce host cellular abnormalities.

Intracellular lifestyle of Chlamydia trachomatis and host-pathogen interactions

In recent years, substantial progress has been made in the understanding of the intracellular lifestyle of Chlamydia trachomatis and how the bacteria establish themselves in the human host. As an obligate intracellular pathogenic bacterium with a strongly reduced coding capacity, C. trachomatis depends on the provision of nutrients from the host cell. In this Review, we summarize the current understanding of how C. trachomatis establishes its intracellular replication niche, how its metabolism functions in the host cell, how it can defend itself against the cell autonomous and innate immune response and how it overcomes adverse situations through the transition to a persistent state. In particular, we focus on those processes for which a mechanistic understanding has been achieved.

Chlamydia repurposes the actin-binding protein EPS8 to disassemble epithelial tight junctions and promote infection

Invasive microbial pathogens often disrupt epithelial barriers, yet the mechanisms used to dismantle tight junctions are poorly understood. Here, we show that the obligate pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis uses the effector protein TepP to transiently disassemble tight junctions early during infection. TepP alters the tyrosine phosphorylation status of host proteins involved in cytoskeletal regulation, including the filamentous actin-binding protein EPS8. We determined that TepP and EPS8 are necessary and sufficient to remodel tight junctions and that the ensuing disruption of epithelial barrier function promotes secondary invasion events. The genetic deletion of EPS8 renders epithelial cells and endometrial organoids resistant to TepP-mediated tight junction remodeling. Finally, TepP and EPS8 promote infection in murine models of infections, with TepP mutants displaying defects in ascension to the upper genital tract. These findings reveal a non-canonical function of EPS8 in the disassembly of epithelial junctions and an important role for Chlamydia pathogenesis.

Cortactin: A universal host cytoskeletal target of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial pathogens

Pathogenic bacteria possess a great potential of causing infectious diseases and represent a serious threat to human and animal health. Understanding the molecular basis of infection development can provide new valuable strategies for disease prevention and better control. In host-pathogen interactions, actin-cytoskeletal dynamics play a crucial role in the successful adherence, invasion, and intracellular motility of many intruding microbial pathogens. Cortactin, a major cellular factor that promotes actin polymerization and other functions, appears as a central regulator of host-pathogen interactions and different human diseases including cancer development. Various important microbes have been reported to hijack cortactin signaling during infection. The primary regulation of cortactin appears to proceed via serine and/or tyrosine phosphorylation events by upstream kinases, acetylation, and interaction with various other host proteins, including the Arp2/3 complex, filamentous actin, the actin nucleation promoting factor N-WASP, focal adhesion kinase FAK, the large GTPase dynamin-2, the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav2, and the actin-stabilizing protein CD2AP. Given that many signaling factors can affect cortactin activities, several microbes target certain unique pathways, while also sharing some common features. Here we review our current knowledge of the hallmarks of cortactin as a major target for eminent Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial pathogens in humans.

Distinct roles of the Chlamydia trachomatis effectors TarP and TmeA in the regulation of formin and Arp2/3 during entry

The obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis manipulates the host actin cytoskeleton to assemble actin-rich structures that drive pathogen entry. The recent discovery of TmeA, which, like TarP, is an invasion-associated type III effector implicated in actin remodeling, raised questions regarding the nature of their functional interaction. Quantitative live-cell imaging of actin remodeling at invasion sites revealed differences in recruitment and turnover kinetics associated with the TarP and TmeA pathways, with the former accounting for most of the robust actin dynamics at invasion sites. TarP-mediated recruitment of actin nucleators, i.e. formins and the Arp2/3 complex, was crucial for rapid actin kinetics, generating a collaborative positive feedback loop that enhanced their respective actin-nucleating activities within invasion sites. In contrast, the formin Fmn1 was not recruited to invasion sites and did not collaborate with Arp2/3 within the context of TmeA-associated actin recruitment. Although the TarP-Fmn1-Arp2/3 signaling axis is responsible for the majority of actin dynamics, its inhibition had similar effects as the deletion of TmeA on invasion efficiency, consistent with the proposed model that TarP and TmeA act on different stages of the same invasion pathway.

A glycine-rich PE_PGRS protein governs mycobacterial actin-based motility

Many key insights into actin regulation have been derived through examining how microbial pathogens intercept the actin cytoskeleton during infection. Mycobacterium marinum, a close relative of the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, polymerizes host actin at the bacterial surface to drive intracellular movement and cell-to-cell spread during infection. However, the mycobacterial factor that commandeers actin polymerization has remained elusive. Here, we report the identification and characterization of the M. marinum actin-based motility factor designated mycobacterial intracellular rockets A (MirA), which is a member of the glycine-rich PE_PGRS protein family. MirA contains an amphipathic helix to anchor into the mycobacterial outer membrane and, surprisingly, also the surface of host lipid droplet organelles. MirA directly binds to and activates the host protein N-WASP to stimulate actin polymerization through the Arp2/3 complex, directing both bacterial and lipid droplet actin-based motility. MirA is dissimilar to known N-WASP activating ligands and may represent a new class of microbial and host actin regulator. Additionally, the MirA-N-WASP interaction represents a model to understand how the enigmatic PE_PGRS proteins contribute to mycobacterial pathogenesis.

WASP family proteins: Molecular mechanisms and implications in human disease

Proteins of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family play a central role in regulating actin cytoskeletal dynamics in a wide range of cellular processes. Genetic mutations or misregulation of these proteins are tightly associated with many diseases. The WASP-family proteins act by transmitting various upstream signals to their conserved WH2-Central-Acidic (WCA) peptide sequence at the C-terminus, which in turn binds to the Arp2/3 complex to stimulate the formation of branched actin networks at membranes. Despite this common feature, the regulatory mechanisms and cellular functions of distinct WASP-family proteins are very different. Here, we summarize and clarify our current understanding of WASP-family proteins and how disruption of their functions is related to human disease.

Interactions of Liberibacter Species with Their Psyllid Vectors: Molecular, Biological and Behavioural Mechanisms

Liberibacter is a group of plant pathogenic bacteria, transmitted by insect vectors, psyllids (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), and has emerged as one of the most devastating pathogens which have penetrated into many parts of the world over the last 20 years. The pathogens are known to cause plant diseases, such as Huanglongbing (citrus greening disease), Zebra chip disease, and carrot yellowing, etc., threatening some very important agricultural sectors, including citrus, potato and others. Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), the causative agent of citrus greening disease, is one of the most important pathogens of this group. This pathogen has infected most of the citrus trees in the US, Brazil and China, causing tremendous decline in citrus productivity, and, consequently, a severely negative impact on economic and personnel associated with citrus and related industries in these countries. Like other members in this group, CLas is transmitted by the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP, Diaphorina citri) in a persistent circulative manner. An additional important member of this group is Ca. L. solanacearum (CLso), which possesses nine haplotypes and infects a variety of crops, depending on the specific haplotype and the insect vector species. Ongoing pathogen control strategies, that are mainly based on use of chemical pesticides, lack the necessary credentials of being technically feasible, and environmentally safe. For this reason, strategies based on interference with Liberibacter vector transmission have been adopted as alternative strategies for the prevention of infection by these pathogens. A significant amount of research has been conducted during the last 10-15 years to understand the aspects of transmission of these bacterial species by their psyllid vectors. These research efforts span biological, ecological, behavioural and molecular aspects of Liberibacter–psyllid interactions, and will be reviewed in this manuscript. These attempts directed towards devising new means of disease control, endeavoured to explore alternative strategies, instead of relying on using chemicals for reducing the vector populations, which is the sole strategy currently employed and which has profound negative effects on human health, beneficial organisms and the environment.

The Chlamydia trachomatis Early Effector Tarp Outcompetes Fascin in Forming F-Actin Bundles In Vivo

The intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis secretes multiple early effectors into the host cell to promote invasion. A key early effector during host cell entry, Tarp (translocated actin-recruiting phosphoprotein) is comprised of multiple protein domains known to have roles in cell signaling, G-actin nucleation and F-actin bundle formation. In vitro, the actin bundles generated by Tarp are uncharacteristically flexible, however, in vivo, the biological significance of Tarp-mediated actin bundles remains unknown. We hypothesize that Tarp's ability to generate unique actin bundles, in part, facilitates chlamydial entry into epithelial cells. To study the in vivo interaction between Tarp and F-actin, we transgenically expressed Tarp in Drosophila melanogaster tissues. Tarp expressed in Drosophila is phosphorylated and forms F-actin-enriched aggregates in tissues. To gain insight into the significance of Tarp actin bundles in vivo, we utilized the well-characterized model system of mechanosensory bristle development in Drosophila melanogaster. Tarp expression in wild type flies produced curved bristles, indicating a perturbation in F-actin dynamics during bristle development. Two F-actin bundlers, Singed/Fascin and Forked/Espin, are important for normal bristle shape. Surprisingly, Tarp expression in the bristles displaced Singed/Fascin away from F-actin bundles. Tarp's competitive behavior against Fascin during F-actin bundling was confirmed in vitro. Loss of either singed or forked in flies leads to highly deformed bristles. Strikingly, Tarp partially rescued the loss of singed, reducing the severity of the bristle morphology defect. This work provides in vivo confirmation of Tarp's F-actin bundling activity and further uncovers a competitive behavior against the host bundler Singed/Fascin during bundle assembly. Also, we demonstrate the utility of Drosophila melanogaster as an in vivo cell biological platform to study bacterial effector function.

The growing repertoire of genetic tools for dissecting chlamydial pathogenesis

Multiple species of obligate intracellular bacteria in the genus Chlamydia are important veterinary and/or human pathogens. These pathogens all share similar biphasic developmental cycles and transition between intracellular vegetative reticulate bodies and infectious elementary forms, but vary substantially in their host preferences and pathogenic potential. A lack of tools for genetic engineering of these organisms has long been an impediment to the study of their biology and pathogenesis. However, the refinement of approaches developed in C. trachomatis over the last 10 years, and adaptation of some of these approaches to other Chlamydia spp. in just the last few years, has opened exciting new possibilities for studying this ubiquitous group of important pathogens.

Got mutants? How advances in chlamydial genetics have furthered the study of effector proteins

Chlamydia trachomatis is the leading cause of infectious blindness and a sexually transmitted infection. All chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that replicate within a membrane-bound vacuole termed the inclusion. From the confines of the inclusion, the bacteria must interact with many host organelles to acquire key nutrients necessary for replication, all while promoting host cell viability and subverting host defense mechanisms. To achieve these feats, C. trachomatis delivers an arsenal of virulence factors into the eukaryotic cell via a type 3 secretion system (T3SS) that facilitates invasion, manipulation of host vesicular trafficking, subversion of host defense mechanisms and promotes bacteria egress at the conclusion of the developmental cycle. A subset of these proteins intercalate into the inclusion and are thus referred to as inclusion membrane proteins. Whereas others, referred to as conventional T3SS effectors, are released into the host cell where they localize to various eukaryotic organelles or remain in the cytosol. Here, we discuss the functions of T3SS effector proteins with a focus on how advances in chlamydial genetics have facilitated the identification and molecular characterization of these important factors.

Chlamydia trachomatis TmeA Directly Activates N-WASP To Promote Actin Polymerization and Functions Synergistically with TarP during Invasion

Chlamydia trachomatis is a medically significant human pathogen and is an epithelial-tropic obligate intracellular parasite. Invasion of nonprofessional phagocytes represents a crucial step in the infection process and has likely promoted the evolution of a redundant mechanism and routes of entry. Like many other viral and invasive bacterial pathogens, manipulation of the host cell cytoskeleton represents a focal point in Chlamydia entry. The advent of genetic techniques in C. trachomatis, such as creation of complete gene deletions via fluorescence-reported allelic exchange mutagenesis (FRAEM), is providing important tools to unravel the contributions of bacterial factors in these complex pathways. The type III secretion chaperone Slc1 directs delivery of at least four effectors during the invasion process. Two of these, TarP and TmeA, have been associated with manipulation of actin networks and are essential for normal levels of invasion. The functions of TarP are well established, whereas TmeA is less well characterized. We leverage chlamydial genetics and proximity labeling here to provide evidence that TmeA directly targets host N-WASP to promote Arp2/3-dependent actin polymerization. Our work also shows that TmeA and TarP influence separate, yet synergistic pathways to accomplish chlamydial entry. These data further support an appreciation that a pathogen, confined by a reductionist genome, retains the ability to commit considerable resources to accomplish bottle-neck steps during the infection process.IMPORTANCE The increasing genetic tractability of Chlamydia trachomatis is accelerating the ability to characterize the unique infection biology of this obligate intracellular parasite. These efforts are leading to a greater understanding of the molecular events associated with key virulence requirements. Manipulation of the host actin cytoskeleton plays a pivotal role throughout Chlamydia infection, yet a thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms initiating and orchestrating actin rearrangements has lagged. Our work highlights the application of genetic manipulation to address open questions regarding chlamydial invasion, a process essential to survival. We provide definitive insight regarding the role of the type III secreted effector TmeA and how that activity relates to another prominent effector, TarP. In addition, our data implicate at least one source that contributes to the functional divergence of entry mechanisms among chlamydial species.