Functional organization of the thalamic input to the thalamic reticular nucleus

Cell type-specific inhibitory modulation of sound processing in the auditory thalamus

Inhibition plays an important role in controlling the flow and processing of auditory information throughout the central auditory pathway, yet how inhibition shapes auditory processing in the medial geniculate body (MGB), the key region in the auditory thalamus, is poorly understood. MGB gates the flow of auditory information to the auditory cortex, and it is inhibited largely by the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN). The TRN comprises two major classes of inhibitory neurons: parvalbumin (PV TRN )-positive and somatostatin (SST TRN )-positive neurons. PV and SST neurons have been shown to play differential roles in controlling sound responses in other brain regions. In the somatosensory and visual subregions of the TRN, PV TRN and SST TRN neurons exhibit anatomical and functional differences. However, it remains unknown whether and how PV TRN and SST TRN neurons differ in their anatomical projections from the TRN, and whether and how they differentially modulate activity in the MGB. We find that PV TRN and SST TRN neurons exhibit differential projection patterns within the thalamus: PV TRN neurons predominantly project to ventral MGB, whereas SST TRN neurons project to the dorso-medial regions of MGB. Furthermore, PV TRN and SST TRN neurons bi-directionally modulate sound responses in MGB. Selective optogenetic inactivation of PV TRN neurons increased sound-evoked activity in over a third of MGB neurons, while another large fraction of neurons showed suppressed activity. In contrast, inactivating SST TRN neurons largely reduced tone-evoked activity in MGB neurons. Cell type-specific computational models identified candidate circuit mechanisms for generating the bi-directional effects of TRN inactivation on MGB sound responses. These distinct inhibitory pathways within the auditory thalamus reveal a cell type-specific role for thalamic inhibition in auditory computation.

Emergent Aspects of the Integration of Sensory and Motor Functions

This article delves into the intricate mechanisms underlying sensory integration in the executive control of movement, encompassing ideomotor activity, predictive capabilities, and motor control systems. It examines the interplay between motor and sensory functions, highlighting the role of the cortical and subcortical regions of the central nervous system in enhancing environmental interaction. The acquisition of motor skills, procedural memory, and the representation of actions in the brain are discussed emphasizing the significance of mental imagery and training in motor function. The development of this aspect of sensorimotor integration control can help to advance our understanding of the interactions between executive motor control, cortical mechanisms, and consciousness. Bridging theoretical insights with practical applications, it sets the stage for future innovations in clinical rehabilitation, assistive technology, and education. The ongoing exploration of these domains promises to uncover new pathways for enhancing human capability and well-being.

Integration of distinct cortical inputs to primary and higher order inhibitory cells of the thalamus

The neocortex controls its own sensory input in part through top-down inhibitory mechanisms. Descending corticothalamic projections drive GABAergic neurons of the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN), which govern thalamocortical cell activity via inhibition. Neurons in sensory TRN are organized into primary and higher order (HO) subpopulations, with separate intrathalamic connections and distinct genetic and functional properties. Here, we investigated top-down neocortical control over primary and HO neurons of somatosensory TRN. Projections from layer 6 of somatosensory cortex evoked stronger and more state-dependent activity in primary than in HO TRN, driven by more robust synaptic inputs and potent T-type calcium currents. However, HO TRN received additional, physiologically distinct, inputs from motor cortex and layer 5 of S1. Thus, in a departure from the canonical focused sensory layer 6 innervation characteristic of primary TRN, HO TRN integrates broadly from multiple corticothalamic systems, with unique state-dependence, extending the range of mechanisms for top-down control.

Fibromyalgia pathogenesis explained by a neuroendocrine multistable model

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a central disorder characterized by chronic pain, fatigue, insomnia, depression, and other minor symptoms. Knowledge about pathogenesis is lacking, diagnosis difficult, clinical approach puzzling, and patient management disappointing. We conducted a theoretical study based on literature data and computational analysis, aimed at developing a comprehensive model of FM pathogenesis and addressing suitable therapeutic targets. We started from the evidence that FM must involve a dysregulation of central pain processing, is female prevalent, suggesting a role for the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, and is stress-related, suggesting a role for the HP-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Central pathogenesis was supposed to involve a pain processing loop system including the thalamic ventroposterolateral nucleus (VPL), the primary somatosensory cortex (SSC), and the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN). For decreasing GABAergic and/or increasing glutamatergic transmission, the loop system crosses a bifurcation point, switching from monostable to bistable, and converging on a high-firing-rate steady state supposed to be the pathogenic condition. Thereafter, we showed that GABAergic transmission is positively correlated with gonadal-hormone-derived neurosteroids, notably allopregnanolone, whereas glutamatergic transmission is positively correlated with stress-induced glucocorticoids, notably cortisol. Finally, we built a dynamic model describing a multistable, double-inhibitory loop between HPG and HPA axes. This system has a high-HPA/low-HPG steady state, allegedly reached in females under combined premenstrual/postpartum brain allopregnanolone withdrawal and stress condition, driving the thalamocortical loop to the high-firing-rate steady state, and explaining the connection between endocrine and neural mechanisms in FM pathogenesis. Our model accounts for FM female prevalence and stress correlation, suggesting the use of neurosteroid drugs as a possible solution to currently unsolved problems in the clinical treatment of the disease.

GABAergic neurons of anterior thalamic reticular nucleus regulate states of consciousness in propofol- and isoflurane-mediated general anesthesia

BACKGROUND

The thalamus system plays critical roles in the regulation of reversible unconsciousness induced by general anesthetics, especially the arousal stage of general anesthesia (GA). But the function of thalamus in GA-induced loss of consciousness (LOC) is little known. The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) is the only GABAergic neurons-composed nucleus in the thalamus, which is composed of parvalbumin (PV) and somatostatin (SST)-expressing GABAergic neurons. The anterior sector of TRN (aTRN) is indicated to participate in the induction of anesthesia, but the roles remain unclear. This study aimed to reveal the role of the aTRN in propofol and isoflurane anesthesia.

METHODS

We first set up c-Fos straining to monitor the activity variation of aTRNPV and aTRNSST neurons during propofol and isoflurane anesthesia. Subsequently, optogenetic tools were utilized to activate aTRNPV and aTRNSST neurons to elucidate the roles of aTRNPV and aTRNSST neurons in propofol and isoflurane anesthesia. Electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings and behavioral tests were recorded and analyzed. Lastly, chemogenetic activation of the aTRNPV neurons was applied to confirm the function of the aTRN neurons in propofol and isoflurane anesthesia.

RESULTS

c-Fos straining showed that both aTRNPV and aTRNSST neurons are activated during the LOC period of propofol and isoflurane anesthesia. Optogenetic activation of aTRNPV and aTRNSST neurons promoted isoflurane induction and delayed the recovery of consciousness (ROC) after propofol and isoflurane anesthesia, meanwhile chemogenetic activation of the aTRNPV neurons displayed the similar effects. Moreover, optogenetic and chemogenetic activation of the aTRN neurons resulted in the accumulated burst suppression ratio (BSR) during propofol and isoflurane GA, although they represented different effects on the power distribution of EEG frequency.

CONCLUSION

Our findings reveal that the aTRN GABAergic neurons play a critical role in promoting the induction of propofol- and isoflurane-mediated GA.

The Associative Thalamus: A Switchboard for Cortical Operations and a Promising Target for Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a brain disorder that profoundly perturbs cognitive processing. Despite the success in treating many of its symptoms, the field lacks effective methods to measure and address its impact on reasoning, inference, and decision making. Prefrontal cortical abnormalities have been well documented in schizophrenia, but additional dysfunction in the interactions between the prefrontal cortex and thalamus have recently been described. This dysfunction may be interpreted in light of parallel advances in neural circuit research based on nonhuman animals, which show critical thalamic roles in maintaining and switching prefrontal activity patterns in various cognitive tasks. Here, we review this basic literature and connect it to emerging innovations in clinical research. We highlight the value of focusing on associative thalamic structures not only to better understand the very nature of cognitive processing but also to leverage these circuits for diagnostic and therapeutic development in schizophrenia. We suggest that the time is right for building close bridges between basic thalamic research and its clinical translation, particularly in the domain of cognition and schizophrenia.

Propofol modulates neural dynamics of thalamo-cortical system associated with anesthetic levels in rats

The thalamocortical system plays an important role in consciousness. How anesthesia modulates the thalamocortical interactions is not completely known.  We simultaneously recorded local field potentials(LFPs) in thalamic reticular nucleus(TRN) and ventroposteromedial thalamic nucleus(VPM), and electrocorticographic(ECoG) activities in frontal and occipital cortices in freely moving rats (n = 11). We analyzed the changes in thalamic and cortical local spectral power and connectivities, which were measured with phase-amplitude coupling (PAC), coherence and multivariate Granger causality, at the states of baseline, intravenous infusion of propofol 20, 40, 80 mg/kg/h and after recovery of righting reflex. We found that propofol-induced burst-suppression results in a synchronous decrease of spectral power in thalamus and cortex (p < 0.001 for all frequency bands). The cross-frequency PAC increased by propofol, characterized by gradually stronger 'trough-max' pattern in TRN and stronger 'peak-max' pattern in cortex. The cross-region PAC increased in the phase of TRN modulating the amplitude of cortex. The functional connectivity (FC) between TRN and cortex for α/β bands also significantly increased (p < 0.040), with increased directional connectivity from TRN to cortex under propofol anesthesia. In contrast, the corticocortical FC significantly decreased (p < 0.047), with decreased directional connectivity from frontal cortex to occipital cortex. However, the thalamothalamic functional and directional connectivities remained largely unchanged by propofol anesthesia.  The spectral powers and connectivities are differentially modulated with the changes of propofol doses, suggesting the changes in neural dynamics in thalamocortical system could be used for distinguishing different vigilance levels caused by propofol.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11571-022-09912-0.

Thalamic control of sensory processing and spindles in a biophysical somatosensory thalamoreticular circuit model of wakefulness and sleep

Thalamoreticular circuitry plays a key role in arousal, attention, cognition, and sleep spindles, and is linked to several brain disorders. A detailed computational model of mouse somatosensory thalamus and thalamic reticular nucleus has been developed to capture the properties of over 14,000 neurons connected by 6 million synapses. The model recreates the biological connectivity of these neurons, and simulations of the model reproduce multiple experimental findings in different brain states. The model shows that inhibitory rebound produces frequency-selective enhancement of thalamic responses during wakefulness. We find that thalamic interactions are responsible for the characteristic waxing and waning of spindle oscillations. In addition, we find that changes in thalamic excitability control spindle frequency and their incidence. The model is made openly available to provide a new tool for studying the function and dysfunction of the thalamoreticular circuitry in various brain states.

Thalamic neuromodulation in epilepsy: A primer for emerging circuit-based therapies

INTRODUCTION

Epilepsy is a common, often debilitating disease of hyperexcitable neural networks. While medically intractable cases may benefit from surgery, there may be no single, well-localized focus for resection or ablation. In such cases, approaching the disease from a network-based perspective may be beneficial.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors provide a narrative review of normal thalamic anatomy and physiology and propose general strategies for preventing and/or aborting seizures by modulating this structure. Additionally, they make specific recommendations for targeting the thalamus within different contexts, motivated by a more detailed discussion of its distinct nuclei and their respective connectivity. By describing important principles governing thalamic function and its involvement in seizure networks, the authors aim to provide a primer for those now entering this fast-growing field of thalamic neuromodulation for epilepsy.

EXPERT OPINION

The thalamus is critically involved with the function of many cortical and subcortical areas, suggesting it may serve as a compelling node for preventing or aborting seizures, and so it has increasingly been targeted for the surgical treatment of epilepsy. As various thalamic neuromodulation strategies for seizure control are developed, there is a need to ground such interventions in a mechanistic, circuit-based framework.

Remembrance of things perceived: Adding thalamocortical function to artificial neural networks

Recent research has illuminated the complexity and importance of the thalamocortical system but it has been difficult to identify what computational functions it performs. Meanwhile, deep-learning artificial neural networks (ANNs) based on bio-inspired models of purely cortical circuits have achieved surprising success solving sophisticated cognitive problems associated historically with human intelligence. Nevertheless, the limitations and shortcomings of artificial intelligence (AI) based on such ANNs are becoming increasingly clear. This review considers how the addition of thalamocortical connectivity and its putative functions related to cortical attention might address some of those shortcomings. Such bio-inspired models are now providing both testable theories of biological cognition and improved AI technology, much of which is happening outside the usual academic venues.

Cortical-subcortical interactions in goal-directed behavior

Flexibly selecting appropriate actions in response to complex, ever-changing environments requires both cortical and subcortical regions, which are typically described as participating in a strict hierarchy. In this traditional view, highly specialized subcortical circuits allow for efficient responses to salient stimuli, at the cost of adaptability and context specificity, which are attributed to the neocortex. Their interactions are often described as the cortex providing top-down command signals for subcortical structures to implement; however, as available technologies develop, studies increasingly demonstrate that behavior is represented by brainwide activity and that even subcortical structures contain early signals of choice, suggesting that behavioral functions emerge as a result of different regions interacting as truly collaborative networks. In this review, we discuss the field's evolving understanding of how cortical and subcortical regions in placental mammals interact cooperatively, not only via top-down cortical-subcortical inputs but through bottom-up interactions, especially via the thalamus. We describe our current understanding of the circuitry of both the cortex and two exemplar subcortical structures, the superior colliculus and striatum, to identify which information is prioritized by which regions. We then describe the functional circuits these regions form with one another, and the thalamus, to create parallel loops and complex networks for brainwide information flow. Finally, we challenge the classic view that functional modules are contained within specific brain regions; instead, we propose that certain regions prioritize specific types of information over others, but the subnetworks they form, defined by their anatomical connections and functional dynamics, are the basis of true specialization.

Large-scale biophysically detailed model of somatosensory thalamocortical circuits in NetPyNE

The primary somatosensory cortex (S1) of mammals is critically important in the perception of touch and related sensorimotor behaviors. In 2015, the Blue Brain Project (BBP) developed a groundbreaking rat S1 microcircuit simulation with over 31,000 neurons with 207 morpho-electrical neuron types, and 37 million synapses, incorporating anatomical and physiological information from a wide range of experimental studies. We have implemented this highly detailed and complex S1 model in NetPyNE, using the data available in the Neocortical Microcircuit Collaboration Portal. NetPyNE provides a Python high-level interface to NEURON and allows defining complicated multiscale models using an intuitive declarative standardized language. It also facilitates running parallel simulations, automates the optimization and exploration of parameters using supercomputers, and provides a wide range of built-in analysis functions. This will make the S1 model more accessible and simpler to scale, modify and extend in order to explore research questions or interconnect to other existing models. Despite some implementation differences, the NetPyNE model preserved the original cell morphologies, electrophysiological responses and spatial distribution for all 207 cell types; and the connectivity properties of all 1941 pathways, including synaptic dynamics and short-term plasticity (STP). The NetPyNE S1 simulations produced reasonable physiological firing rates and activity patterns across all populations. When STP was included, the network generated a 1 Hz oscillation comparable to the original model in vitro-like state. By then reducing the extracellular calcium concentration, the model reproduced the original S1 in vivo-like states with asynchronous activity. These results validate the original study using a new modeling tool. Simulated local field potentials (LFPs) exhibited realistic oscillatory patterns and features, including distance- and frequency-dependent attenuation. The model was extended by adding thalamic circuits, including 6 distinct thalamic populations with intrathalamic, thalamocortical (TC) and corticothalamic connectivity derived from experimental data. The thalamic model reproduced single known cell and circuit-level dynamics, including burst and tonic firing modes and oscillatory patterns, providing a more realistic input to cortex and enabling study of TC interactions. Overall, our work provides a widely accessible, data-driven and biophysically-detailed model of the somatosensory TC circuits that can be employed as a community tool for researchers to study neural dynamics, function and disease.

Elevation of GABA levels in the globus pallidus disinhibits the thalamic reticular nucleus and desynchronized cortical beta oscillations

The external globus pallidus (GP) is a GABAergic node involved in motor control regulation and coordinates firing and synchronization in the basal ganglia-thalamic-cortical network through inputs and electrical activity. In Parkinson's disease, high GABA levels alter electrical activity in the GP and contribute to motor symptoms. Under normal conditions, GABA levels are regulated by GABA transporters (GATs). GAT type 1 (GAT-1) is highly expressed in the GP, and pharmacological blockade of GAT-1 increases the duration of currents mediated by GABA A receptors and induces tonic inhibition. The functional contribution of the pathway between the GP and the reticular thalamic nucleus (RTn) is unknown. This pathway is important since the RTn controls the flow of information between the thalamus and cortex, suggesting that it contributes to cortical dynamics. In this work, we investigated the effect of increased GABA levels on electrical activity in the RTn by obtaining single-unit extracellular recordings from anesthetized rats and on the motor cortex (MCx) by corticography. Our results show that high GABA levels increase the spontaneous activity rate of RTn neurons and desynchronize oscillations in the beta frequency band in the MCx. Our findings provide evidence that the GP exerts tonic control over RTn activity through the GP-reticular pathway and functionally contributes to cortical oscillation dynamics.

Thalamocortical bistable switch as a theoretical model of fibromyalgia pathogenesis inferred from a literature survey

Fibromyalgia (FM) is an unsolved central pain processing disturbance. We aim to provide a unifying model for FM pathogenesis based on a loop network involving thalamocortical regions, i.e., the ventroposterior lateral thalamus (VPL), the somatosensory cortex (SC), and the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN). The dynamics of the loop have been described by three differential equations having neuron mean firing rates as variables and containing Hill functions to model mutual interactions among the loop elements. A computational analysis conducted with MATLAB has shown a transition from monostability to bistability of the loop behavior for a weakening of GABAergic transmission between TRN and VPL. This involves the appearance of a high-firing-rate steady state, which becomes dominant and is assumed to represent pathogenic pain processing giving rise to chronic pain. Our model is consistent with a bulk of literature evidence, such as neuroimaging and pharmacological data collected on FM patients, and with correlations between FM and immunoendocrine conditions, such as stress, perimenopause, chronic inflammation, obesity, and chronic dizziness. The model suggests that critical targets for FM treatment are to be found among immunoendocrine pathways leading to GABA/glutamate imbalance having an impact on the thalamocortical system.

Thalamic subnetworks as units of function

The thalamus engages in various functions including sensory processing, attention, decision making and memory. Classically, this diversity of function has been attributed to the nuclear organization of the thalamus, with each nucleus performing a well-defined function. Here, we highlight recent studies that used state-of-the-art expression profiling, which have revealed gene expression gradients at the single-cell level within and across thalamic nuclei. These gradients, combined with anatomical tracing and physiological analyses, point to previously unappreciated heterogeneity and redefine thalamic units of function on the basis of unique input-output connectivity patterns and gene expression. We propose that thalamic subnetworks, defined by the intersection of genetics, connectivity and computation, provide a more appropriate level of functional description; this notion is supported by behavioral phenotypes resulting from appropriately tailored perturbations. We provide several examples of thalamic subnetworks and suggest how this new perspective may both propel progress in basic neuroscience and reveal unique targets with therapeutic potential.

The prefrontal cortex, pathological anxiety, and anxiety disorders

Anxiety is experienced in response to threats that are distal or uncertain, involving changes in one's subjective state, autonomic responses, and behavior. Defensive and physiologic responses to threats that involve the amygdala and brainstem are conserved across species. While anxiety responses typically serve an adaptive purpose, when excessive, unregulated, and generalized, they can become maladaptive, leading to distress and avoidance of potentially threatening situations. In primates, anxiety can be regulated by the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which has expanded in evolution. This prefrontal expansion is thought to underlie primates' increased capacity to engage high-level regulatory strategies aimed at coping with and modifying the experience of anxiety. The specialized primate lateral, medial, and orbital PFC sectors are connected with association and limbic cortices, the latter of which are connected with the amygdala and brainstem autonomic structures that underlie emotional and physiological arousal. PFC pathways that interface with distinct inhibitory systems within the cortex, the amygdala, or the thalamus can regulate responses by modulating neuronal output. Within the PFC, pathways connecting cortical regions are poised to reduce noise and enhance signals for cognitive operations that regulate anxiety processing and autonomic drive. Specialized PFC pathways to the inhibitory thalamic reticular nucleus suggest a mechanism to allow passage of relevant signals from thalamus to cortex, and in the amygdala to modulate the output to autonomic structures. Disruption of specific nodes within the PFC that interface with inhibitory systems can affect the negative bias, failure to regulate autonomic arousal, and avoidance that characterize anxiety disorders.

GABABR Modulation of Electrical Synapses and Plasticity in the Thalamic Reticular Nucleus

Two distinct types of neuronal activity result in long-term depression (LTD) of electrical synapses, with overlapping biochemical intracellular signaling pathways that link activity to synaptic strength, in electrically coupled neurons of the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN). Because components of both signaling pathways can also be modulated by GABA_B receptor activity, here we examined the impact of GABA_B receptor activation on the two established inductors of LTD in electrical synapses. Recording from patched pairs of coupled rat neurons in vitro, we show that GABA_B receptor inactivation itself induces a modest depression of electrical synapses and occludes LTD induction by either paired bursting or metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) activation. GABA_B activation also occludes LTD from either paired bursting or mGluR activation. Together, these results indicate that afferent sources of GABA, such as those from the forebrain or substantia nigra to the reticular nucleus, gate the induction of LTD from either neuronal activity or afferent glutamatergic receptor activation. These results add to a growing body of evidence that the regulation of thalamocortical transmission and sensory attention by TRN is modulated and controlled by other brain regions. Significance: We show that electrical synapse plasticity is gated by GABA_B receptors in the thalamic reticular nucleus. This effect is a novel way for afferent GABAergic input from the basal ganglia to modulate thalamocortical relay and is a possible mediator of intra-TRN inhibitory effects.

Sound Intensity-dependent Multiple Tonotopic Organizations and Complex Sub-threshold Alterations of Auditory Response Across Sound Frequencies in the Thalamic Reticular Nucleus

The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN), a cluster of GABAergic cells, modulates sensory attention and perception through its inhibitory projections to thalamic nuclei. Cortical and thalamic topographic projections to the auditory TRN are thought to compose tonotopic organizations for modulation of thalamic auditory processing. The present study determined tonotopies in the TRN and examined interactions between probe and masker sounds to obtain insights into temporal processing associated with tonotopies. Experiments were performed on anesthetized rats, using juxta-cellular recording and labeling techniques. Following determination of tonotopies, effects of sub-threshold masker sound stimuli on onset and late responses evoked by a probe sound were examined. The main findings are as follows. Tonotopic organizations were recognized in cell location and axonal projection. Tonotopic gradients and their clarities were diverse, depending on sound intensity, response type and the tiers of the TRN. Robust alterations in response magnitude, latency and/or burst spiking took place following masker sounds in either a broad or narrow range of frequencies that were close or far away from the probe sound frequency. The majority of alterations were suppression recognizable up to 600 ms in the interval between masker and probe sounds, and directions of alteration differed depending on the interval. Finally, masker sound effects were associated with tonotopic organizations. These findings suggest that the auditory TRN is comprised of sound intensity-dependent multiple tonotopic organizations, which could configure temporal interactions of auditory information across sound frequencies and impose complex but spatiotemporally structured influences on thalamic auditory processing.

Secondary thalamic neuroinflammation after focal cortical stroke and traumatic injury mirrors corticothalamic functional connectivity

While cortical injuries, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and neocortical stroke, acutely disrupt the neocortex, most of their consequent disabilities reflect secondary injuries that develop over time. Thalamic neuroinflammation has been proposed to be a biomarker of cortical injury and of the long-term cognitive and neurological deficits that follow. However, the extent to which thalamic neuroinflammation depends on the type of cortical injury or its location remains unknown. Using two mouse models of focal neocortical injury that do not directly damage subcortical structures-controlled cortical impact and photothrombotic ischemic stroke-we found that chronic neuroinflammation in the thalamic region mirrors the functional connections with the injured cortex, and that sensory corticothalamic regions may be more likely to sustain long-term damage than nonsensory circuits. Currently, heterogeneous clinical outcomes complicate treatment. Understanding how thalamic inflammation depends on the injury site can aid in predicting features of subsequent deficits and lead to more effective, customized therapies.

Complement factor C1q mediates sleep spindle loss and epileptic spikes after mild brain injury

Although traumatic brain injury (TBI) acutely disrupts the cortex, most TBI-related disabilities reflect secondary injuries that accrue over time. The thalamus is a likely site of secondary damage because of its reciprocal connections with the cortex. Using a mouse model of mild TBI (mTBI), we found a chronic increase in C1q expression specifically in the corticothalamic system. Increased C1q expression colocalized with neuron loss and chronic inflammation and correlated with disruption in sleep spindles and emergence of epileptic activities. Blocking C1q counteracted these outcomes, suggesting that C1q is a disease modifier in mTBI. Single-nucleus RNA sequencing demonstrated that microglia are a source of thalamic C1q. The corticothalamic circuit could thus be a new target for treating TBI-related disabilities.

Altered gray matter volume and functional connectivity in patients with herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia

Numerous neuroimaging studies on postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) and herpes zoster (HZ) have revealed abnormalities in brain structure/microstructure and function. However, few studies have focused on changes in gray matter (GM) volume and intrinsic functional connectivity (FC) in the transition from HZ to PHN. This study combined voxel-based morphometry and FC analysis methods to investigate GM volume and FC differences in 28 PHN patients, 25 HZ patients, and 21 well-matched healthy controls (HCs). Compared to HCs, PHN patients exhibited a reduction in GM volume in the bilateral putamen. Compared with HZ patients, PHN patients showed decreased GM volume in the left parahippocampal gyrus, putamen, anterior cingulate cortex, and right caudate and increased GM volume in the right thalamus. However, no regions with significant GM volume changes were found between the HZ and HC groups. Correlation analysis revealed that GM volume in the right putamen was positively associated with illness duration in PHN patients. Furthermore, lower FCs between the right putamen and right middle frontal gyrus/brainstem were observed in PHN patients than in HCs. These results indicate that aberrant GM volumes and FC in several brain regions, especially in the right putamen, are closely associated with chronification from HZ to PHN; moreover, these changes profoundly affect multiple dimensions of pain processing. These findings may provide new insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms of PHN.

Cortical and Subcortical Circuits for Cross-Modal Plasticity Induced by Loss of Vision

Cortical areas are highly interconnected both via cortical and subcortical pathways, and primary sensory cortices are not isolated from this general structure. In primary sensory cortical areas, these pre-existing functional connections serve to provide contextual information for sensory processing and can mediate adaptation when a sensory modality is lost. Cross-modal plasticity in broad terms refers to widespread plasticity across the brain in response to losing a sensory modality, and largely involves two distinct changes: cross-modal recruitment and compensatory plasticity. The former involves recruitment of the deprived sensory area, which includes the deprived primary sensory cortex, for processing the remaining senses. Compensatory plasticity refers to plasticity in the remaining sensory areas, including the spared primary sensory cortices, to enhance the processing of its own sensory inputs. Here, we will summarize potential cellular plasticity mechanisms involved in cross-modal recruitment and compensatory plasticity, and review cortical and subcortical circuits to the primary sensory cortices which can mediate cross-modal plasticity upon loss of vision.

Untangling the cortico-thalamo-cortical loop: cellular pieces of a knotty circuit puzzle

Functions of the neocortex depend on its bidirectional communication with the thalamus, via cortico-thalamo-cortical (CTC) loops. Recent work dissecting the synaptic connectivity in these loops is generating a clearer picture of their cellular organization. Here, we review findings across sensory, motor and cognitive areas, focusing on patterns of cell type-specific synaptic connections between the major types of cortical and thalamic neurons. We outline simple and complex CTC loops, and note features of these loops that appear to be general versus specialized. CTC loops are tightly interlinked with local cortical and corticocortical (CC) circuits, forming extended chains of loops that are probably critical for communication across hierarchically organized cerebral networks. Such CTC-CC loop chains appear to constitute a modular unit of organization, serving as scaffolding for area-specific structural and functional modifications. Inhibitory neurons and circuits are embedded throughout CTC loops, shaping the flow of excitation. We consider recent findings in the context of established CTC and CC circuit models, and highlight current efforts to pinpoint cell type-specific mechanisms in CTC loops involved in consciousness and perception. As pieces of the connectivity puzzle fall increasingly into place, this knowledge can guide further efforts to understand structure-function relationships in CTC loops.

Gamma rhythms and visual information in mouse V1 specifically modulated by somatostatin+ neurons in reticular thalamus

Visual perception in natural environments depends on the ability to focus on salient stimuli while ignoring distractions. This kind of selective visual attention is associated with gamma activity in the visual cortex. While the nucleus reticularis thalami (nRT) has been implicated in selective attention, its role in modulating gamma activity in the visual cortex remains unknown. Here, we show that somatostatin- (SST) but not parvalbumin-expressing (PV) neurons in the visual sector of the nRT preferentially project to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN), and modulate visual information transmission and gamma activity in primary visual cortex (V1). These findings pinpoint the SST neurons in nRT as powerful modulators of the visual information encoding accuracy in V1 and represent a novel circuit through which the nRT can influence representation of visual information.

Rodent somatosensory thalamocortical circuitry: Neurons, synapses, and connectivity

As our understanding of the thalamocortical system deepens, the questions we face become more complex. Their investigation requires the adoption of novel experimental approaches complemented with increasingly sophisticated computational modeling. In this review, we take stock of current data and knowledge about the circuitry of the somatosensory thalamocortical loop in rodents, discussing common principles across modalities and species whenever appropriate. We review the different levels of organization, including the cells, synapses, neuroanatomy, and network connectivity. We provide a complete overview of this system that should be accessible for newcomers to this field while nevertheless being comprehensive enough to serve as a reference for seasoned neuroscientists and computational modelers studying the thalamocortical system. We further highlight key gaps in data and knowledge that constitute pressing targets for future experimental work. Filling these gaps would provide invaluable information for systematically unveiling how this system supports behavioral and cognitive processes.

Reduced activity of GAD67 expressing cells in the reticular thalamus enhance thalamic excitatory activity and varicella zoster virus associated pain

Within the reticular thalamic nucleus neurons express gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) and these cells project to the ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus. When GABA activity decreases the activity of excitatory cells in the ventral posteromedial nucleus would be expected to increase. In this study, we addressed the hypothesis that attenuating GABAergic cells in the reticular thalamic nucleus increases excitatory activity in the ventral posteromedial nucleus increasing varicella zoster virus (VZV) associated pain in the orofacial region. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) was infused in the reticular thalamic nucleus of Gad1-Cre rats. This virus transduced a G inhibitory designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADD) gene that was Cre dependent. A dose of estradiol that was previously shown to reduce VZV pain and increase GABAergic activity was administered to castrated and ovariectomized rats. Previous studies suggest that estradiol attenuates herpes zoster pain by increasing the activity of inhibitory neurons and decreasing the activity of excitatory cells within the lateral thalamic region. The ventral posteromedial nucleus was infused with AAV containing a GCaMP6f expression construct. A glass lens was implanted for miniscope imaging. Our results show that the activity of GABA cells within the reticular thalamic region decreased with clozapine N-oxide treatment concomitant with increased calcium activity of excitatory cells in the ventral posteromedial nucleus and an increased orofacial pain response. The results suggest that estradiol attenuates herpes zoster pain by increasing the activity of inhibitory neurons within the reticular thalamus that then inhibit excitatory activity in ventral posteromedial nucleus causing a reduction in orofacial pain.

Distinct subnetworks of the thalamic reticular nucleus

The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN), the major source of thalamic inhibition, is known to regulate thalamocortical interactions critical for sensory processing, attention and cognition^1-5. TRN dysfunction has been linked to sensory abnormality, attention deficit and sleep disturbance across multiple neurodevelopmental disorders^6-9. Currently, little is known about the organizational principles underlying its divergent functions. We performed an integrative study linking single-cell molecular and electrophysiological features of the mouse TRN to connectivity and systems-level function. We found that TRN cellular heterogeneity is characterized by a transcriptomic gradient of two negatively correlated gene expression profiles, each containing hundreds of genes. Neurons in the extremes of this transcriptomic gradient express mutually exclusive markers, exhibit core/shell-like anatomical structure and have distinct electrophysiological properties. The two TRN subpopulations make differential connections to the functionally distinct first-order and higher-order thalamic nuclei to form molecularly defined TRN-thalamus subnetworks. Selective perturbation of the two subnetworks in vivo revealed their differential role in regulating sleep. Taken together, our study provides a comprehensive atlas for TRN neurons at the single-cell resolution, and links molecularly defined subnetworks to the functional organization of the thalamo-cortical circuits.

Two dynamically distinct circuits drive inhibition in the sensory thalamus

Most sensory information destined for the neocortex is relayed through the thalamus, where considerable transformation occurs^1,2. One means of transformation involves interactions between excitatory thalamocortical neurons that carry data to the cortex and inhibitory neurons of the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) that regulate the flow of those data^3-6. Although the importance of the TRN has long been recognised^7-9, understanding of its cell types, their organization and their functional properties has lagged behind that of the thalamocortical systems they control. Here we address this by investigating the somatosensory and visual circuits of the TRN in mice. In the somatosensory TRN we observed two groups of genetically defined neurons that are topographically segregated and physiologically distinct, and that connect reciprocally with independent thalamocortical nuclei through dynamically divergent synapses. Calbindin-expressing cells-located in the central core-connect with the ventral posterior nucleus, the primary somatosensory thalamocortical relay. By contrast, somatostatin-expressing cells-which reside along the surrounding edges of the TRN-synapse with the posterior medial thalamic nucleus, a higher-order structure that carries both top-down and bottom-up information^10-12. The two TRN cell groups process their inputs in pathway-specific ways. Synapses from the ventral posterior nucleus to central TRN cells transmit rapid excitatory currents that depress deeply during repetitive activity, driving phasic spike output. Synapses from the posterior medial thalamic nucleus to edge TRN cells evoke slower, less depressing excitatory currents that drive more persistent spiking. Differences in the intrinsic physiology of TRN cell types, including state-dependent bursting, contribute to these output dynamics. The processing specializations of these two somatosensory TRN subcircuits therefore appear to be tuned to the signals they carry-a primary central subcircuit tuned to discrete sensory events, and a higher-order edge subcircuit tuned to temporally distributed signals integrated from multiple sources. The structure and function of visual TRN subcircuits closely resemble those of the somatosensory TRN. These results provide insights into how subnetworks of TRN neurons may differentially process distinct classes of thalamic information.

System-Specific Patterns of Thalamocortical Connectivity in Early Brain Development as Revealed by Structural and Functional MRI

The normal development of thalamocortical connections plays a critical role in shaping brain connectivity in the prenatal and postnatal periods. Recent studies using advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques in neonates and infants have shown that abnormal thalamocortical connectivity is associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. However, all these studies have focused on a single neuroimaging modality, overlooking the dynamic relationship between structure and function at this early stage. Here, we study the relationship between structural and functional thalamocortical connectivity patterns derived from healthy full-term infants scanned with diffusion-weighted MRI and resting-state functional MRI within the first weeks of life (mean gestational age = 39.3 ± 1.2 weeks; age at scan = 24.2 ± 7.9 days). Our results show that while there is, in general, good spatial agreement between both MRI modalities, there are regional variations that are system-specific: regions involving primary-sensory cortices exhibit greater structural/functional overlap, whereas higher-order association areas such as temporal and posterior parietal cortices show divergence in spatial patterns of each modality. This variability illustrates the complementarity of both modalities and highlights the importance of multimodal approaches.

Thalamic reticular nucleus in the thalamocortical loop

Dynamic binding of different brain areas is critical for various cognitive functions. The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) is a GABAergic nucleus that constrains information flow through thalamocortical loop by providing inhibitory innervation to the thalamus. In this review, I summarize anatomical and single-cell-level physiological studies of the rodent TRN. Diversity and heterogeneity of TRN neurons in terms of axonal innervation, molecular expression, and physiological characteristics are described. I also outline thalamocortical and cortico-cortical connections with emphasis on interaction with the TRN. In summary, it is proposed that functional connectivity among brain regions are modulated with gating of transthalamic information flow by the TRN.

Sleep Spindles: Mechanisms and Functions

Sleep spindles are burstlike signals in the electroencephalogram (EEG) of the sleeping mammalian brain and electrical surface correlates of neuronal oscillations in thalamus. As one of the most inheritable sleep EEG signatures, sleep spindles probably reflect the strength and malleability of thalamocortical circuits that underlie individual cognitive profiles. We review the characteristics, organization, regulation, and origins of sleep spindles and their implication in non-rapid-eye-movement sleep (NREMS) and its functions, focusing on human and rodent. Spatially, sleep spindle-related neuronal activity appears on scales ranging from small thalamic circuits to functional cortical areas, and generates a cortical state favoring intracortical plasticity while limiting cortical output. Temporally, sleep spindles are discrete events, part of a continuous power band, and elements grouped on an infraslow time scale over which NREMS alternates between continuity and fragility. We synthesize diverse and seemingly unlinked functions of sleep spindles for sleep architecture, sensory processing, synaptic plasticity, memory formation, and cognitive abilities into a unifying sleep spindle concept, according to which sleep spindles 1) generate neural conditions of large-scale functional connectivity and plasticity that outlast their appearance as discrete EEG events, 2) appear preferentially in thalamic circuits engaged in learning and attention-based experience during wakefulness, and 3) enable a selective reactivation and routing of wake-instated neuronal traces between brain areas such as hippocampus and cortex. Their fine spatiotemporal organization reflects NREMS as a physiological state coordinated over brain and body and may indicate, if not anticipate and ultimately differentiate, pathologies in sleep and neurodevelopmental, -degenerative, and -psychiatric conditions.

Shifting brain circuits in pain chronicity

The evaluation of brain changes to a specific pain condition in pediatric and adult patients allows for insights into potential mechanisms of pain chronicity and possibly long-term brain changes. Here we focused on the primary somatosensory system (SS) involved in pain processing, namely the ventroposterolateral thalamus (VPL) and the primary somatosensory cortex (SI). We evaluated, using MRI, three specific processes: (a) somatotopy of changes in the SS for different pain origins (viz., foot vs. arm); (b) differences in acute (ankle sprain versus complex regional pain syndrome-CRPS); and (c) differences of the effects of CRPS on SS in pediatric versus adult patients. In all cases, age- and sex-matched individuals were used as controls. Our results suggest a shift in concurrent gray matter density (GMD) and resting functional connectivity strengths (rFC) across pediatric and adult CRPS with (a) differential patterns of GMD (VPL) and rFC (SI) on SS in pediatric vs. adult patterns that are consistent with upper and lower limb somatotopical organization; and (b) widespread GMD alterations in pediatric CRPS from sensory, emotional and descending modulatory processes to more confined sensory-emotional changes in adult CRPS and rFC patterns from sensory-sensory alterations in pediatric populations to a sensory-emotional change in adult populations. These results support the idea that pediatric and adult CRPS are differentially represented and may reflect underlying differences in pain chronification across age groups that may contribute to the well-known differences between child and adult pain vulnerability and resilience.

Modulation of burst firing of neurons in nucleus reticularis of the thalamus by GluN2C-containing NMDA receptors

The GluN2C subunit of the NMDA receptor is enriched in the neurons in nucleus reticularis of the thalamus (nRT), but its role in regulating their function is not well understood. We found that deletion of GluN2C subunit did not affect spike frequency in response to depolarizing current injection or hyperpolarization-induced rebound burst firing of nRT neurons. D-cycloserine or CIQ (GluN2C/GluN2D positive allosteric modulator) did not affect the depolarization-induced spike frequency in nRT neurons. A newly identified highly potent and efficacious co-agonist of GluN1/GluN2C NMDA receptors, AICP, was found to reduce the spike frequency and burst firing of nRT neurons in wildtype but not GluN2C knockout. This effect was potentially due to facilitation of GluN2C-containing receptors because inhibition of NMDA receptors by AP5 did not affect spike frequency in nRT neurons. We evaluated the effect of intracerebroventricular injection of AICP. AICP did not affect basal locomotion or prepulse inhibition but facilitated MK-801-induced hyperlocomotion. This effect was observed in wildtype but not in GluN2C knockout mice demonstrating that AICP produces GluN2C-selective effects in vivo Using a chemogenetic approach we examined the role of nRT in this behavioral effect. Gq or Gi coupled DREADDs were selectively expressed in nRT neurons using cre-dependent viral vectors and PV-Cre mouse line. We found that similar to AICP effect, activation of Gq but not Gi coupled DREADD facilitated MK-801-induced hyperlocomotion. Together, these results identify a unique role of GluN2C-containing receptors in the regulation of nRT neurons and suggest GluN2C-selective in vivo targeting of NMDA receptors by AICP. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The nucleus reticularis of the thalamus composed of GABAergic neurons is termed as guardian of the gateway and is an important regulator of corticothalamic communication which may be impaired in autism, non-convulsive seizures and other conditions. We found that strong facilitation of tonic activity of GluN2C subtype of NMDA receptors using AICP, a newly identified glycine-site agonist of NMDA receptors, modulates the function of reticular thalamus neurons. AICP was also able to produce GluN2C-dependent behavioral effects in vivo. Together, these finding identify a novel mechanism and a pharmacological tool to modulate activity of reticular thalamic neurons in disease states.

Remembering to Forget: A Dual Role for Sleep Oscillations in Memory Consolidation and Forgetting

It has been known since the time of patient H. M. and Karl Lashley's equipotentiality studies that the hippocampus and cortex serve mnestic functions. Current memory models maintain that these two brain structures accomplish unique, but interactive, memory functions. Specifically, most modeling suggests that memories are rapidly acquired during waking experience by the hippocampus, before being later consolidated into the cortex for long-term storage. Sleep has been shown to be critical for the transfer and consolidation of memories in the cortex. Like memory consolidation, a role for sleep in adaptive forgetting has both historical precedent, as Francis Crick suggested in 1983 that sleep was for "reverse-learning," and recent empirical support. In this article I review the evidence indicating that the same brain activity involved in sleep replay associated memory consolidation is responsible for sleep-dependent forgetting. In reviewing the literature, it became clear that both a cellular mechanism for systems consolidation and an agreed upon general, as well as cellular, mechanism for sleep-dependent forgetting is seldom discussed or is lacking. I advocate here for a candidate cellular systems consolidation mechanism wherein changes in calcium kinetics and the activation of consolidative signaling cascades arise from the triple phase locking of non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) slow oscillation, sleep spindle and sharp-wave ripple rhythms. I go on to speculatively consider several sleep stage specific forgetting mechanisms and conclude by discussing a notional function of NREM-rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) cycling. The discussed model argues that the cyclical organization of sleep functions to first lay down and edit and then stabilize and integrate engrams. All things considered, it is increasingly clear that hallmark sleep stage rhythms, including several NREMS oscillations and the REMS hippocampal theta rhythm, serve the dual function of enabling simultaneous memory consolidation and adaptive forgetting. Specifically, the same sleep rhythms that consolidate new memories, in the cortex and hippocampus, simultaneously organize the adaptive forgetting of older memories in these brain regions.

A Sensorimotor Pathway via Higher-Order Thalamus

We now know that sensory processing in cortex occurs not only via direct communication between primary to secondary areas, but also via their parallel cortico-thalamo-cortical (i.e., trans-thalamic) pathways. Both corticocortical and trans-thalamic pathways mainly signal through glutamatergic class 1 (driver) synapses, which have robust and efficient synaptic dynamics suited for the transfer of information such as receptive field properties, suggesting the importance of class 1 synapses in feedforward, hierarchical processing. However, such a parallel arrangement has only been identified in sensory cortical areas: visual, somatosensory, and auditory. To test the generality of trans-thalamic pathways, we sought to establish its presence beyond purely sensory cortices to determine whether there is a trans-thalamic pathway parallel to the established primary somatosensory (S1) to primary motor (M1) pathway. We used trans-synaptic viral tracing, optogenetics in slice preparations, and bouton size analysis in the mouse (both sexes) to document that a circuit exists from layer 5 of S1 through the posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus to M1 with glutamatergic class 1 properties. This represents a hitherto unknown, robust sensorimotor linkage and suggests that the arrangement of parallel direct and trans-thalamic corticocortical circuits may be present as a general feature of cortical functioning.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT During sensory processing, feedforward pathways carry information such as receptive field properties via glutamatergic class 1 synapses, which have robust and efficient synaptic dynamics. As expected, class 1 synapses subserve the feedforward projection from primary to secondary sensory cortex, but also a route through specific higher-order thalamic nuclei, creating a parallel feedforward trans-thalamic pathway. We now extend the concept of cortical areas being connected via parallel, direct, and trans-thalamic circuits from purely sensory cortices to a sensorimotor cortical circuit (i.e., primary sensory cortex to primary motor cortex). This suggests a generalized arrangement for corticocortical communication.

Convergent synaptic inputs to layer 1 cells of mouse cortex

We used whole cell recordings from slice preparations of mouse cortex to identify various inputs to neurons of layer 1. Two sensory cortical areas were targeted: a primary somatosensory area, namely, the barrel cortex of S1, and a higher order visual area, namely, V2M. Results were similar from both areas. By activating local inputs using photostimulation with caged glutamate, we also identified glutamatergic (and possibly GABAergic) inputs from all lower layers plus GABAergic inputs from nearby layer 1 neurons. However, the patterns of such inputs to layer 1 neurons showed great variation among cells. In separate experiments, we found that electrical stimulation of axons running parallel to the cortical surface in layer 1 also evoked a variety of convergent input types to layer 1 neurons, including glutamatergic "drivers" and "modulators" plus classic modulatory inputs, including serotonergic, nicotinic, α- and β-adrenergic, from subcortical sites. Given that these layer 1 cells significantly affect the responses of other cortical neurons, especially via affecting the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells so important to cortical functioning, their role in cortical processing is significant. We believe that the data presented here lead to better understanding of the functioning of layer 1 neurons in their role of influencing cortical processing.

Functional Topography and Development of Inhibitory Reticulothalamic Barreloid Projections

The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) is the main source of inhibition to the somatosensory thalamus (ventrobasal nucleus, VB) in mice. However, the functional topography and development of these projections with respect to the VB barreloids has been largely unexplored. In this respect, to assist in the study of these projections, we have utilized a vesicular gamma-aminobutryic acid (GABA) transporter (VGAT)-Venus transgenic mouse line to develop a brain slice preparation that enables the rapid identification of inhibitory neurons and projections. We demonstrate the utility of our in vitro brain slice preparation for physiologically mapping inhibitory reticulothalamic (RT) topography, using laser-scanning photostimulation via glutamate uncaging. Furthermore, we utilized this slice preparation to compare the development of excitatory and inhibitory projections to VB. We found that excitatory projections to the barreloids, created by ascending projections from the brain stem, develop by postnatal day 2-3 (P2-P3). By contrast, inhibitory projections to the barreloids lag ~5 days behind excitatory projections to the barreloids, developing by P7-P8. We probed this lag in inhibitory projection development through early postnatal whisker lesions. We found that in whisker-lesioned animals, the development of inhibitory projections to the barreloids closed by P4, in register with that of the excitatory projections to the barreloids. Our findings demonstrate both developmental and topographic organizational features of the RT projection to the VB barreloids, whose mechanisms can now be further examined utilizing the VGAT-Venus mouse slice preparation that we have characterized.

Functional Diversity of Thalamic Reticular Subnetworks

The activity of the GABAergic neurons of the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) has long been known to play important roles in modulating the flow of information through the thalamus and in generating changes in thalamic activity during transitions from wakefulness to sleep. Recently, technological advances have considerably expanded our understanding of the functional organization of TRN. These have identified an impressive array of functionally distinct subnetworks in TRN that participate in sensory, motor, and/or cognitive processes through their different functional connections with thalamic projection neurons. Accordingly, "first order" projection neurons receive "driver" inputs from subcortical sources and are usually connected to a densely distributed TRN subnetwork composed of multiple elongated neural clusters that are topographically organized and incorporate spatially corresponding electrically connected neurons-first order projection neurons are also connected to TRN subnetworks exhibiting different state-dependent activity profiles. "Higher order" projection neurons receive driver inputs from cortical layer 5 and are mainly connected to a densely distributed TRN subnetwork composed of multiple broad neural clusters that are non-topographically organized and incorporate spatially corresponding electrically connected neurons. And projection neurons receiving "driver-like" inputs from the superior colliculus or basal ganglia are connected to TRN subnetworks composed of either elongated or broad neural clusters. Furthermore, TRN subnetworks that mediate interactions among neurons within groups of thalamic nuclei are connected to all three types of thalamic projection neurons. In addition, several TRN subnetworks mediate various bottom-up, top-down, and internuclear attentional processes: some bottom-up and top-down attentional mechanisms are specifically related to first order projection neurons whereas internuclear attentional mechanisms engage all three types of projection neurons. The TRN subnetworks formed by elongated and broad neural clusters may act as templates to guide the operations of the TRN subnetworks related to attentional processes. In this review article, the evidence revealing the functional TRN subnetworks will be evaluated and will be discussed in relation to the functions of the various sensory and motor thalamic nuclei with which these subnetworks are connected.

Focal Gain Control of Thalamic Visual Receptive Fields by Layer 6 Corticothalamic Feedback

The projections between the thalamus and primary visual cortex (V1) are a key reciprocal neural circuit, relaying retinal signals to cortical layers 4 & 6 while being simultaneously regulated by massive layer 6 corticothalamic feedback. Effectively dissecting the influence of this corticothalamic feedback circuit in higher mammals remains a challenge for vision research. By pharmacologically increasing the focal gain of visually driven layer 6 responses of cat V1 in a controlled fashion, we examined the effects of such focal cortical changes on the response amplitudes and spatial structure of the receptive fields (RFs) of individual dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) cells. We found that enhancing visually driven cortical feedback could facilitate or suppress the overall responses of dLGN cells, and such an effect was linked to the orientation preference of the cortical neuron. Related to these selective retinotopic gain changes, enhanced feedback induced the RFs of dLGN cells to expand, contract or shift their spatial focus. Our results provide further evidence for a functional mechanism through which the cortex can selectively gate visual information flow from the thalamus back to the visual cortex.

Controlling the Temporal Structure of Brain Oscillations by Focused Attention Meditation

Our focus of attention naturally fluctuates between different sources of information even when we desire to focus on a single object. Focused attention (FA) meditation is associated with greater control over this process, yet the neuronal mechanisms underlying this ability are not entirely understood. Here, we hypothesize that the capacity of attention to transiently focus and swiftly change relates to the critical dynamics emerging when neuronal systems balance at a point of instability between order and disorder. In FA meditation, however, the ability to stay focused is trained, which may be associated with a more homogeneous brain state. To test this hypothesis, we applied analytical tools from criticality theory to EEG in meditation practitioners and meditation-naïve participants from two independent labs. We show that in practitioners-but not in controls-FA meditation strongly suppressed long-range temporal correlations (LRTC) of neuronal oscillations relative to eyes-closed rest with remarkable consistency across frequency bands and scalp locations. The ability to reduce LRTC during meditation increased after one year of additional training and was associated with the subjective experience of fully engaging one's attentional resources, also known as absorption. Sustained practice also affected normal waking brain dynamics as reflected in increased LRTC during an eyes-closed rest state, indicating that brain dynamics are altered beyond the meditative state. Taken together, our findings suggest that the framework of critical brain dynamics is promising for understanding neuronal mechanisms of meditative states and, specifically, we have identified a clear electrophysiological correlate of the FA meditation state.

Distinct Thalamic Reticular Cell Types Differentially Modulate Normal and Pathological Cortical Rhythms

Integrative brain functions depend on widely distributed, rhythmically coordinated computations. Through its long-ranging connections with cortex and most senses, the thalamus orchestrates the flow of cognitive and sensory information. Essential in this process, the nucleus reticularis thalami (nRT) gates different information streams through its extensive inhibition onto other thalamic nuclei, however, we lack an understanding of how different inhibitory neuron subpopulations in nRT function as gatekeepers. We dissociated the connectivity, physiology, and circuit functions of neurons within rodent nRT, based on parvalbumin (PV) and somatostatin (SOM) expression, and validated the existence of such populations in human nRT. We found that PV, but not SOM, cells are rhythmogenic, and that PV and SOM neurons are connected to and modulate distinct thalamocortical circuits. Notably, PV, but not SOM, neurons modulate somatosensory behavior and disrupt seizures. These results provide a conceptual framework for how nRT may gate incoming information to modulate brain-wide rhythms.

Systematic examination of the impact of depolarization duration on thalamic reticular nucleus firing in vivo

The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) is optimally positioned to regulate information processing and state dynamics in dorsal thalamus. Distinct inputs depolarize TRN on multiple time scales, including thalamocortical afferents, corticothalamic 'feedback', and neuromodulation. Here, we systematically tested the concurrent and after-effects of depolarization duration on TRN firing in vivo using selective optogenetic drive. In VGAT-ChR2 mice, we isolated TRN single units (SU: N = 100 neurons) that responded at brief latency (≤5 ms) to stimulation. These units, and multi-unit activity (MUA) on corresponding electrodes, were analyzed in detail. Consistent with prior findings in relay neurons, after light cessation, burst-like events occurred in 74% of MUA sites, and 16% of SU. Increasing optical duration from 2 to 330 ms enhanced this burst probability, and decreased the latency to the first burst after stimulation. During stimulation, neurons demonstrated a 'plateau' firing response lasting 20-30 ms in response to light, but significant heterogeneity existed in the minimal stimuli required to drive this response. Two distinct types were evident, more sensitive 'non-linear' neurons that were driven to the plateau response by 2 or 5 ms pulses, versus 'linear' neurons that fired proportionally to optical duration, and reached the plateau with ∼20-ms optical drive. Non-linear neurons showed higher evoked firing rates and burst probability, but spontaneous rate did not differ between types. These findings provide direct predictions for TRN responses to a range of natural depolarizing inputs, and a guide for the optical control of this key structure in studies of network function and behavior.

Sleep onset uncovers thalamic abnormalities in patients with idiopathic generalised epilepsy

The thalamus is crucial for sleep regulation and the pathophysiology of idiopathic generalised epilepsy (IGE), and may serve as the underlying basis for the links between the two. We investigated this using EEG-fMRI and a specific emphasis on the role and functional connectivity (FC) of the thalamus. We defined three types of thalamic FC: thalamocortical, inter-hemispheric thalamic, and intra-hemispheric thalamic. Patients and controls differed in all three measures, and during wakefulness and sleep, indicating disorder-dependent and state-dependent modification of thalamic FC. Inter-hemispheric thalamic FC differed between patients and controls in somatosensory regions during wakefulness, and occipital regions during sleep. Intra-hemispheric thalamic FC was significantly higher in patients than controls following sleep onset, and disorder-dependent alterations to FC were seen in several thalamic regions always involving somatomotor and occipital regions. As interactions between thalamic sub-regions are indirect and mediated by the inhibitory thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN), the results suggest abnormal TRN function in patients with IGE, with a regional distribution which could suggest a link with the thalamocortical networks involved in the generation of alpha rhythms. Intra-thalamic FC could be a more widely applicable marker beyond patients with IGE.

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Sleep onset modifies thalamic FC in generalised epilepsy differently to controls.

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Differences are regionally specific.

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Regions connected to somatomotor/occipital cortices are consistently affected.

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Intra-thalamic FC may be a surrogate marker of thalamic reticular nucleus function.

A dual-strategy expression screen for candidate connectivity labels in the developing thalamus

The thalamus or “inner chamber” of the brain is divided into ~30 discrete nuclei, with highly specific patterns of afferent and efferent connectivity. To identify genes that may direct these patterns of connectivity, we used two strategies. First, we used a bioinformatics pipeline to survey the predicted proteomes of nematode, fruitfly, mouse and human for extracellular proteins containing any of a list of motifs found in known guidance or connectivity molecules. Second, we performed clustering analyses on the Allen Developing Mouse Brain Atlas data to identify genes encoding surface proteins expressed with temporal profiles similar to known guidance or connectivity molecules. In both cases, we then screened the resultant genes for selective expression patterns in the developing thalamus. These approaches identified 82 candidate connectivity labels in the developing thalamus. These molecules include many members of the Ephrin, Eph-receptor, cadherin, protocadherin, semaphorin, plexin, Odz/teneurin, Neto, cerebellin, calsyntenin and Netrin-G families, as well as diverse members of the immunoglobulin (Ig) and leucine-rich receptor (LRR) superfamilies, receptor tyrosine kinases and phosphatases, a variety of growth factors and receptors, and a large number of miscellaneous membrane-associated or secreted proteins not previously implicated in axonal guidance or neuronal connectivity. The diversity of their expression patterns indicates that thalamic nuclei are highly differentiated from each other, with each one displaying a unique repertoire of these molecules, consistent with a combinatorial logic to the specification of thalamic connectivity.

Dopamine controls Parkinson's tremor by inhibiting the cerebellar thalamus

Parkinson's resting tremor is related to altered cerebral activity in the basal ganglia and the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit. Although Parkinson's disease is characterized by dopamine depletion in the basal ganglia, the dopaminergic basis of resting tremor remains unclear: dopaminergic medication reduces tremor in some patients, but many patients have a dopamine-resistant tremor. Using pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging, we test how a dopaminergic intervention influences the cerebral circuit involved in Parkinson's tremor. From a sample of 40 patients with Parkinson's disease, we selected 15 patients with a clearly tremor-dominant phenotype. We compared tremor-related activity and effective connectivity (using combined electromyography-functional magnetic resonance imaging) on two occasions: ON and OFF dopaminergic medication. Building on a recently developed cerebral model of Parkinson's tremor, we tested the effect of dopamine on cerebral activity associated with the onset of tremor episodes (in the basal ganglia) and with tremor amplitude (in the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit). Dopaminergic medication reduced clinical resting tremor scores (mean 28%, range -12 to 68%). Furthermore, dopaminergic medication reduced tremor onset-related activity in the globus pallidus and tremor amplitude-related activity in the thalamic ventral intermediate nucleus. Network analyses using dynamic causal modelling showed that dopamine directly increased self-inhibition of the ventral intermediate nucleus, rather than indirectly influencing the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit through the basal ganglia. Crucially, the magnitude of thalamic self-inhibition predicted the clinical dopamine response of tremor. Dopamine reduces resting tremor by potentiating inhibitory mechanisms in a cerebellar nucleus of the thalamus (ventral intermediate nucleus). This suggests that altered dopaminergic projections to the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit have a role in Parkinson's tremor.aww331media15307619934001.

Lateral thalamic control of nociceptive response after whisker pad injection of varicella zoster virus

Pain is a common complication of herpes zoster (HZ) infection which results from reactivation of a latent varicella zoster virus (VZV). A third of HZ patients' progress to a chronic pain state known as post herpetic neuralgia (PHN), and about a quarter of these patients' have orofacial pain. The mechanisms controlling the pain responses are not understood. Studies suggest central pathways involving the thalamus could control pain related to HZ, and studies in our lab suggest (VGAT) in the lateral thalamus influences orofacial pain. We hypothesized that thalamic VGAT functions, in part, to reduce pain, particularly orofacial pain, associated with VZV. To address this hypothesis VZV was injected into the whisker pad. Affective and motivational aspects of pain were measured using the Place Escape/Avoidance Paradigm. Thalamic neuronal activity was modulated after injecting an adeno-associated virus (AAV) expressing an engineered acetylcholine Gi-protein-coupled receptor. This receptor inhibits neuronal firing when bound by clozapine-n-oxide (CNO). VGAT expression was attenuated in the thalamus by injecting an AAV construct that expressed a VGAT silencing shRNA. VZV-induced nociception was significantly decreased after administering CNO in male rats. Nociception significantly increased concomitant with increased thalamic c-fos expression after attenuating thalamic VGAT expression. These data establish that the lateral thalamus (posterior, ventral posteromedial, ventral posterolateral and/or reticular thalamic nucleus) controls VZV-induced nociception in the orofacial region, and that GABA in this region appears to reduce the response to VZV-induced nociception possibly by gating facial pain input.