Effects of strength training and detraining considering maturity status in youth highly trained basketball players

The study analyzed whether maturation affects young basketball players' strength training and detraining adaptations. Thirty-five youth male basketballers (U-13 to U-15) performed eight weeks of strength training twice weekly, followed by eight weeks without strength training, maintaining their basketball practices. Changes in performance were assessed in three maturity groups based on years from/to age of peak height velocity (PHV): pre-PHV (-1.51 ±  0.62, n  =  9), mid-PHV (0.11 ±  0.45, n  =  17), and post-PHV (1.31 ±  0.42, n  =  9). They were tested on bilateral-vertical countermovement jump, unilateral vertical and horizontal jumping, unilateral triple horizontal jumping (3HJ), sprinting (25-m), and change of direction (COD) ability over single and multiple angles. All groups significantly (p  <  0.05; ES  =  0.42-1.10) improved unilateral horizontal jumping ability between pre-and post-test. Unilateral vertical jumping significantly improved in mid-PHV and post-PHV between pre- and post- (p  <  0.05; ES  =  0.46-0.61) and pre- to detraining (p  <  0.05; ES  =  0.51-1.01). Pre-PHV and mid-PHV significantly enhanced 3HJ between pre- and post- (p  <  0.05; ES  =  0.72-1.15) and de-training (p  <  0.05; ES  =  0.61-1.11). COD ability significantly improved in mid-PHV between pre- and post- and detraining (p  <  0.05; ES  =  0.47-0.80). Left horizontal jumping at post-test and detraining was significantly (p  <  0.05; ES  =  1.56 - 1.73) greater in post-PHV and mid-PHV than pre-PHV. The combined training had favorable outcomes for most unilateral jumps, particularly those with a horizontally oriented force vector, independent of maturity status. Moreover, the subsequent detraining period positively affected specific high-intensity actions, albeit variations were noted across different maturation stages. These findings can help practitioners to design effective strength training programmes during competitive basketball season for youth male basketballers.

Effects of unilateral and bilateral contrast training on the lower limb sports ability of college basketball players

Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare the impact of unilateral (U) and bilateral (B) contrast training on lower limb explosiveness, agility, and balance in college basketball athletes. Methods: Twenty male college basketball players were randomly assigned to either a unilateral group (U, n = 10) or a bilateral group (B, n = 10). Both groups underwent an 8week strength training program, with sessions held twice a week. The unilateral group performed six Bulgarian split squats and ten reverse lunge jump squats, while the bilateral group performed six barbell rear squats and ten double-leg vertical jumps. To comprehensively assess the training effects, the study utilized one-repetition maximum (1RM), countermovement jump (CMJ), 20m sprint, and single-leg hop tests to evaluate explosive power; the 505 and t-test to assess change-of-direction ability; and the Y-balance test (YBT) to evaluate dynamic balance. Paired sample t-tests were used to evaluate within-group changes, and a 2 (pre- and post-) × 2 (experimental and control groups) repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess between-group differences. Results: Within-group comparisons indicated that both unilateral and bilateral contrast training significantly improved all performance metrics. Between-group comparisons revealed that bilateral training was superior to unilateral training in improvements in 1RM and CMJ (p > 0.05) (growth rate of 1RM: B: 8.4%, U: 5.15%; growth rate of CMJ: B: 15.63%, U: 6.74%). Unilateral training showed greater improvements in the 20m sprint, dominant leg single-leg hop, YBT left, and YBT right (p > 0.05) (growth rate of 20m sprint: B: 5.43%, U: 10.41%; growth rate of advantage foot touch high: B: 4.56%, U: 9.35%; growth rate of YBT left: B: 3.77%, U: 8.53%; growth rate of YBT right: B: 4.72%, U: 13.8%). Unilateral training also significantly outperformed bilateral training in non-dominant leg single-leg hop, t-test, 505 left, and 505 right improvements (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Unilateral contrast training may offer advantages for enhancing change-of-direction ability and explosive power in the non-dominant leg, and it may also provide benefits for improving short-distance sprinting ability, explosive power in the dominant leg, and dynamic balance. In contrast, bilateral contrast training appears to be more effective for enhancing bilateral explosive power and may be more advantageous for increasing maximal strength.

Differences in Physical Demands and Player's Individual Performance Between Winning and Losing Quarters on U-18 Basketball Players During Competition

Background: This study examines how physical demands and individual performance influence quarter results in under-18 basketball players during a six-day basketball tournament. Methods: Twelve male players from an elite Spanish team were tracked using inertial microsensors to monitor external load variables (player load, steps, and dynamic stress load). Individual performance was assessed using the performance index rating (PIR). Results: The results showed significant differences in physical demands between quarters. Also, player load (F = 3.75, p = 0.012) and steps (F = 5.29, p = 0.001) were higher in the first quarter and decreased over time. Winning quarters had significantly higher physical demands compared to losing quarters (PL: F = 27.13, p < 0.001; steps: F = 16.70, p < 0.001; DSL: F = 9.50, p < 0.001). On the contrary, PIR did not show significant differences between winning and losing quarters (F = 2.15, p = 0.143), but tended to be higher in winning quarters. Conclusions: These results suggest that physical demands are stronger predictors of quarter results than individual performance scores, indicating that such parameters should be closely monitored by sport scientists and coaches since they can play a crucial role in team success.

External Physical Demands during Official Under-18 Basketball Games: Consideration of Overtime Periods

The purpose of this study was to identify the external demands during official under-18 basketball matches that included four quarters (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4) and/or overtime (OT) periods. Variables included: 1) distance covered and distance covered within four intensity zones (standing-walking S-W, jogging JOG, running RUN, and high-speed running HSR); 2) explosive efforts per minute (EEs); 3) PlayerLoad (PL); 4) the number of jumps per minute; 5) the number of accelerations above 2 m·s2 (ACCs); and 6) the number of decelerations above -2 m·s2 per minute (DECs). The values for total distance, JOG, RUN, HSR, PL, ACC, and DEC were significantly smaller during periods Q2, Q3, Q4, and OT compared to Q1. In addition, the number of EEs during Q1 was significantly greater than during Q3, Q4, and OT. When comparing OT periods to Q2, there were significantly smaller values for total distance, RUN, and PL. Similarly, when comparing OT periods to Q3, significantly smaller values were found for PL. Furthermore, when comparing OT periods to Q4, significantly smaller values were achieved for total distance and PL. These findings indicate that players experienced a decrease in external physical demands as the match progressed to an OT period. This decrease may be indicative of player fatigue and/or strategic changes that should be considered by practitioners in the preparation and management of players for overall team success in junior basketball competitions.

Intensity Zones and Intensity Thresholds Used to Quantify External Load in Competitive Basketball: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Despite widespread use of intensity zones to quantify external load variables in basketball research, the consistency in identifying zones and accompanying intensity thresholds using predominant monitoring approaches in training and games remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this work was to examine the external load intensity zones and thresholds adopted across basketball studies using video-based time-motion analysis (TMA), microsensors, and local positioning systems (LPS).

METHODS

PubMed, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched from inception until 31 January 2023 for studies using intensity zones to quantify external load during basketball training sessions or games. Studies were excluded if they examined players participating in recreational or wheelchair basketball, were reviews or meta-analyses, or utilized monitoring approaches other than video-based TMA, microsensors, or LPS.

RESULTS

Following screening, 86 studies were included. Video-based TMA studies consistently classified jogging, running, sprinting, and jumping as intensity zones, but demonstrated considerable variation in classifying low-intensity (standing and walking) and basketball-specific activities. Microsensor studies mostly utilized a single, and rather consistent, threshold to identify only high-intensity activities (> 3.5 m·s-2 for accelerations, decelerations, and changes-in-direction or > 40 cm for jumps), not separately quantifying lower intensity zones. Similarly, LPS studies predominantly quantified only high-intensity activities in a relatively consistent manner for speed (> 18.0 m·s-1) and acceleration/deceleration zones (> 2.0 m·s-2); however, the thresholds adopted for various intensity zones differed greatly to those used in TMA and microsensor research.

CONCLUSIONS

Notable inconsistencies were mostly evident for low-intensity activities, basketball-specific activities, and between the different monitoring approaches. Accordingly, we recommend further research to inform the development of consensus guidelines outlining suitable approaches when setting external load intensity zones and accompanying thresholds in research and practice.

Testing in Intermittent Sports-Importance for Training and Performance Optimization in Adult Athletes

ABSTRACT

Performance in intermittent sports relies on the interplay between multiple physiological systems determining the capacity to perform short explosive efforts as well as repeated intense actions with limited recovery over the course of an entire game. Testing should reflect these demands to allow for sport- and position-specific capacity analyses that eventually may translate into optimized training and improved performance. This may include individual load management and optimized training prescription, intensity targeting for specific positions or individual athletes, as well as benchmarking for monitoring of training progression and enhanced engagement of athletes. This review provides an overview of available tests in different exercise domains identified as relevant (from assessment of single explosive actions to intermittent endurance capacity), forming the basis for recommendations on how to compose a comprehensive yet feasible test battery that may be integrated into the seasonal competition and training plan. The test procedures should cover the performance spectrum of relevance for the individual athlete-also in team sports to account for positional differences. We emphasize the benefits of sport-specific tests, highlight parameters of importance for test standardization, and discuss how the applied test battery may be supplemented with secondary tests directed toward specific energy systems to allow for more in-depth analyses when required (e.g., in terms of an underperforming athlete). The synergy between testing and tracking of match performance (utilizing time-motion or global positioning systems) is highlighted, and although tracking cannot substitute for testing, combining the tools may provide a comprehensive overview of the physiological demands and performance during competition contextualized to the athletes' maximal exercise capacity.

Do Elite Basketball Players Maintain Peak External Demands throughout the Entire Game?

Consideration of workload intensity and peak demands across different periods of basketball games contributes to understanding the external physical requirements of elite basketball players. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the average intensity and peak demands encountered by players throughout game quarters. PlayerLoad per minute and PlayerLoad at three different time samples (30 s, 1 min, and 3 min) were used as workload metrics. A total of 14 professional elite male basketball players were monitored during 30 official games to investigate this. A linear mixed model and Cohen's d were employed to identify significant differences and quantify the effect sizes among game quarters. The results showed a significant, moderate effect in PlayerLoad per minute between Q1 vs. Q4, and a small effect between Q2 and Q3 vs. Q4. Furthermore, a small to moderate decline was observed in external peak values for PlayerLoad across game quarters. Specifically,, a significant decrease was found for the 3 min time window between Q1 and other quarters. The findings from the present study suggest that professional basketball players tend to experience fatigue or reduced physical output as the game progresses.

Quarterly fluctuations in external and internal loads among professional basketball players

Purpose

This study aims to explore the variations in external and internal loads on a quarter-by-quarter basis among professional Chinese basketball players. It emphasizes the crucial impact of these variations on optimizing athletic performance and match strategies.

Method

An observational longitudinal study design was employed, involving sixteen male players from the National Basketball League during the 2024 season in China. Data collection was facilitated through the use of Catapult S7 devices for measuring external loads and session ratings of perceived exertion (sRPE) for assessing internal loads. Linear mixed-effects models were utilized for the statistical analysis to identify differences in workload intensities across game quarters based on player positions. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to examine the relationship between external and internal load throughout the game.

Results

The analysis uncovered significant positional differences in workload intensities across game quarters. Guards were found to have a higher PlayerLoad™ (PL) per minute in the first quarter, while centers demonstrated an increase in high-intensity accelerations and jumps in the fourth quarter. Furthermore, a significant moderate correlation between sRPE and PL was observed across all game quarters, indicating a link between physical exertion and athletes' perceptions of effort.

Conclusion

The study offers new insights into the dynamic physical demands faced by basketball players and the importance of using both objective and subjective measures for a comprehensive assessment of athlete performance and wellbeing. The findings underscore the interconnectedness of physical exertion and athlete perception, providing a foundation for future research and practical applications in the field of basketball science.

Video Analysis of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries in Male Professional Basketball Players: Injury Mechanisms, Situational Patterns, and Biomechanics

Background

Improving our understanding of the situations and biomechanics that result in an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in basketball players may support the design of more effective programs to mitigate the risk of injury.

Purpose

To (1) describe the mechanisms, situational patterns, and gross biomechanics (kinematics) of ACL injuries in professional basketball matches using video analysis and (2) document the distribution of ACL injuries according to player position, phase of the match, and location on the court.

Study Design

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

Methods

A total of 38 ACL injuries in professional male European basketball leagues from the 2013-2014 to 2019-2020 seasons were identified. There were 36 (95%) injury videos analyzed for injury mechanisms and situational patterns, while biomechanical analysis was possible in 32 cases. Overall, 3 independent reviewers evaluated each video. Data according to player position (n = 38), phase of the match (n = 38), and location on the court (n = 36) were evaluated.

Results

More injuries occurred while attacking (n = 25 [69%]) than defending (n = 11 [31%]). There was 1 (3%) direct contact injury, 21 (58%) indirect contact injuries, and 14 (39%) noncontact injuries. Most injuries (83%) occurred during 3 main situations: offensive cut (n = 17 [47%]), landing from a jump (n = 8 [22%]), and defensive cut (n = 5 [14%]). Injuries generally involved knee flexion (with minimal hip/trunk flexion and reduced plantarflexion) in the sagittal plane and knee valgus loading in most cases (75%). A similar number of injuries occurred during the first (53%) and second (47%) halves of the match, with a higher prevalence in the second (37%) and fourth (34%) quarters. Half of the injuries occurred during the first 10 minutes of effective playing time. More injuries occurred in guards (58%), and 73% of all injuries occurred in the scoring zone.

Conclusion

Indirect contact was the main injury mechanism found in male professional basketball players. The offensive cut was the most common situational pattern. Biomechanical analysis confirmed a multiplanar mechanism, with knee loading in the sagittal plane accompanied by dynamic valgus. More injuries occurred in the first 10 minutes of a player's effective playing time, within the scoring zone, and among guards.

Athlete External Load Measures Across a Competitive Season in High School Basketball

ABSTRACT

Askow, AT, Jennings, W, Jagim, AR, Fields, JB, Beaudoin, RG, Sanchez, GM, Weeks, JE, Oliver, JM, and Jones, MT. Athlete external load measures across a competitive season in high school basketball. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2206-2212, 2023-The purpose of this retrospective analysis was to quantify in-season external load and to determine if relationships existed between load metrics and basketball performance. Eleven male high school varsity basketball athletes (n = 11; mass 80.5 ± 9.6 kg, height 190.2 ± 9.4 cm, age 17.6 ± 0.7 years) were monitored across a season. PlayerLoad (PL), PL per minute (PL·min -1 ), total jumps, and explosive movements (EMs) were quantified using a commercially available local positioning unit. Basketball-specific performance metrics, including points scored, points allowed, point differentials, and shooting percentages for each quarter and game, were compiled. Data were analyzed using repeated-measure analysis of variance to evaluate differences in load by starting status, session type, game outcome, and game type. Pearson's correlation coefficients were used to assess relationships between load metrics and basketball performance. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. The mean values across 23 games for PL, PL·min -1 , total jumps, and EMs were 457 ± 104 AU, 10.9 ± 1.6 AU, 42.6 ± 9.6, and 46.7 ± 7.2, respectively. Relationships were observed ( p < 0.05) between PL and points scored ( r = 0.38) and free throw percentage ( r = 0.21). Further relationships were observed between PL·min -1 and free throw shooting percentage ( r = -0.27), and between points scored and total jumps ( r = 0.28), and EMs ( r = 0.26). Notable differences in game demands were observed for playing status. Meaningful differences in measures of external load were observed between each quarter of play, with the highest measures evident in quarters 1 and 3. Guards and forwards experienced minimal differences in external load during gameplay, and game outcome did not result in differences. Higher point totals corresponded with higher PL, total jumps, and EM.

Impact of a 6-Day Official Tournament on Physical Demands, Perceptual-Physiological Responses, Well-Being, and Game Performance of Under-18 Basketball Players

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the effect of a 6-day basketball tournament on the physical demands, perceptual-physiological responses, well-being, and game statistics of elite under-18 (years of age) players.

METHODS

Physical demands (player load [PL], steps, impacts, and jumps, all normalized by playing time), perceptual-physiological responses (heart rate and rating of perceived exertion), well-being (Hooper index), and game statistics of 12 basketball players were monitored during 6 consecutive games. Linear mixed models and Cohen d effect sizes were used to assess differences among games.

RESULTS

Significant changes were found for PL per minute, steps per minute, impacts per minute, peak heart rate, and Hooper index over the tournament. Pairwise comparisons showed that PL per minute was higher in game #1 than in games #4 (P = .011, large), #5 (P < .001, very large), and #6 (P < .001, very large). PL per minute recorded during game #5 was also lower than in games #2 (P = .041, large) and #3 (P = .035, large). The number of steps per minute was higher in game #1 than in all other games (all P < .05, large to very large). Impacts per minute were significantly higher in game #3 than in games #1 (P = .035, large) and #2 (P = .004, large). The only physiological variable that varied significantly was peak heart rate (higher in game #3 than in game #6; P = .025, large). The Hooper index gradually increased throughout the tournament, indicating poorer player well-being as the tournament advanced. Game statistics did not significantly change among games.

CONCLUSIONS

The average intensities of each game and the players' well-being gradually decreased throughout the tournament. Conversely, physiological responses were mostly unaffected, and game statistics were unaffected.

Evaluating field-goal shooting effectiveness in wheelchair basketball players across a competitive season: a preliminary study

Background

Information about non-elite wheelchair basketball (WB) players across national competitive seasons are still missing. This study aimed at identifying which situational-related variables were associated with shooting effectiveness in non-elite WB players.

Methods

All the matches played by one WB team across one national competitive season were video-recorded and analysed; 333 shooting attempts from high-point players and several situational-related variables were considered.

Results

Pearson's Chi-square test showed that increased shooting effectiveness under the following conditions: playing on home ground, during won matches, while taking shots with the wheelchair in motion, and when no opposing player raised their arm in defence. Results of the multivariable logistic regression analysis showed a statistically significant influence of match location (p-value = 0.001), shot-clock remaining (p-value = 0.015) and modality of press (p-value < 0.001). The highest attack effectiveness was achieved when teams played at home (odds ratio [OR] = 2.49), while the shooting effectiveness decreased when the shot occurred during the last seconds of the action (OR = 0.36), or the opponents defended with the arm raised (OR = 0.19). These results suggest that coaches should include exercises aimed at shooting under conditions of increased pressure in their programmes in order to create specific situations during the training sessions to prepare their high-point athletes for shots under specific match constraints.

Neuromuscular and balance adaptations following basketball-specific training programs based on combined drop jump and multidirectional repeated sprint versus multidirectional plyometric training

Multidirectional jumping and repeated sprint ability are crucial performance factors in basketball. The main aim of this investigation was to examine the neuromuscular performance and body balance adaptations following basketball-specific combined training programs based on drop jump and multidirectional repeated sprint versus multidirectional plyometric training. Forty-two professional basketball male players participated in the current investigation and were randomly assigned to three groups: a combined group (COMB; n = 14), a multidirectional jump group (MJG; n = 14) and an active control group (CON; n = 14). The COMB and the MJG groups completed the 8-week training programs with two weekly sessions while the CON continued their usual training. The static and dynamic balance tests, the repeated sprint ability test (IRSA5COD), the T-change of direction (CoD) test, the vertical jump tests, the five time-jump test (FJT) were performed by participants before and after the intervention period. The results showed a significant main effect of time with remarkable improvements at the end of the intervention (P < 0.001, effect size small/moderate) except the physiological parameters for IRSA5COD. Only, significant group × time interactions for body balance, T-CoD test, IRSA5COD (total time and best time), and jump tests were found (P < 0.001, effect size from trivial to moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc tests revealed significantly greater improvement in favor of COMB compared to MJG for body balance, CoD and IRSA5COD (P < 0.005, effect size small/moderate). Otherwise, no significant differences between COMB and MJG concerning jump performances were found. Combined drop jump and multidirectional repeated sprint training program lead to significantly better neuromuscular performance, body balance and CoD in professional basketball players when compared with an usual training.

Performance factors that negatively influence shooting efficiency in women's basketball

The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of selected factors (possession duration, game quarter, defensive pressure, shooting distance from the basket, and heart rate level) on shooting efficiency on Under-19 (U19) and senior level of women's basketball competition (second division). The analysis procedures included five U19 and six senior-level games, containing 224 and 252 shooting attempts, respectively. Binary logistic regression identified the opponent's defensive pressure and shooting distance from the basket as significant predictors of shooting efficiency in both categories. When defensive pressure was high, the chance for the missed shot was 3.5 (95% CI; 1.43-8.52) and 3.19 (95% CI; 1.4-7.26) times more likely than it was under the minimum defensive pressure for U19 and senior category, respectively. Shooting efficiency significantly decreased when the horizontal distance from the basket increased. In U19, a chance for a missed shot was 4.63 (95% CI; 2-10.712) and 5.15 (95% CI; 1.91-13.86) times higher for medium and long-distance (respectively), compared to short-range shooting. In the senior category, the chance for the missed shot was 3.9 (95% CI; 1.83-8.31) and 3.27 (95% CI; 1.43-7.52) times higher for medium and long-distance (respectively) when compared to a short distance. The possession duration, game quarter, and heart rate level were identified as insignificant predictors. Therefore, the aforementioned findings suggest that basketball players and coaches may benefit from designing training sessions where the defender puts pressure on the shooting player as in a real game situation and balanced the frequency of shooting from different distances from the basket.

Impact of combined versus single-mode training programs based on drop jump and specific multidirectional repeated sprint on bio-motor ability adaptations: a parallel study design in professional basketball players

Background

Jumping and specific multidirectional repeated sprint ability are important in basketball. The objective of this study was to assess the contributions of 8-week combined versus single-mode training programs based on drop jump (DJ) and specific multidirectional repeated sprint (MRSA) on repeated sprint ability performances, body balance and lower limbs power in male professional basketball players.

Methods

This study followed a randomized parallel study design. Fifty-two professional male basketball players from the Tunisian first division participated in this study. The players were randomly assigned to 4 groups: DJ group (JG; n = 13), MRSA group (RSG; n = 13), combined group (COMB; n = 13) and an active control group (CON; n = 13). The JG, RSG and COMB groups completed the 8-week training programs with 2 sessions per week while the CON continues their regular basketball training. Training volume was similar between groups all over the experimental period. Before and after the intervention, the four groups were evaluated for the stork test, Y-balance test, the repeated sprint ability test (IRSA_5COD), the squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests, the single leg drop jump test, the five time-jump test and T—change of direction (CoD) test.

Results

All measures displayed significant main effect, (medium/small) magnitude (effect size) improvements for time (post-test > pre-test) except the physiological parameters for IRSA_5COD. Significant time × group interactions were revealed for body balance, T test, IRSA_5COD (total time and best time) and jump tests (vertical/horizontal). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc tests revealed significant greater improvement in favor of RSG and COMB compared to JG for body balance, CoD and IRSA_5COD. Moreover, greater improvement in CMJ, SJ and single leg DJ in favor of JG compared to the RSG. In addition, a greater CoD improvement was observed in favor of COMB when compared to the RSG.

Conclusion

Combined and single-mode training programs based on DJ and MRSA contributed to a significantly better performance in specific basketball physical fitness parameters with results favoring combined interventions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-022-00551-w.

Relationship Between Game Load and Player's Performance in Professional Basketball

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationships between external and internal loads, and their ratio (efficiency index), with game performance between backcourt and frontcourt professional basketball players.

METHODS

Game loads of 14 basketball players were monitored during 6 games. External load variables measured were total distance (TD); distance >18 km·h-1, commonly known as high-speed running (HSR); and number of accelerations (ACC) and decelerations (DEC) >3 m·s-2, whereas the internal load variable measured was average heart rate (HRmean). The ratio between external and internal load variables was calculated and defined through 4 efficiency indexes (TD:HRmean, HSR:HRmean, ACC:HRmean, and DEC:HRmean). Furthermore, basketball performance was quantified using game-related statistics.

RESULTS

TD presented a small association with basketball performance, whereas the other external load variables and the 4 efficiency indexes calculated showed trivial relationships with game-related statistics. Furthermore, HRmean showed the greatest (small) associations with individual performance (P = .01-.02; r = .19 to .22). Regarding specific positions, the only 2 variables that presented significant differences were DEC (P = .01; d = 0.86) and DEC:HRmean (P = .01; d = 0.81), which showed higher values in backcourt players compared with frontcourt players.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that the best performances of basketball players during official competition are not associated with higher game loads. This illustrates the necessity to assess basketball performance from a holistic approach and consider more than just external and internal variables to better understand the players' performance during basketball competition.

Physical Persistency across Game Quarters and during Consecutive Games in Elite Junior Basketball Players

Given the intermittent nature of basketball and the different demands that occur during playing time that are specific to every level of competition, the ratio of accelerations/decelerations and the intensity level across quarters were evaluated in female elite junior basketball players (n = 48; age: 16.8 ± 0.7 years; height: 1.76 ± 0.07 cm; body mass: 67.2 ± 6.2 kg). The following variables were analyzed to determine physical persistency across game quarters:(a) total distance covered (m), (b) high-intensity running (HIR) (14–21 km·h⁻¹) distance covered (m), (c) sprint (21–30 km·h⁻¹) distance covered (m), (d) total accelerations (n), (e) total decelerations (n), (f) relative accelerations (n·min⁻¹), (g) relative decelerations (n·min⁻¹), (h) ratio of acceleration/deceleration (A/D), (i) total jumps (j) relative jumps (n·min⁻¹) (k) player load (AU). using the WIMU PRO^® system. Higher but shorter acceleration intensity occurred during the last quarters due to the tight results of the matches. The results suggest that high-intensity efforts such as sprints and HIR seem to increase the A/D ratio (guard and forward positions). Therefore, specific conditioning, as well as eccentric strength training, could be included by practitioners in training programs to improve the performance of these positions during competition, especially as a prior preparation to a game-congested event. Centers seem to have a more variable performance through quarters than do other positions, perhaps highlighting the need for specific conditioning strategies.

Fluctuations in External Peak Demands Across Quarters During Basketball Games

The purpose of this study was to compare external peak demands (PDs) across quarters (Q) in basketball. Thirteen elite, junior, male basketball players were monitored using electronic performance tracking systems. There were studied intervals for different time windows to determine the external PD for distance (m); player load; distance covered in four different zones; accelerations; and decelerations. A mixed linear model was run to identify differences among quarters, and the auto-correlation function was carried out to determine fluctuations across the whole game. The results showed significant differences between Q1 vs. Q2 for distance, player load, and standing–walking distance; between Q1 vs. Q3 for distance, player load, and HSR; between Q1 vs. Q4 for distance, player load, standing–walking, and HSR; and between Q3 vs. Q4 for distance and player load. These findings suggest that external PD for running-based demands (distance, player load, and high-speed running) decrease across basketball games with the most notable declines occurring between the first and fourth quarters. Nevertheless, it is important to note that non-significant differences were found between quarters for several external PD variables (jogging, running, acceleration, and deceleration) across different time windows. Findings from the present study reinforce the importance of considering specific PD variables for different functions due to the specific insight each provides.

Ergo-Nutritional Intervention in Basketball: A Systematic Review

Using nutritional supplements is a widespread strategy among basketball players to ensure the appropriate provision of energy and nutrients to avoid certain complaints. Particularly in basketball, there is no consensus on the type, quantity or form of use in which these supplements should be administered. Therefore, the main aim of this systematic review is to highlight the ergo-nutritional aids that may be effective in basketball. A structured search was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA®) guidelines in the Medline/PubMed and Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Scopus databases until 31 December 2021; no year restriction was applied to the search strategy. There were no filters applied to the basketball players' level, gender, race, or age to increase the power of the analysis. The results of this systematic review have shown that the effective dose of caffeine to enhance anaerobic performance and the feeling of vigorousness and energy ranges from 3 to 6 mg·kg-1, showing more positive effects when is supplemented 60-75 min before exercise in the morning and in test-based task. On the other hand, vitamin E (ranging from 200 to 268 mg), vitamin D (10,000 IU) and EPA (2 g) may have a potential role in recovery and wellness. The primary limitation of this study is the scarcity of studies related to nutritional supplementation in basketball players. However, a major strength is that this is the first systematic review describing what ergo-nutritional aids may be specifically helpful for basketball. Despite the need for future studies, certain nutritional supplements may have promising advantages for basketball (long-term supplementation of nitrates for recovery), whereas others (β-alanine, sodium bicarbonate, and acute nitrate supplementation) might theoretically be regarded as not interesting for basketball, or even not recommended by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as bovine colostrum.

External Load and Muscle Activation Monitoring of NCAA Division I Basketball Team Using Smart Compression Shorts

There is scarce research into the use of Strive Sense3 smart compression shorts to measure external load with accelerometry and muscle load (i.e., muscle activations) with surface electromyography in basketball. Sixteen external load and muscle load variables were measured from 15 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I men's basketball players with 1137 session records. The data were analyzed for player positions of Centers (n = 4), Forwards (n = 4), and Guards (n = 7). Nonparametric bootstrapping was used to find significant differences between training and game sessions. Significant differences were found in all variables except Number of Jumps and all muscle load variables for Guards, and all variables except Muscle Load for Forwards. For Centers, the Average Speed, Average Max Speed, and Total Hamstring, Glute, Left, and Right Muscle variables were significantly different (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis was conducted on the external load variables. Most of the variance was explained within two principal components (70.4% in the worst case). Variable loadings of principal components for each position were similar during training but differed during games, especially for the Forward position. Measuring muscle activation provides additional information in which the demands of each playing position can be differentiated during training and competition.

Dribble Deficit Enables Measurement of Dribbling Speed Independent of Sprinting Speed in Collegiate, Male, Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Ramirez-Campillo, R, Gentil, P, Moran, J, Dalbo, VJ, and Scanlan, AT. Dribble Deficit enables measurement of dribbling speed independent of sprinting speed in collegiate, male, basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 35(7): 2040-2045, 2021-The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between sprinting and dribbling speed in basketball during linear and change-of-direction (COD) sprints using total dribbling time and Dribble Deficit. Collegiate, male, basketball players (n = 10; 21.0 ± 1.6 years) performed linear and COD sprints with and without dribbling a ball. Linear dribbling sprints were measured for the dominant and nondominant hands, whereas COD dribbling sprints involved bilateral use of hands. Dribble Deficit was determined as the difference between total time (second) during each dribbling trial and the equivalent nondribbling trial for linear and COD sprints. Simple linear regression analyses were performed during linear and COD sprints to determine the relationship (R) and shared variance (R2) between (a) sprinting times and total dribbling times and (b) sprinting times and Dribble Deficit. Large to very large, significant relationships were evident between linear sprinting and dribbling time for dominant (R = 0.86; R2 = 0.74, p = 0.001) and nondominant hands (R = 0.80; R2 = 0.65, p = 0.005). Trivial relationships were apparent between linear sprinting time and Dribble Deficit with dominant (R = 0.10; R2 = 0.01, p = 0.778) and nondominant hands (R = 0.03; R2 = 0.00, p = 0.940). A very large relationship was evident between COD sprinting and dribbling time (R = 0.91; R2 = 0.82, p < 0.001), whereas a trivial relationship was observed between COD sprinting time and COD Dribble Deficit (R = -0.23; R2 = 0.05, p = 0.530). Dribble Deficit eliminates the strong influence of sprinting speed on outcome measures typically seen when using tests predicated on total dribbling time. Consequently, Dribble Deficit may be of added use in basketball test batteries to measure dribbling speed across linear and multidirectional movement paths.

Specific Absolute Velocity Thresholds during Male Basketball Games Using Local Positional System; Differences between Age Categories

The aim of this study was (I) to establish absolute specific velocity thresholds during basketball games using local positional system (LPS) and (II) to compare the speed profiles between various levels of competitions. The variables recorded were total distance (TD); meters per minute (m·min); real time (min); maximum speed (Km h−1), distance (m), percentage distance, and percentage duration invested in four speed zones (standing–walking; jogging; running; and high-speed running). Mean and standard deviation (±SD) were calculated, and a separate one-way analysis of variance was undertaken to identify differences between competitions. TD (3188.84 ± 808.37 m) is covered by standing–walking (43.51%), jogging (36.58%), running (14.68%), and sprinting (5.23%) activities. Overall, 75.22% of the time is invested standing–walking, jogging (18.43%), running (4.77%), and sprinting (1.89%). M·min (large effect size), % duration zone 2 (moderate effect size); distance zone 4 (large effect size), and % distance zone 4 (very large effect size) are significantly higher during junior than senior. However, % distance zone 1 (large effect size) and % duration zone 1 (large effect size) were largely higher during senior competition. The findings of this study reveal that most of the distance and play time is spent during walking and standing activities. In addition, the proportion of time spent at elevated intensities is higher during junior than in senior competition.

Change of Direction Speed Tests in Basketball Players: A Brief Review of Test Varieties and Recent Trends

Change of direction speed (CODS) is essential for basketball performance, extensively assessed by various tests. This review aimed to summarize the CODS test varieties for basketball players on publications until 2019 and identify recent trends regarding what types of tests have gained attention in the 2010s. Electronic literature searches were conducted using three databases with relevant keywords. 104 studies were found eligible, conducting CODS tests 159 times in total with 48 test varieties. To facilitate distinctions between the tests, each test was categorized into one of three types based on the distinctive movement characteristics and changing angles as follows: Defensive (involving lateral shuffling), 180°-turn (exerting only 180°-turns), and Cutting (performing diagonal- or side-cut). We then counted the number of publications and adopted times reported per year for each test, and calculated the adoption rate for each categorized test type. The first CODS test performed in basketball players was the T-Test, reported in 1991, and this was the most commonly adopted test (44/159 times). The 2010s saw abrupt increases in the number of publications (1990s-2000s-2010s: 5-9-90) and test varieties (4-7-44). The adoption rates in the 2010s were similar among the three types (i.e., Defensive/180°-turn/Cutting: 37%/30%/33%), with the Cutting type gradually increasing over the last three decades (1990s-2000s-2010s: 0%-9%-33%). These results suggest that while CODS performances in basketball players are increasingly studied with various tests, recent studies give equal weight to all of the three categorized test types, with increasing adoption of the Cutting type, to assess specific CODS performances.

Measuring Decrement in Change-of-Direction Speed Across Repeated Sprints in Basketball: Novel vs. Traditional Approaches

ABSTRACT

Scanlan, AT, Madueno, MC, Guy, JH, Giamarelos, K, Spiteri, T, and Dalbo, VJ. Measuring decrement in change-of-direction speed across repeated sprints in basketball: Novel vs. traditional approaches. J Strength Cond Res 35(3): 841-845, 2021-Approaches to quantify decrement in change-of-direction speed during repeated sprints in basketball players have traditionally used total performance time, which is strongly influenced by linear speed. The purpose of this study was to compare performance decrement across change-of-direction sprints using total performance time and a novel approach that better isolates change-of-direction speed, termed change-of-direction deficit (CODD). Semiprofessional basketball players (N = 8; 19.9 ± 1.5 years; 183.0 ± 9.6 cm; 77.7 ± 16.9 kg) completed 12 × 20-m change-of-direction sprints (Agility 5-0-5 trials) with 20-second recoveries between each sprint. Agility 5-0-5 performance time was taken as the duration to cover 5 m immediately before and after (10 m in total) a 180° directional change. Change-of-direction deficit was calculated as the difference between mean 10- and 20-m split time determined during reference 20-m linear sprints in a separate session and Agility 5-0-5 time in each sprint. Performance decrement was calculated for each approach as: ([total time/ideal time] × 100) - 100. Comparisons between approaches were made using a paired-sample t-test, effect size analyses, and magnitude-based inferences. A significantly greater (P < 0.001; effect size = 2.16, very large; almost certainly higher) performance decrement was apparent using CODD (5.99 ± 1.88%) than Agility 5-0-5 performance time (2.84 ± 0.84%). The present findings indicate that change-of-direction speed measured with CODD shows promise in providing different insight and deteriorates more than total performance time during repeated sprints in basketball players. Change-of-direction deficit has potential to better isolate decrements in change-of-direction speed across repeated sprints compared with total performance time.

Running Demands and Activity Profile of the New Four-Quarter Match Format in Men's Field Hockey

ABSTRACT

Ihsan, M, Yeo, V, Tan, F, Joseph, R, Lee, M, and Aziz, AR. Running demands and activity profile of the new four-quarter match format in men's field hockey. J Strength Cond Res 35(2): 512-518, 2021-This study determined the running demands of men's field hockey with regards to the revised four-quarter match format. Twenty-eight male field hockey players were equipped with global positioning system units while competing in 14 competitive international games over a 1-year period. All matches allowed for unlimited substitutions, and consisted of four 15-minute quarters (i.e., Q1-Q4). A progressive decline in total distance (TD) was observed in Q2 (2,072 ± 141 m) to Q4 (2,055 ± 212 m) compared with Q1 (2,171 ± 195 m, p < 0.05). However, the decline in TD was due to decreases in low-intensity activity (<15 km·h-1, p < 0.05), as high-intensity running (HIR; >15 km·h-1) distances were similar throughout Q1-Q4 (p = 0.263). Positional data demonstrated a similar profile, where significant decreases in TD, but not in HIR, was observed across all playing positions at some point over the 4 quarters (p < 0.05). DEF accumulated the lowest amount of TD (7,631 ± 753 m), HIR (2,257 ± 498 m), and high-intensity decelerations (60 ± 9, >-2m·s-2) compared with MID and FWD (p < 0.05). By contrast, FWD performed the highest amount of HIR (3,090 ± 565 m) and high-intensity accelerations (110 ± 9, >2 m·s-2) compared with MID and DEF (p < 0.05). In conclusion, our results showed that although there was a progressive decline in TD over the 4 quarters of match play, high-intensity running performance (i.e., HIR and high-intensity acceleration) was maintained throughout the match regardless of playing position.

Determinants of Dribbling and Passing Skills in Competitive Games of Women's Basketball

This work aimed to identify the influence of selected endogenous (internal load) and exogenous (possession duration, game quarter, and defensive pressure) factors in natural game conditions on the efficiency of dribbling and passing skills. Dribbling and passing skills were assessed during four games of U19 female basketball players and five games of senior (2nd division) female basketball players. In total, 551 dribbling and 914 passing executions were evaluated. Binary logistic regression identified defensive pressure of the opponent as a predictor of dribbling and passing skills effectivity. When the defensive pressure of the opponent was medium, the chances for the ineffective pass were 1.997 times more likely (95% CI; 1.179-3.383), as it is at the minimum defensive pressure. When the defensive pressure of the opponent was high, the chances for ineffective dribbling were 7.45 times more likely (95% CI; 3.672-15.113) and for ineffective pass were 8.419 times more likely (95% CI; 4.6-15.409), as it is at minimum defensive pressure. The game quarter and the internal load were not identified as the predictors influencing the dribbling and passing effectivity. Possession duration was also an insignificant predictor of dribbling and passing skills effectivity. However, the passing skill effectivity decreases when the shot clock is winding down. These findings confirm the importance of transferring game situations into the training process. Coaches should take into account these factors when they want to stimulate determinants of player performance in a balanced and systematic way.

[The role of nutrition in the recovery of a basketball player]

Introduction

Introduction: very few works offer a practical solution to understand the nutritional requirements of current basketball. This work offers a theoretical-practical proposal. Objectives: to analyze the fatigue produced during a basketball game and offer a practical solution to accelerate recovery through nutrition. Methods: a search of the PubMed bibliographic database for reviews from the last 15 years and original articles from the last 5 years on basketball. Results: type of nutrient and food supplements are essential for a quicker recovery, in addition to their timing and dose. Conclusions: nutrition before, during and after a game or a high-intensity training session plays a fundamental role in the recovery of the basketball player.

Measuring Physical Demands in Basketball: An Explorative Systematic Review of Practices

BACKGROUND

Measuring the physical work and resultant acute psychobiological responses of basketball can help to better understand and inform physical preparation models and improve overall athlete health and performance. Recent advancements in training load monitoring solutions have coincided with increases in the literature describing the physical demands of basketball, but there are currently no reviews that summarize all the available basketball research. Additionally, a thorough appraisal of the load monitoring methodologies and measures used in basketball is lacking in the current literature. This type of critical analysis would allow for consistent comparison between studies to better understand physical demands across the sport.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this systematic review was to assess and critically evaluate the methods and technologies used for monitoring physical demands in competitive basketball athletes. We used the term 'training load' to encompass the physical demands of both training and game activities, with the latter assumed to provide a training stimulus as well. This review aimed to critique methodological inconsistencies, establish operational definitions specific to the sport, and make recommendations for basketball training load monitoring practice and reporting within the literature.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed using EBSCO, PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science to identify studies through March 2020. Electronic databases were searched using terms related to basketball and training load. Records were included if they used a competitive basketball population and incorporated a measure of training load. This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO Registration # CRD42019123603), and approved under the National Basketball Association (NBA) Health Related Research Policy.

RESULTS

Electronic and manual searches identified 122 papers that met the inclusion criteria. These studies reported the physical demands of basketball during training (n = 56), competition (n = 36), and both training and competition (n = 30). Physical demands were quantified with a measure of internal training load (n = 52), external training load (n = 29), or both internal and external measures (n = 41). These studies examined males (n = 76), females (n = 34), both male and female (n = 9), and a combination of youth (i.e. under 18 years, n = 37), adults (i.e. 18 years or older, n = 77), and both adults and youth (n = 4). Inconsistencies related to the reporting of competition level, methodology for recording duration, participant inclusion criteria, and validity of measurement systems were identified as key factors relating to the reporting of physical demands in basketball and summarized for each study.

CONCLUSIONS

This review comprehensively evaluated the current body of literature related to training load monitoring in basketball. Within this literature, there is a clear lack of alignment in applied practices and methodological framework, and with only small data sets and short study periods available at this time, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions about the true physical demands of basketball. A detailed understanding of modern technologies in basketball is also lacking, and we provide specific guidelines for defining and applying duration measurement methodologies, vetting the validity and reliability of measurement tools, and classifying competition level in basketball to address some of the identified knowledge gaps. Creating alignment in best-practice basketball research methodology, terminology and reporting may lead to a more robust understanding of the physical demands associated with the sport, thereby allowing for exploration of other research areas (e.g. injury, performance), and improved understanding and decision making in applying these methods directly with basketball athletes.

A 4-Year Profile of Game Demands in Elite Women's Division I College Basketball

Ransdell, LB, Murray, T, Gao, Y, Jones, P, and Bycura, D. A 4-year profile of game demands in elite women's Division I college basketball. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 632-638, 2020-Workload for a Division I women's collegiate basketball team (0.817 win percentage) was examined by: (a) season, (b) player position, and (c) game outcome (wins vs. losses). Female athletes (n = 6, mean 19.7 ± 1.5 years, at beginning of study) wore Catapult S5 units during 91.8% of games over a 4-year period. Average PlayerLoad, PlayerLoad per minute (PL·min), high inertial movement analysis (high-IMA), and jumps were quantified using Catapult Openfield software (version 1.14.1+). Data were checked for normality and log- or square-root-transformed when they were non-normal. A series of linear mixed model analyses were conducted to detect differences in PlayerLoad, PL·min, high-IMA, and jumps by season, position, and game outcome. PL·min and jumps data were not normal, so they were transformed, analyses were run; because there were no differences in findings, data are reported in original units to allow for comparisons with other studies. Cohen's d and confidence intervals were provided as additional information about the strength of reported differences. The 3 most consistent findings were that across a 4-year period, jumps increased, PL·min was higher in guards compared with posts, and high-IMA was higher in losses compared with wins. Other workload patterns were inconsistent, and inappropriate for making conclusive statements. Therefore, comparing jumps across multiple seasons, PL·min by player position and high-IMA in losses are important; in addition, all data can be used to profile National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I women's basketball players and set game workload expectations.

Metabolic load comparison between the quarters of a game in elite male basketball players using sport metabolomics

Purpose: A basketball match is characterized by intermittent high-intensity activities, thereby relying extensively on both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways. Here, we aimed to compare the metabolic fluctuations between the four 10-min quarters of high-level basketball games using metabolomics analyses. Methods: 70 male basketball players with at least 3 years of experience in the Iran national top-league participated. Before and after each quarter, saliva samples were taken for subsequent untargeted metabolomics analyses, where Principal component analysis (PCA) and Partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were employed for statistical analysis. Results: Quarters 1 and 3 showed similar metabolic profiles, with increased levels of ATP turnover (higher Lactate, Pyruvate, Succinic Acid, Citric Cid, Glucose and Hypoxanthine), indicating more reliance on anaerobic energy systems than quarters 2 and 4. In comparison, quarters 2 and 4 showed a reduction in Valine and Lucien and an increase in Alanine, Glycerol, AcetoAcetic Acid, Acetone, Succinic Acid, Citric Acid, Acetate and Taurine that was not present in quarters 1 and 3, indicating greater reliance of aerobic energy contribution, fat metabolism and gluconeogenesis. Conclusion: Our data demonstrate that the higher intensity of movements in the first quarter, where players are more rested, induce an increase in anaerobic energy contribution. This seems to be the case also for the third quarter that follows 15 min of rest, whereas the accumulated fatigue and reduction of high-intensity movements in the second and fourth quarters also reduces the speed of energy production and players thereby utilize more aerobic energy.

Influence of ball possession and playing position on the physical demands encountered during professional basketball games

Understanding the game demands encountered in basketball provides useful insight for developing specific, individualized and team-based training sessions. This study quantified and compared the game activity demands encountered by basketball players of different playing positions: i) strictly when in possession of the ball and ii) overall during live playing time (irrespective of ball possession). The activity demands encountered by 44 (22 guards, 14 forwards, 8 centres) adult, professional, male basketball players were assessed across 10 official games. Time-motion analysis was used to determine the frequency and proportion (%) of playing time performing recovery (REC), low- (LIA), moderate- (MIA), and high- (HIA) intensity activities. Linear mixed models were constructed to examine differences in dependent variables between playing positions, accounting for repeated measures. Guards, forwards, and centres spent 11.9±5.9%, 3.5±1.3%, and 2.9±1.1% of live playing time in possession of the ball, respectively. Guards performed more activities at all intensities (total movements, REC, LIA, MIA, and HIA) than forwards (P < 0.05) and centres (P < 0.05) when in possession of the ball. The proportion of time spent performing HIA in possession of the ball was greater for forwards (P = 0.001) and centres (P = 0.001) than guards. During live playing time overall across games, centres performed more HIA per minute (P = 0.049) and spent a greater proportion of time performing HIA (P = 0.047) than guards. Activities performed when in possession of the ball and during live playing time across basketball games are affected by playing position. These data highlight the need to develop position-specific training drills, particularly with ball possession.

Match Activities in Basketball Games: Comparison Between Different Competitive Levels

Ferioli, D, Schelling, X, Bosio, A, La Torre, A, Rucco, D, and Rampinini, E. Match activities in basketball games: comparison between different competitive levels. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 172-182, 2020-This study examined the (a) differences in the activity demands of official basketball games between different competitive levels (from elite to amateur levels) among a large cohort of adult male players and (b) match-to-match variations of basketball physical demands. Video-based time-motion analysis (TMA) was performed to assess the players' physical activity among 136 players. Match-to-match variations were determined analyzing 2 consecutive matches of the same level on 35 players. The frequency of occurrence (n per minutes) and the duration in percentage of playing time were calculated for high-intensity activity (HIA), moderate-intensity activity (MIA), low-intensity activity (LIA), and recovery (REC). Division I performed an almost certain greater number of HIA, MIA, and total actions per minutes of playing time compared with Division II that performed similarly to Division III. Division VI performed a likely-to-very likely lower number of LIA, MIA, and total actions per minute compared with Division III. Division I spent almost certain greater playing time competing in HIA and MIA compared with lower divisions. Time spent at REC was very likely greater in Division VI compared with all other Divisions. The frequency of occurrence was less reliable than percentage duration of game activities. Matches of different competitive levels are characterized by different physical activities. The ability to sustain greater intermittent workloads and HIA, and the ability to quickly recover from high-intensity phases during competitions should be considered as key components of basketball. The match-to-match variations values observed in this study might be useful to correctly interpret individual TMA data.

Development and Validation of a Checklist to Assess Proficient Performance of Basketball Straight Speed Dribbling Skill

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a checklist to assess proficient performance of basketball straight speed dribbling skill. The sample was composed of 100 children and adolescents between 7 and 15 years of age with and without structured practice in basketball. The validation process tested the validity domain, decision, tendencies, reliability, responsiveness, and objectivity. The results show that the checklist contains criteria that represent the speed dribbling skill and is sensible to distinguish between different proficiency levels of performance. The results also expressed high reliability and objectivity (intra and inter-rater). In light of the findings, we concluded that the checklist can be used to reliably analyze performance and evaluate the process of learning and development of the straight speed dribbling skill.

Training load and match-play demands in basketball based on competition level: A systematic review

Basketball is a court-based team-sport that requires a broad array of demands (physiological, mechanical, technical, tactical) in training and competition which makes it important for practitioners to understand the stress imposed on the basketball player during practice and match-play. Therefore, the main aim of the present systematic review is to investigate the training and match-play demands of basketball in elite, sub-elite, and youth competition. A search of five electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Cochrane) was conducted until December 20^th, 2019. Articles were included if the study: (i) was published in English; (ii) contained internal or external load variables from basketball training and/or competition; and (iii) reported physiological or metabolic demands of competition or practice. Additionally, studies were classified according to the type of study participants into elite (20), sub-elite (9), and youth (6). A total of 35 articles were included in the systematic review. Results indicate that higher-level players seem to be more efficient while moving on-court. When compared to sub-elite and youth, elite players cover less distance at lower average velocities and with lower maximal and average heart rate during competition. However, elite-level players have a greater bandwidth to express higher velocity movements. From the present systematic review, it seems that additional investigation on this topic is warranted before a “clear picture” can be drawn concerning the acceleration and deceleration demands of training and competition. It is necessary to accurately and systematically assess competition demands to provide appropriate training strategies that resemble match-play.

Activity Demands and Speed Profile of Young Female Basketball Players Using Ultra-Wide Band Technology

Performance profiles have begun to be identified as extremely useful in order to help coaches individualize training according to the age and gender of athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the activity demands and speed profile of U18 female basketball players during competitive matches. Time variables (real and playing time), distance variables (distance performed, distance in speed zones, high intensity distance and distance covered sprinting) and speed variables (number of sprints, sprint duration, maximum speed and average speed) were recorded from forty-eight players belonging to four teams (13 guards, 22 forwards and 13 centers). WIMUPRO^TM inertial measurement units with ultra-wide band (UWB) indoor-tracking technology recorded six matches during final four in the season 2018/2019. A one factor ANOVA with Cohen's effect sizes (d) were used to identify the differences between groups (playing position and match day). Distance per minute (123.96 vs 112.67 m), high intensity distance per minute (15.48 vs 14 m), running distance (403.2 vs 541.28 m) and average speed (5.05 vs 5.41 km/h) were significantly higher on day 3 than 1, respectively. About playing position, forwards played more minutes during games, so covered a greater distance, more sprints and high intensity actions than the rest. In spite of fatigue, day 3 showed a greater intensity than day 1, therefore, the last day was the crucial one for the teams in the tournament. Forwards when playing more minutes obtain higher absolute values ​​but not per minute which could mean a lower performance of the team.

Setting Kinematic Parameters That Explain Youth Basketball Behavior: Influence of Relative Age Effect According to Playing Position

Pino-Ortega, J, Gómez-Carmona, CD, Nakamura, FY, Rojas-Valverde, D, and Effect, RA. Setting kinematic parameters that explain youth basketball behavior: Influence of relative age effect according to playing position. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-The aims of the present study were to: (a) set kinematic behavior parameters during official matches by principal component analysis (PCA), (b) examine the distribution of birth dates in competitive basketball, differentiating by playing position and, (c) analyze the relative age effect (RAE) on kinematic performance according to playing position. A total of 94 young elite athletes participated in an official U18 Euroleague tournament (8 clubs, 4 days, 3 games). Kinematic motion variables were measured using an inertial device worn by all players during matches. A total of 252 variables were measured, a PCA was performed to select them for final analysis and 3 principal components and 6 variables were extracted (maximum acceleration [MAcc], average acceleration [PAcc], landing 8-100 G [Ldg 8-100 g·min], relative distance [RD], jump average take off [MJumpsTO], and jump average landing [MJumpsLdg]). These variables explained 66.3% of total variance. Differences were found in RD (p = 0.04; ωp = 0.02), PAcc (p = 0.04; ωp = 0.02), MAcc (p < 0.01; ωp = 0.03), and Ldg 8-100 g·min (p = 0.02; ωp = 0.02) because of RAE. There were differences by playing position in Ldg 8-100 g·min (guards, p = 0.04; ωp = 0.03), MAcc (forwards, p < 0.01; ωp = 0.07; centers, p < 0.01; ωp = 0.44), PAcc (centers, p < 0.01; ωp = 0.34) and in MJumpsLdg (centers, p = 0.03; ωp = 0.13). Results suggested that RAE does have an impact on kinematic variables, and is affected by playing position in variables such as MAcc, PAcc, MJumpsLdg, and Ldg 8-100 g·min. The extracted variables are well-known intensity indicators and fundamental performance variables. This evidence should be taken into account by sport scientists and coaches to develop individualized training programs and match tactics.

Physical playing pattern and ecological validity of the YoYo-IR1 Test in U-19 female basketball

BACKGROUND

Understanding the physical activity, the physiological profile and the repeated sprint bouts (RS) nature of U-19 female basketball during official games could help coaches to plan their training. However, they are not extensively researched, as well as, the ecological validity of the Yo-Yo Intermittent-Recovery Test level-1 (YoYo-IRT1). The aims of this study were to determine: 1) the physical and physiological demands of U-19 elite-female basketball; 2) the relationship between the YoYo-IRT1 and game physical-activity; 3) and the RS nature in U-19 basketball.

METHODS

Computerized motion-analysis, heart-rate (HR) and blood lactate concentration [La] were measured in 30 players during eight U-19 games (the play-off stage of Tunisian league). They performed YoYo-IRT1. A RS was defined as a minimum of 3-sprints, with recovery of less than 21-sec in-between any of sprints' set.

RESULTS

Players spent ~13%, ~29.2% and ~25.2% of total live-time in high, moderate to low-intensity activities, whereas in-between efforts' recovery corresponded to ~32.6%. They spent ~57% of playing-time in high HR-zone (85-95%HRmax). Players performed an average of 6.4 RS per-player per-game, each bout including 3 to 5-sprints. The mean of sprint duration was 2.1±0.4 sec, with a mean recovery time equal to ~8.8-sec. A significant correlation was also observed between [La] and the time spent in high-intensity activity for the 5-min of play prior to blood sampling (r=0.52, P<0.05). A significant correlation was found between YoYo-IRT1 performance and the %time spent in sprint and total high-intensity activities (r=0.67, P=0.001 and r=-0.72, P<0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that U-19 elite-female basketball is a moderate to high-intensity activity, with the Yo-Yo-IR1 test being a good-predictor of physical game-performance.

Working Overtime: The Effects of Overtime Periods on Game Demands in Basketball Players

PURPOSE

To quantify and compare internal and external workloads in regular and overtime games and examine changes in relative workloads during overtime compared with other periods in overtime games in male basketball players.

METHODS

Starting players for a semiprofessional male basketball team were monitored during 2 overtime games and 2 regular games (nonovertime) with similar contextual factors. Internal (rating of perceived exertion and heart-rate variables) and external (PlayerLoad and inertial movement analysis variables) workloads were quantified across games. Separate linear mixed-models and effect-size analyses were used to quantify differences in variables between regular and overtime games and between game periods in overtime games.

RESULTS

Session rating-of-perceived-exertion workload (P = .002, effect size 2.36, very large), heart-rate workload (P = .12, 1.13, moderate), low-intensity change-of-direction events to the left (P = .19, 0.95, moderate), medium-intensity accelerations (P = .12, 1.01, moderate), and medium-intensity change-of-direction events to the left (P = .10, 1.06, moderate) were higher during overtime games than during regular games. Overtime periods also exhibited reductions in relative PlayerLoad (first quarter P = .03, -1.46, large), low-intensity accelerations (first quarter P = .01, -1.45, large; second quarter P = .15, -1.22, large), and medium-intensity accelerations (first quarter P = .09, -1.32, large) compared with earlier periods.

CONCLUSIONS

Overtime games disproportionately elevate perceptual, physiological, and acceleration workloads compared with regular games in starting basketball players. Players also perform at lower external intensities during overtime periods than earlier quarters during basketball games.

Changes in physical demands between game quarters of U18 elite official basketball games

Purpose

The aim of this study was to describe the physical demands during U18 elite basketball games according to the game quarter and to identify a smaller subset of variables and threshold scores that distinguish players’ physical performance in each quarter.

Methods

Data was collected from ninety-four players who participated in the study (age: 17.4 ± 0.74 years; height: 199.0 ± 0.1 cm; body mass: 87.1 ± 13.1 kg) competing in the Euroleague Basketball Next Generation Tournament. Players’ movements during the games were measured using a portable local positioning system (LPS) (WIMU PRO®, Realtrack Systems SL, Almería, Spain) and included relative distance (total distance / playing duration), relative distance in established speed zones, high-intensity running (18.1–24.0 km·h-1) and sprinting (> 24.1 km·h^-1). player load, peak speed (km·h^-1) and peak acceleration (m·s^-2) number of total accelerations and total decelerations, high intensity accelerations (> 2 m·s^-2) and decelerations (< -2 m·s^-2).

Results

There was an overall decrease in distance covered, player load, number of high intensity accelerations and decelerations between the first and last quarter of the games in all playing positions. A classification tree analysis showed that the first quarter had much influence of distance covered (above 69.0 meters), distance covered <6.0 km·h^-1 and accelerations (> 2 m·s^-2), whereas the fourth quarter performance had much influence of distance covered (below 69.0) and distance covered 12.1–18.0 km·h^-1.

Conclusions

A significant reduction in physical demands occurs during basketball, especially between first and last quarter for players in all playing positions during basketball games of under 18 elite players.

Impact of Contextual Factors on External Load During a Congested-Fixture Tournament in Elite U'18 Basketball Players

An understanding of basketball physical demands during official matches is fundamental for designing specific training, tactical, and strategic plans as well as recovery methods during congested fixture periods. Such assessments can be performed using wearable indoor time motion tracking systems. The purpose of this study was to analyze the time-motion profile of under 18-years of age (U’18) basketball players and compare their physical demands in relation to team ranking, playing position, match periods and consecutive matches during a 7-day tournament. Relative Distance (RD), percentage of High-Intensity Running (%HIR), Player Load (PL), Acceleration (Acc), Deceleration (Dec), Peak Speed (PSpeed), and Peak Acceleration (PAcc) were recorded from 94 players (13 centers, 47 forwards, and 34 guards) belonging to eight elite teams (age: 17.6 ± 0.8 years; height: 1.91 ± 0.08 m; body mass: 82.5 ± 8.8 kg). WIMU PRO^TM inertial measurement units with ultra-wide band (UWB) indoor-tracking technology recorded 13 matches during the Adidas Next Generation Tournament Finals in the 2016–2017 season. Paired t-tests and one-way analyses of variance with omega partial squared (ωp2) and Cohen’s effect sizes (d) were used to analyze for differences between variables. According to team quality, the best teams had lower RD (p = 0.04; d = −0.14). Guards presented higher RD (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.03), PSpeed (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.01) and PAcc (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.02) compared to forwards and centers. The first quarter showed differences with higher RD (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.03), %HIR (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.02), and PL (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.04) compared to all other quarters. The third match of the tournament presented higher demands in RD (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.03), HIR (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.01) and PL (p < 0.01; ωp2 = 0.02) compared with the first two matches. This study showed that team quality, playing position, match period, and consecutive matches throughout an U’18 basketball tournament influenced the kinematic demands experienced by players during official competition. Therefore, each of these contextual factors should be considered in managing the load and developing individualized strategies for players in tournament settings.

Activity Demands During Multi-Directional Team Sports: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Late-stage rehabilitation programs often incorporate 'sport-specific' demands, but may not optimally simulate the in-game volume or intensity of such activities as sprinting, cutting, jumping, and lateral movement.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to characterize, quantify, and compare straight-line running and multi-directional demands during sport competition.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic review of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases was conducted.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Studies that reported time-motion analysis data on straight-line running, accelerations/decelerations, activity changes, jumping, cutting, or lateral movement over the course of an entire competition in a multi-directional sport (soccer, basketball, lacrosse, handball, field hockey, futsal, volleyball) were included.

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

Data was organized based on sport, age level, and sex and descriptive statistics of the frequency, intensity, time, and volume of the characteristics of running and multi-directional demands were extracted from each study.

RESULTS

Eighty-one studies were included in the review (n = 47 soccer, n = 11 basketball, n = 9 handball, n = 7 field hockey, n = 3 futsal, n = 4 volleyball). Variability of sport demand data was found across sports, sexes, and age levels. Specifically, soccer and field hockey demanded the most volume of running, while basketball required the highest ratio of high-intensity running to sprinting. Athletes change activity between 500 and 3000 times over the course of a competition, or once every 2-4 s. Studies of soccer reported the most frequent cutting (up to 800 per game), while studies of basketball reported the highest frequency of lateral movement (up to 450 per game). Basketball (42-56 per game), handball (up to 90 per game), and volleyball (up to 35 per game) were found to require the most jumping.

LIMITATIONS

These data may provide an incomplete view of an athlete's straight-line running load, considering that only competition and not practice data was provided.

CONCLUSIONS

Considerable variability exists in the demands of straight-line running and multi-directional demands across sports, competition levels, and sexes, indicating the need for sports medicine clinicians to design future rehabilitation programs with improved specificity (including the type of activity and dosage) to these demands.

Heart Rate Monitoring in Basketball: Applications, Player Responses, and Practical Recommendations

Berkelmans, DM, Dalbo, VJ, Kean, CO, Milanović, Z, Stojanović, E, Stojiljković, N, and Scanlan, AT. Heart rate monitoring in basketball: applications, player responses, and practical recommendations. J Strength Cond Res 32(8): 2383-2399, 2018-The aims of this review were to collate the existing literature encompassing heart rate (HR) monitoring in basketball to (a) identify the applications of HR measurement; (b) report HR responses in male and female players during training and game-play; (c) evaluate use of current HR-based training load models; and (d) provide recommendations for future research and best practice approaches for basketball practitioners. Heart rate monitoring in basketball carries 3 primary applications: (a) monitoring exercise intensity; (b) assessing player fatigue status; and (c) quantifying internal training load. When interpreting the available training and game-play HR data in basketball players, key differences have been observed between playing positions and playing levels. Sex- and age-based differences in HR responses during basketball training and game-play are apparent across separate studies; however, further research exploring HR responses in wider player groups is needed, especially in female and junior players. There is also a lack of research directly comparing player HR responses during training and game-play to ascertain the effectiveness of different drills in preparing players for competition. Heart rate-based models have been frequently used to quantify the internal training load in basketball players, including Banister's Training Impulse (TRIMP), Lucia's TRIMP, and Edwards' Summated-Heart-Rate-Zones (SHRZ). The SHRZ model seems to hold practical advantages and better detect changes in player responses across training cycles compared with other approaches. Practical outcomes of this review center on recommendations for position-specific training plans, drills to promote desired cardiovascular stress, analysis of HR outcome measures, and ideal training load monitoring approaches.

Effects of Three-Day Serial Sodium Bicarbonate Loading on Performance and Physiological Parameters During a Simulated Basketball Test in Female University Players

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 3-day serial sodium bicarbonate ingestion on repeated sprint and jump performance. Fifteen female university basketball players (23.3 ± 3.4 years; 173.1 ± 5.8 cm; 65.8 ± 6.3 kg; 23.6 ± 4.9% body fat) ingested 0.4 g/kg body mass of sodium bicarbonate or placebo for 3 days (split in three equal daily doses), before completing a simulated basketball exercise. Sprint and circuit times, jump heights, performance decrements, and gastrointestinal side effects were recorded during the test, and blood lactate concentration was measured pre- and posttest. Sodium bicarbonate supplementation led to significant decreases in mean sprint times (1.34 ± 0.23 vs. 1.70 ± 0.41 s, p = .008, 95% confidence intervals [−0.54, −0.10 s]) and mean circuit times (30.6 ± 2.0 vs. 31.3 ± 2.0 s, p = .044) and significantly greater mean jump height (26.8 [range 25.2–34.2] vs. 26.0 [range 25.6–33.6] cm, p = .013) compared with placebo. Performance decrement was significantly less for sprints with sodium bicarbonate compared with placebo (9.9 [range 3.4–37.0]% vs. 24.7 [range 4.1–61.3]%, p = .013), but not different for jumps (13.1 ± 4.5% vs. 12.5 ± 3.1%, p = .321) between conditions. No differences in gastrointestinal side effects were noted between conditions. Significantly greater postexercise blood lactate concentrations were measured in the sodium bicarbonate condition compared with the placebo condition (8.2 ± 2.8 vs. 6.6 ± 2.4 mmol/L, p = .010). This study is the first to show that serial loading of sodium bicarbonate is effective for basketball players to improve repeated sprint and jump performance during competition, or withstand greater training load during practice sessions without any gastrointestinal side effects.

Updated analysis of changes in locomotor activities across periods in an international ice hockey game

The aim of this study was to examine changes in time-motion patterns of elite male ice hockey players during an international game with special reference to the development of fatigue. Ten elite male ice hockey players were filmed during an official international game. Detailed time-motion patterns and behaviours (effective playing, stoppage and resting times, number of shifts, low- and high-intensity skating activities across periods as well as passing, shooting and body checking) were analysed during the three game periods. Shift duration averaged 85.72±4.89 s (44.01±5.71 s of effective playing time and 41.71±4.07 s of stoppage) and was repeated ~7.4±1.8 times per period. Mean effective playing time and effective time per shift decreased over the periods (-6.8±17.3%, P = 0.18, d = 0.71 and -8.5±12.7%, P = 0.20, d = 0.24, respectively), resulting in a shorter distance covered (-12.8±5.7%, P = 0.16, d = 0.46) from period 1 to 3. At similar time intervals, stoppage (+8.2±9.8%, P<0.05, d = 0.78) and bench resting period (+35.6±34.0%, P<0.05, d = 1.26) also increased. The number of sprints performed in period 3 was significantly lower than in period 1 (-46.7±32.1%, P<0.01, d = 1.12). This was accompanied by a lower effective time (-16.8±24.9%, P<0.05, d = 0.82) spent in high-intensity activities (fast forward skating, forward sprinting and fast backward and sprinting) – particularly in forward sprints (-54.8±20.7%, P<0.01, d = 1.07) – in period 3 vs. 1. Detailed analysis of players’ time-motion patterns of an international ice hockey game indicates that the capacity to perform intense actions is impeded towards the end of the match (period 3). Assessing performance fatigability may help practitioners to tailor ice hockey-specific training routines to help prevent in-game premature and/or excessive fatigue development.

Dribble Deficit: A novel method to measure dribbling speed independent of sprinting speed in basketball players

Basketball tests assessing dribbling speed predicated on total performance times are influenced by sprinting speed. This study examines an approach termed Dribble Deficit to counter this limitation by examining the relationships between sprinting and dribbling speed during linear and change-of-direction (COD) tasks measured using total performance time and Dribble Deficit. Ten semi-professional basketball players completed linear sprints and COD sprints with and without dribbling. Dribble Deficit was calculated as the difference between the best time for each dribbling trial and corresponding non-dribbling trial for linear and COD sprints. Large to very large significant relationships (P < 0.05) were evident between linear sprint and dribble times (R = 0.64-0.77, R² = 0.41-0.59), and between COD sprint and dribble times (R = 0.88, R² = 0.77). Conversely, trivial-small relationships were evident between linear sprint time and linear Dribble Deficit (R = 0.01-0.15, R² = 0.00-0.02). A non-significant, moderate, negative relationship was observed between COD sprint time and COD Dribble Deficit (R = -0.45, R² = 0.20). These findings indicate Dribble Deficit provides a more isolated measure of dribbling speed than tests using total performance times. Basketball practitioners may use Dribble Deficit to measure dribbling speed independent of sprint speed in test batteries.

Temporal changes in physiological and performance responses across game-specific simulated basketball activity

PURPOSE

The aims of this study were to: (1) provide a comprehensive physiological profile of simulated basketball activity and (2) identify temporal changes in player responses in controlled settings.

METHODS

State-level male basketball players (n = 10) completed 4 × 10 min simulated quarters of basketball activity using a reliable and valid court-based test. A range of physiological (ratings of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentration ([BLa-]), blood glucose concentration ([BGlu]), heart rate (HR), and hydration) and physical (performance and fatigue indicators for sprint, circuit, and jump activity) measures were collected across testing.

RESULTS

Significantly reduced [BLa-] (6.19 ± 2.30 vs. 4.57 ± 2.33 mmol/L; p = 0.016) and [BGlu] (6.91 ± 1.57 vs. 5.25 ± 0.81 mmol/L; p = 0.009) were evident in the second half. A mean HR of 180.1 ± 5.7 beats/min (90.8% ± 4.0% HRmax) was observed, with a significant increase in vigorous activity (77%-95% HRmax) (11.31 ± 6.91 vs. 13.50 ± 6.75 min; p = 0.024) and moderate decrease in near-maximal activity (>95% HRmax) (7.24 ± 7.45 vs. 5.01 ± 7.20 min) in the second half. Small increases in performance times accompanied by a significantly lower circuit decrement (11.67% ± 5.55% vs. 7.30% ± 2.16%; p = 0.032) were apparent in the second half.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate basketball activity imposes higher physiological demands than previously thought and temporal changes in responses might be due to adapted pacing strategies as well as fatigue-mediated mechanisms.