GH safety workshop position paper: a critical appraisal of recombinant human GH therapy in children and adults

Long-acting growth hormone in the treatment of children with growth hormone deficiency

INTRODUCTION

The introduction of long-acting formulations in recent years is changing the landscape of growth hormone (GH) therapy. Daily recombinant human GH (rhGH) has been the treatment of choice for children and adults with GH deficiency (GHD), since its approval in 1985. However, decreasing adherence to treatment over time has been identified as a cause of the decline in rhGH efficacy, leading to significant efforts to develop long-acting rhGH (LAGH) formulations.

AREAS COVERED

A comprehensive analysis of the literature was conducted to evaluate their mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, efficacy, safety profile, and administration route. The review focuses on the LAGH approved from both the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the treatment of pediatric growth hormone deficiency (PGHD): Lonapegsomatropin, Somatrogon and Somapacitan. We aim to facilitate evidence-based clinical decisions by analyzing the available data on the three LAGH formulations.

EXPERT OPINION

Even if current evidence suggests a non-inferiority of all the three LAGH formulations when compared to daily rhGH, long-term concerns persist regarding the non-physiological GH profile associated with LAGH, characterized by weekly instead of daily peaks. Further research and real-life studies are required to better define the long-term efficacy of these formulations.

Long-term safety and effectiveness of a somatropin biosimilar (Omnitrope®) in children requiring growth hormone therapy: analysis of final data of Italian patients enrolled in the PATRO children study

PURPOSE

Omnitrope® (a somatropin biosimilar), used to treat growth disturbances, is considered to have a good safety profile in children. Here, we present the analysis of final data of the Italian cohort of the PAtients TReated with Omnitrope® (PATRO) Children study.

METHODS

This multicenter, open-label, longitudinal, post-marketing surveillance study enrolled eligible children during 2010-2018. The primary objective was to assess the long-term safety of Omnitrope® by recording all adverse events (AEs), serious AEs, and adverse drug reactions (ADRs). A secondary objective was to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of Omnitrope® using height measurements.

RESULTS

A total of 375 patients were included in the Italian cohort of the PATRO Children study. After a mean ± standard deviation (SD) follow-up duration of 40.9 ± 24.6 months, 607 AEs were reported in 58.4% of patients, mostly of mild (52.5%) or moderate (15.7%) severity. The most common AEs were headache (11.7%), elevated insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 (4.8%), abdominal pain (4.3%), and pyrexia (3.7%). Sixty-seven ADRs occurred in 52 patients (13.9%); the most common ADRs were elevated IGF-1 (3.5%) and insulin resistance (2.9%). Mean ± SD height standard deviation scores in treatment-naïve patients increased from -2.5 ± 0.7 at baseline (n = 318) to -1.3 ± 0.7 at 5 years (n = 56) and to -0.8 ± 0.7 at 7.5 years (n = 13).

CONCLUSIONS

This final analysis extends the interim analysis findings from the PATRO Children study and confirms the long-term safety and effectiveness of Omnitrope® in Italian pediatric patients with growth disturbances.

Effects of growth hormone replacement therapy in childhood-onset craniopharyngioma: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Craniopharyngiomas (CPs) often lead to growth hormone deficiency (GHD) in children. Growth hormone replacement therapy (GHRT) is essential for managing GHD but its impact on body mass index (BMI) and metabolic outcomes is controversial. Concerns exist that GHRT might contribute to tumor recurrence, with guidelines varying on when to start therapy post-surgery. This updated systematic review and meta-analysis explores the effects and timing of GHRT in children post-craniopharyngioma surgery.

METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases. Included studies compared the effects of GHRT in childhood-onset craniopharyngioma patients who received GHRT versus those who did not. Random-effects meta-analyses were used to pool relative risk (RR) or mean difference (MD) for each outcome. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² statistic. This study is registered with PROSPERO (CRD42024498082).

RESULTS

We included 11 studies in the meta-analysis. No differences in tumor progression/recurrence were found between the GHRT and no GHRT groups (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.56-1.05, p = 0.10). The impact of timing of GHRT is less clear because of limited data and high heterogeneity. There were no differences in BMI between the GHRT and no GHRT (MD -0.94, 95% CI -1.88,0.00, p = 0.05). Two studies reported that GHRT might improve lipid profiles.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that GHRT does not increase the risk of tumor progression/recurrence in CP patients. GHRT can improve linear growth, but its effects on the BMI and lipid profiles remain inconclusive, requiring further studies.

Long-term effectiveness and safety of long-acting growth hormone preparation in children with growth hormone deficiency

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the long-term effectiveness of weekly vs. daily growth hormone (GH) administration in children with GH deficiency.

METHODS

This study, part of the "LG Growth Study", included a total of 996 children with GH deficiency (773 receiving daily GH and 193 receiving weekly GH). Anthropometric data were collected at baseline and every 12 months; clinical and laboratory data were collected at baseline and throughout the study.

RESULTS

At baseline, the weekly GH group was older, shorter in mid-parental height (MPH), and had more pubertal boys compared to the daily GH group (age: 8.46 ± 3.44 vs. 7.46 ± 2.89 years, p<0.001; MPH: -0.88 ± 0.73 SD vs. -1.02 ± 0.84 SD, p=0.044; pubertal boys: 34.0 vs. 16.9 %, p=0.006). Height velocity and change in height SDS during the first 12 months were higher in the daily GH group (height velocity: 9.06 ± 1.72 vs. 8.67 ± 1.98 cm/year, p=0.028; height SDS change: 0.78 ± 0.39 vs. 0.61 ± 0.41, p<0.001). However, height SDS at 24 and 48 months were similar between groups. No significant differences in overall height velocity, annualized treatment continuation rate, and safety profile were observed over 48 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Weekly GH therapy appears to be an effective and safe alternative to daily GH treatment in children with GH deficiency over a 4-year period. Further research with larger sample sizes and longer follow-up is needed to confirm these findings and assess the extended safety and effectiveness of LAGH.

Improving growth in preterm infants through nutrition: a practical overview

The primary purpose of this practical overview is to provide a practical update on appropriate nutritional strategies to improve growth in preterm infants. Current recommendations for improving preterm growth concern both macronutrients and micronutrients, with tailored nutrition since the first days of life, particularly when fetal growth restriction has been reported. Human milk is undoubtedly the best nutrition for all newborns, but, in some populations, if not adequately fortified, it does not adequately support their growth. In all preterms, growth should be correctly monitored weekly to intercept a negative trend of growth and implement nutritional strategies to avoid growth restriction. Similarly, growth should be accurately supported and monitored after discharge to improve long-term health consequences.

Heightism, growth hormone treatment, and social functioning: a holistic approach to a persistent clinical challenge

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Use of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) treatment to increase height in children with non-growth hormone deficient short stature is becoming more common. Yet, the evidence to support the notion that augmenting height directly leads to increased well being, specifically psychosocial well being, is inconsistent, with high-quality evidence lacking.

RECENT FINDINGS

Review of recent studies demonstrates that the association between height augmentation and psychosocial well being is complex. The direct contribution of height to well being may be less than the current model of clinical care of short stature assumes. Rather, the new studies provide evidence to support a role for psychosocial factors, including height-related beliefs, social support, and coping skills, in promoting psychosocial well being, specifically quality of life and self-esteem.

SUMMARY

Clinical care of short stature would benefit from incorporating a holistic model of care that considers psychosocial interventions in addition to, or instead of, rhGH treatment.

Growth hormone promotes myelin repair after chronic hypoxia via triggering pericyte-dependent angiogenesis

White matter injury (WMI) causes oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) differentiation arrest and functional deficits, with no effective therapies to date. Here, we report increased expression of growth hormone (GH) in the hypoxic neonatal mouse brain, a model of WMI. GH treatment during or post hypoxic exposure rescues hypoxia-induced hypomyelination and promotes functional recovery in adolescent mice. Single-cell sequencing reveals that Ghr mRNA expression is highly enriched in vascular cells. Cell-lineage labeling and tracing identify the GHR-expressing vascular cells as a subpopulation of pericytes. These cells display tip-cell-like morphology with kinetic polarized filopodia revealed by two-photon live imaging and seemingly direct blood vessel branching and bridging. Gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments indicate that GHR signaling in pericytes is sufficient to modulate angiogenesis in neonatal brains, which enhances OPC differentiation and myelination indirectly. These findings demonstrate that targeting GHR and/or downstream effectors may represent a promising therapeutic strategy for WMI.

[First experience using an aromatase inhibitor in combination with growth hormone to improve growth prognosis in a 14-year-old boy with growth hormone deficiency after treatment of craniopharyngioma. A case-report]

This article describes the first experience of successful use of growth hormone (GH) in combination with an aromatase inhibitor (AI), in a 14-year-old boy. At the age of 7, he presented with headaches, nausea and vomiting, and MRI revealed a craniopharyngioma (CP). An Ommaya system was implanted, and radiation therapy was performed. As a result of treatment, GH deficiency and secondary hypothyroidism developed. At age 9 years, signs of puberty appeared. Growth rate remained satisfactory until the age of 14 years. At the age of 14 growth rate slowed down, which was the reason for appointment. Upon examination, the bone age was 16 years and the projected final height without therapy was 162 cm. Given the poor growth prognosis, IA anastrozole in combination with GH was prescribed. During two years of therapy the growth gain amounted to 12.5 cm. This observation demonstrates that normal growth rates in patients with CP do not indicate preserved somatotropic function of the pituitary gland. With preserved sexual function, early or premature puberty may be observed. In such cases, IA can be prescribed in addition to GH - these are medications that inhibit the closure of growth. GH therapy in combination with IA is highly effective and safe in patients with GH deficiency after treatment of KF during puberty and allows to achieve good growth parameters.

Novel therapies for growth disorders

As we continue to understand more about the complex mechanism of growth, a plethora of novel therapies have recently been developed that aim to address barriers and optimize efficacy. This review aims to explore these novel therapies and provide a succinct review based on the latest clinical studies in order to introduce clinicians to therapies that will soon constitute the future in the field of short stature.  Conclusion: The review focuses on long-acting growth hormone formulations, a novel growth hormone oral secretagogue, novel treatments for children with achondroplasia, and targeted therapies for rare forms of skeletal dysplasias. What is Known: • Recombinant human growth hormone has been the mainstay of treatment for children with short stature for years. • Such therapy is not always effective based on the underlying diagnosis (e.g achondroplasia, Turner syndrome). Compliance with daily injections is challenging and can directly affect efficacy. What is New: • Recent development of long-acting growth hormone regimens and oral secretagogues can overcome some of these barriers, however several limitations need to be taken into consideration. • Newer therapies for achondroplasia, and other rare forms of skeletal dysplasias introduce us to a new era of targeted therapies for children with short stature. Clinicians ought to be aware of pitfalls and caveats before introducing these novel therapies to every day practice.

Impact of Childhood Cancer on Growth

Along with improvements in cancer treatment over time, the number of childhood cancer survivors has been growing. Survivors are at risk for serious medical complications, and growth impairment is among the most common. There are multiple factors that may cause impaired growth among survivors. In this article, we review the impact of cancer on growth in children and adolescents. We first provide an overview of growth disturbance among childhood cancer patients and survivors due to nonhormonal causes, including a recent understanding of the effect of targeted cancer therapies (eg, tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors) on growth. Then we describe the hormonal causes of growth impairment among survivors, focusing on growth hormone deficiency, including the prevalence, risk factors, and treatment. Lastly, we briefly summarize overgrowth and tall stature in childhood cancer. It is critical to assess the linear growth of children and adolescents, especially in cancer survivors who are at risk for growth disturbance, since growth is an important measure of their health.

Once-Weekly Somapacitan as an Alternative Management of Growth Hormone Deficiency in Prepubertal Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trial

Growth hormone treatment has effectively restored normal growth in children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD); however, it poses challenges in compliance with a daily growth hormone injection regimen, leading to low adherence and persistence rates. Once-weekly Somapacitan is a potential alternative for treating children with GHD. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and adherence of once-weekly subcutaneous Somapacitan compared to daily growth hormone injection in prepubertal children with GHD. A search for the published records was carried out on 17 October 2023 utilizing the searching feature available on PubMed, Embase, and Scopus. Primary study outcomes included (1) efficacy, measured by height velocity (HV), standard deviation score (SDs), height SDs, insulin-like growth factor-SDs (IGF-I SDs), and bone age vs. chronological age ratio (BA vs. CA); (2) safety, assessed through adverse events and injection site reactions; and (3) adherence, determined by the percentage of the sample completing treatments. Secondary outcomes evaluated disease burden scores, divided into three subgroup domains: emotional well-being, physical functional, and social well-being scores. We retrieved 6 studies that were eligible for the systematic review (417 versus 186 for intervention and control, respectively). Only 2 of the total included studies were eligible for pooled analysis (175 versus 82 for intervention and control, respectively). The efficacy profile of Somapacitan was similar to daily growth hormones, indicated by HV (mean difference (MD = 0.04; p = 0.96), HV SDs (MD = -0.71; p = 0.09), height SDs (MD = 0.11; p = 0.69), IGF-I SDs (MD = 0.06; p = 0.70), and CA vs. BA (MD = 0.67; p = 0.70)), demonstrated similar and non-inferior outcomes. Treatment adherence is 3 times higher in the Somapacitan group as compared to control (OR = 3.02; p = 0.03) with adherence rates reaching 95% and 88% for Somapacitan and Norditropin®, respectively. The disease burden measurement is similar in Somapacitan and daily growth hormones (MD = -0.62; p = 0.83), as indicated by the Growth Hormone Deficiency-Child Impact Measure. In almost all outcomes, the level of confidence is strong. The confidence level in the data is generally strong, but for CA vs. BA and the subgroup of severe adverse events with heterogeneity >50%, the confidence level is moderate. Although the efficacy and safety profiles of Somapacitan were found to be similar to those of daily growth hormones, a reduced frequency of once-weekly Somapacitan injections led to increased adherence. PROSPERO registration: CRD42023473209.

Insights from an advisory board: Facilitating transition of care into adulthood in brain cancer survivors with acquired pediatric growth hormone deficiency

OBJECTIVE

Children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) face multiple challenges that can negatively impact the transition from pediatric to adult endocrinology care. For children with GHD resulting from brain cancer or its treatment, the involvement of oncology care providers and possible disease-related comorbidities add further complexity to this transition.

DESIGN

An advisory board of pediatric and adult endocrinologists was convened to help better understand the unique challenges faced by childhood cancer survivors with GHD, and discuss recommendations to optimize continuity of care as these patients proceed to adulthood. Topics included the benefits and risks of growth hormone (GH) therapy in cancer survivors, the importance of initiating GH replacement therapy early in the patient's journey and continuing into adulthood, and the obstacles that can limit an effective transition to adult care for these patients.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

Some identified obstacles included the need to prioritize cancer treatment over treatment for GHD, a lack of patient and oncologist knowledge about the full range of benefits provided by long-term GH administration, concerns about tumor recurrence risk in cancer survivors receiving GH treatment, and suboptimal communication and coordination (e.g., referrals) between care providers, all of which could potentially result in treatment gaps or even complete loss of follow-up during the care transition. Advisors provided recommendations for increasing education for patients and care providers and improving coordination between treatment team members, both of which are intended to help improve continuity of care to maximize the health benefits of GH administration during the critical period when childhood cancer survivors transition into adulthood.

Growth Hormone Treatment for Non-GHD Disorders: Excitement Tempered by Biology

The success of growth hormone (GH) replacement in children with classical GH deficiency has led to excitement that other causes of short stature may benefit similarly. However, clinical experience has shown less consistent and generally less dramatic effects on adult height, perhaps not surprising in light of increased understanding of GH and growth plate biology. Nonetheless, clinical demand for GH treatment continues to grow. Upon the 20th anniversary of the US Food and Drug Administration's approval of GH treatment for idiopathic short stature, this review will consider the factors underlying the expansion of GH treatment, the biological mechanisms of GH action, the non-GH-deficient uses of GH as a height-promoting agent, biological constraints to GH action, and future directions.

Somatrogon injection for the treatment of pediatric growth hormone deficiency with comparison to other LAGH products

INTRODUCTION

Somatrogon (NGENLA™) is a long-acting GH (LAGH) formulation that was approved in Canada in October 2021 for the treatment of pediatric growth hormone deficiency (GHD). Somatrogon has also received approval in Australia, Japan, the European Union, the USA, and the UK. Somatrogon is a glycoprotein that utilizes three copies of the C-terminal peptide of human chorionic gonadotropin to delay its clearance allowing for once-weekly administration.

AREAS COVERED

The purpose of this article is to describe the development of somatrogon for treatment of individuals with GHD. Trials of somatrogon demonstrated positive efficacy results in adults (Phase 2) and children (Phase 2 and 3) with GHD including non-inferiority of height velocity compared to daily GH, with no concerning side effects. Growth responses, pharmacodynamics and safety data are compared to other LAGH products, lonapegsomatropin and somapacitan, in Phase 3 trials in pediatric GHD.

EXPERT OPINION

New LAGH products, including somatrogon, have the potential to increase patient adherence as well as improve quality of life and clinical outcomes. Clinicians will need to identify the best candidates for LAGH therapy and understand how to safely monitor and adjust therapy. Long-term surveillance studies are necessary to demonstrate adherence, efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and safety of LAGH preparations.

Safety of long-term use of daily and long-acting growth hormone in growth hormone-deficient adults on cancer risk

Daily injections of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) have been used in clinical practice for almost four decades as a replacement therapy in adult patients with GH deficiency (GHD). Long-term adherence to daily injections of rhGH is a clinical concern that may result in reduced therapeutic efficacy, and long-acting GH (LAGH) formulations have been developed in an attempt of overcoming this problem. Long-term safety issues of rhGH are the other side of the coin that has been carefully monitored over the years, particularly related to the proliferative actions of GH that could increase the risk of tumor recurrence or induce the development of new benign and malignant tumors. In this review, we present what is currently known about the cancer risk in GHD adults treated with daily rhGH injections and we discuss the major concerns and responses needed from future surveillance studies regarding the safety of LAGH preparations.

Growth hormone replacement in adults with cured acromegaly: Efficacy and safety

Between 2% and 60% of patients with cured acromegaly may eventually develop growth hormone deficiency. In adults, growth hormone deficiency is associated with abnormal body composition, decreased exercise capacity and quality of life, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and increased cardiovascular risk. Similar to patients with other sellar lesions, the diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency in adults with cured acromegaly generally requires stimulation testing, with the exception of patients with very low serum insulin-like growth factor I levels and multiple additional pituitary hormone deficiencies. In adults with cured acromegaly, growth hormone replacement may have beneficial effects on body adiposity, muscle endurance, serum lipids and quality of life. Growth hormone replacement is generally well-tolerated. Arthralgias, edema, carpal tunnel syndrome and hyperglycemia may occur in patients with cured acromegaly, as is true of patients with growth hormone deficiency of other etiologies. However, there is evidence of increased cardiovascular risk in some studies of growth hormone replacement in adults with cured acromegaly. More studies are needed to fully establish the beneficial effects and elucidate the risks of growth hormone replacement in adults with cured acromegaly. Until then, growth hormone replacement can be considered in these patients on a case-by-case basis.

Approach to the Patient: Case Studies in Pediatric Growth Hormone Deficiency and Their Management

CONTEXT

Pathologies attributed to perturbations of the GH/IGF-I axis are among the most common referrals received by pediatric endocrinologists.

AIM

In this article, distinctive cased-based presentations are used to provide a practical and pragmatic approach to the management of pediatric growth hormone deficiency (GHD).

CASES

We present 4 case vignettes based on actual patients that illustrate (1) congenital GHD, (2) childhood GHD presenting as failure to thrive, (3) childhood GHD presenting in adolescence as growth deceleration, and (4) childhood-onset GHD manifesting as metabolic complications in adolescence. We review patient presentation and a management approach that aims to highlight diagnostic considerations for treatment based on current clinical guidelines, with mention of new therapeutic and diagnostic modalities being used in the field.

CONCLUSION

Pediatric GHD is diverse in etiology and clinical presentation. Timely management has the potential not only to improve growth but can also ameliorate or even mitigate adverse metabolic outcomes, which can be directly attributed to a GH deficient state.

Development of a Minimum Dataset for the Monitoring of Recombinant Human Growth Hormone Therapy in Children with Growth Hormone Deficiency: A GloBE-Reg Initiative

INTRODUCTION

Although there are some recommendations in the literature on the assessments that should be performed in children on recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) therapy, the level of consensus on these measurements is not clear. The objective of the current study was to identify the minimum dataset (MDS) that could be measured in a routine clinical setting across the world, aiming to minimise burden on clinicians and improve quality of data collection.

METHODS

This study was undertaken by the growth hormone (GH) scientific study group in GloBE-Reg, a new project that has developed a common registry platform that can support long-term safety and effectiveness studies of drugs. Twelve clinical experts from 7 international endocrine organisations identified by the GloBE-Reg Steering Committee, 2 patient representatives, and representatives from 2 pharmaceutical companies with previous GH registry expertise collaborated to develop this recommendation. A comprehensive list of data fields routinely collected by each of the clinical and industry experts for children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) was compiled. Each member was asked to determine the: (1) importance of the data field and (2) ease of data collection. Data fields that achieved 70% consensus in terms of importance qualified for the MDS, provided <50% deemed the item difficult to collect.

RESULTS

A total of 246 items were compiled and 27 were removed due to redundancies, with 219 items subjected to the grading system. Of the 219 items, 111 achieved at least 70% consensus as important data to collect when monitoring children with GHD on rhGH treatment. Sixty-nine of the 219 items were deemed easy to collect. Combining the criteria of importance and ease of data collection, 63 met the criteria for the MDS. Several anomalies to the MDS rule were identified and highlighted for discussion, including whether the patients were involved in current or previous clinical trials, need for HbA1c monitoring, other past medical history, and adherence, enabling formulation of the final MDS recommendation of 43 items; 20 to be completed once, 14 every 6 months, and 9 every 12 months.

CONCLUSION

In summary, this exercise performed through the GloBE-Reg initiative provides a recommendation of the MDS requirement, collected through real-world data, for the monitoring of safety and effectiveness of rhGH in children with GHD, both for the current daily preparations and the newer long-acting GH.

Growth hormone treatment in pediatrics: What can we improve?

OBJECTIVES

To analyze the age at which treatment with growth hormone (GH) is started in the different indications approved in our country, as well as to assess the response to it and detect points of improvement.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A descriptive, observational and retrospective study of pediatric patients receiving GH treatment in December 2020 and monitored in the pediatric Endocrinology Unit of a tertiary care hospital.

RESULTS

A total of 111 patients (52 females) were included in the study. The mean age at the start of treatment was 6.6 years old, being delayed in all diagnostic groups with respect to what is approved for each indication. The indication for which they most frequently received treatment was GH deficiency (n = 60, 54%). In this diagnostic group, there is a predominance of males (39 boys vs 21 girls, and a significantly greater increase in height z score (greater height SDS) is observed in those with early start of treatment compared to those who start late (greaterheight SDS 0.93 vs 0.6; P < .05). All diagnostic groups presented a greater height SDS and height velocity. No adverse effects were observed in any patient.

CONCLUSION

GH treatment is effective and safe for the approved indications. The age of initiation of treatment is a point to improve in all indications, especially in SGA patients. For this, good coordination between primary care pediatricians and pediatric endocrinologists is essential, as well as specific training to identify early signs of different pathologies.

Approach to the Patient With Hypothalamic Obesity

Hypothalamic obesity (HO) is defined as abnormal weight gain due to physical destruction of the hypothalamus. Suprasellar tumors, most commonly craniopharyngiomas, are a classic cause of HO. HO often goes unnoticed initially as patients, families, and medical teams are focused on oncologic treatments and management of panhypopituitarism. HO is characterized by rapid weight gain in the first year after hypothalamic destruction followed by refractory obesity due to an energy imbalance of decreased energy expenditure without decreased food intake. Currently available pharmacotherapies are less effective in HO than in common obesity. While not a cure, dietary interventions, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric surgery can mitigate the effects of HO. Early recognition of HO is necessary to give an opportunity to intervene before substantial weight gain occurs. Our goal for this article is to review the pathophysiology of HO and to discuss available treatment options and future directions for prevention and treatment.

Efficacy and safety of growth hormone therapy in children with Noonan syndrome

Patients with Noonan syndrome typically have a target height <2 standard deviations compared to the general population, and half of the affected adults remain permanently below the 3rd centile for height, though their short stature might result from a multifactorial etiology, not-yet fully understood. The secretion of growth hormone (GH) following the classic GH stimulation tests is often normal, with baseline insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels at the lower normal limits, but patients with Noonan syndrome have also a possible moderate response to GH therapy, leading to a final increased height and substantial improvement in growth rate. Aim of this review was to evaluate both safety and efficacy of GH therapy in children and adolescents with Noonan syndrome, also evaluating as a secondary aim the possible correlations between the underlying genetic mutations and GH responses.

An open-label extension of a phase 2 dose-finding study of once-weekly somatrogon vs. once-daily Genotropin in children with short stature due to growth hormone deficiency: results following 5 years of treatment

OBJECTIVES

Somatrogon is a long-acting recombinant human growth hormone (GH) employed as a once-weekly treatment for children with GH deficiency (GHD). A 12-month, phase 2 study of once-weekly somatrogon vs. once-daily GH (Genotropin^®) was initiated, after which participants could enroll into an open-label extension (OLE) evaluating the safety and efficacy of long-term somatrogon treatment.

METHODS

There were five study periods, Periods I and II were 6 months each while Periods III, IV, and V were 12 months each. In the main study (Periods I and II), 53 prepubertal children with GHD were randomized to once-weekly somatrogon (0.25, 0.48, or 0.66 mg/kg/week) or once-daily Genotropin (0.034 mg/kg/day); 48 continued into the OLE, consisting of Period III (original somatrogon dose; Genotropin recipients randomized to one of three somatrogon doses), Period IV (somatrogon 0.66 mg/kg/week), and Period V (prefilled somatrogon pen [0.66 mg/kg/week]).

RESULTS

At the end of Period III, the mean ± SD annual height velocity (HV) for 0.25, 0.48, and 0.66 mg/kg/week somatrogon groups was 7.73 ± 1.89, 7.54 ± 1.28, and 8.81 ± 1.12 cm/year, respectively; HV was sustained during Periods IV/V. Height SD scores (SDS) showed progressive improvement throughout the OLE, regardless of initial cohort assignment, approaching the normal range (-0.69 ± SD 0.87) at the end of Period V Year 1. Mild or moderate treatment-emergent adverse events were reported in 81.3% of participants, most unrelated to study drug.

CONCLUSIONS

Up to 5 years of once-weekly somatrogon was well tolerated and resulted in sustained improvement in height SDS and delta height SDS in prepubertal short children with GHD.

International Consensus Guideline on Small for Gestational Age (SGA): Etiology and Management from Infancy to Early Adulthood

This International Consensus Guideline was developed by experts in the field of SGA of 10 pediatric endocrine societies worldwide. A consensus meeting was held and 1300 articles formed the basis for discussions. All experts voted about the strengths of the recommendations. The guideline gives new and clinically relevant insights into the etiology of short stature after SGA birth, including novel knowledge about (epi)genetic causes. Besides, it presents long-term consequences of SGA birth and new treatment options, including treatment with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRHa) in addition to growth hormone (GH) treatment, and the metabolic and cardiovascular health of young adults born SGA after cessation of childhood-GH-treatment in comparison with appropriate control groups. To diagnose SGA, accurate anthropometry and use of national growth charts are recommended. Follow-up in early life is warranted and neurodevelopment evaluation in those at risk. Excessive postnatal weight gain should be avoided, as this is associated with an unfavorable cardio-metabolic health profile in adulthood. Children born SGA with persistent short stature < -2.5 SDS at age 2 years or < -2 SDS at age of 3-4 years, should be referred for diagnostic work-up. In case of dysmorphic features, major malformations, microcephaly, developmental delay, intellectual disability and/or signs of skeletal dysplasia, genetic testing should be considered. Treatment with 0.033-0.067 mg GH/kg/day is recommended in case of persistent short stature at age of 3-4 years. Adding GnRHa treatment could be considered when short adult height is expected at pubertal onset. All young adults born SGA require counseling to adopt a healthy lifestyle.

The Changing Face of Turner Syndrome

Turner syndrome (TS) is a condition in females missing the second sex chromosome (45,X) or parts thereof. It is considered a rare genetic condition and is associated with a wide range of clinical stigmata, such as short stature, ovarian dysgenesis, delayed puberty and infertility, congenital malformations, endocrine disorders, including a range of autoimmune conditions and type 2 diabetes, and neurocognitive deficits. Morbidity and mortality are clearly increased compared with the general population and the average age at diagnosis is quite delayed. During recent years it has become clear that a multidisciplinary approach is necessary toward the patient with TS. A number of clinical advances has been implemented, and these are reviewed. Our understanding of the genomic architecture of TS is advancing rapidly, and these latest developments are reviewed and discussed. Several candidate genes, genomic pathways and mechanisms, including an altered transcriptome and epigenome, are also presented.

Reduced CV risk with long-term GH replacement in AGHD: data from two large observational studies

Adult growth hormone deficiency (AGHD) is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease. Long-term growth hormone (GH) treatment could improve CV outcomes. The objective of this study was to evaluate CV disease risk in patients with AGHD who received GH replacement therapy for up to 10 years as part of NordiNet® IOS (NCT00960128) and the ANSWER Program (NCT01009905). The studies were observational, non-interventional and multicentre, monitoring long-term effectiveness and safety of GH treatment. NordiNet® IOS involved 23 countries (469 sites) across Europe and the Middle East. The ANSWER Program was conducted in the USA (207 sites). This analysis included patients aged 18-75 years who were GH naïve at study entry, who had ≤10 years of GH treatment data and who could be assessed for CV risk for at least 1 follow-up year. The main outcome measure was risk of CV disease by age 75 years, as calculated with the Multinational Cardiovascular Risk Consortium model (Brunner score) using non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol adjusted for age, sex and CV risk factors. The results of this analysis showed that CV risk decreased gradually over the 10-year period for GH-treated patients. The risk was lower for patients treated for 2 and 7 years vs age- and sex-matched control groups (not yet started treatment) (14.51% vs 16.15%; P = 0.0105 and 13.53% vs 16.81%; P = 0.0001, respectively). This suggests that GH treatment in people with AGHD may reduce the risk of CV disease by age 75 years compared with matched controls.

Isolated anterior pituitary dysfunction in adulthood

Hypopituitarism is defined as a complete or partial deficiency in one or more pituitary hormones. Anterior hypopituitarism includes secondary adrenal insufficiency, central hypothyroidism, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, growth hormone deficiency and prolactin deficiency. Patients with hypopituitarism suffer from an increased disability and sick days, resulting in lower health status, higher cost of care and an increased mortality. In particular during adulthood, isolated pituitary deficits are not an uncommon finding; their clinical picture is represented by vague symptoms and unclear signs, which can be difficult to properly diagnose. This often becomes a challenge for the physician. Aim of this narrative review is to analyse, for each anterior pituitary deficit, the main related etiologies, the characteristic signs and symptoms, how to properly diagnose them (suggesting an easy and reproducible step-based approach), and eventually the treatment. In adulthood, the vast majority of isolated pituitary deficits are due to pituitary tumours, head trauma, pituitary surgery and brain radiotherapy. Immune-related dysfunctions represent a growing cause of isolated pituitary deficiencies, above all secondary to use of oncological drugs such as immune checkpoint inhibitors. The diagnosis of isolated pituitary deficiencies should be based on baseline hormonal assessments and/or dynamic tests. Establishing a proper diagnosis can be quite challenging: in fact, even if the diagnostic methods are becoming increasingly refined, a considerable proportion of isolated pituitary deficits still remains without a certain cause. While isolated ACTH and TSH deficiencies always require a prompt replacement treatment, gonadal replacement therapy requires a benefit-risk evaluation based on the presence of comorbidities, age and gender of the patient; finally, the need of growth hormone replacement therapies is still a matter of debate. On the other side, prolactin replacement therapy is still not available. In conclusion, our purpose is to offer a broad evaluation from causes to therapies of isolated anterior pituitary deficits in adulthood. This review will also include the evaluation of uncommon symptoms and main etiologies, the elements of suspicion of a genetic cause and protocols for diagnosis, follow-up and treatment.

Psychometric Validation of the Growth Hormone Deficiency-Child Treatment Burden Measure (GHD-CTB) and the Growth Hormone Deficiency-Parent Treatment Burden Measure (GHD-PTB)

PURPOSE

The aim was to evaluate the measurement properties of the Growth Hormone Deficiency-Child Treatment Burden Measure-Child (GHD-CTB-Child), a patient-reported outcome (PRO) for children aged 9 to < 13 years; the Growth Hormone Deficiency-Child Treatment Burden Measure-Observer (GHD-CTB-Observer), an observer-reported outcome (ObsRO) version completed by parents/guardians of children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) aged 4 to < 9 years; and the Growth Hormone Deficiency-Parent Treatment Burden Measure (GHD-PTB), a PRO that assesses the treatment burden of parents/guardians living with children with GHD aged 4 to < 13 years.

METHODS

A non-interventional, multi-center, clinic-based study across 30 private practice and large institutional sites in the United States and the United Kingdom was conducted. The sample consisted of 145 pre-pubertal children aged 9 to < 13 years at enrollment with a physician confirmed GHD diagnosis as well as 98 parents/guardians of pre-pubertal younger children aged 4 to < 9 years at enrollment with a physician confirmed GHD diagnosis. The child sample consisted of 59 treatment-naïve children (no prior exposure to growth hormone [GH] therapy; were starting GH treatment at study start per standard of care) and 184 children already maintained on treatment for at least 6 months. At baseline, all study participants completed a paper validation battery including all measures needed to conduct the validation analyses. Follow-up assessments with children in the maintenance group and their caregiver/parent were conducted approximately 2 weeks post-baseline to evaluate test-retest reproducibility. To evaluate sensitivity to change and meaningful change thresholds, treatment-naïve participants in both child and parent/guardian populations were assessed within 1 week of report of minimal improvement between week 3 and week 11 and at week 12. Psychometric analyses were implemented following an a priori statistical analysis plan.

RESULTS

Factor analyses confirmed the a priori conceptual domains and Overall score for each measure (GHD-CTB-Child and GHD-CTB-Observer domains: Physical, Emotional Well-being, and Interference; GHD-PTB domains: Emotional Well-being and Interference). Internal consistency was acceptable for all measures (Cronbach's alpha > 0.70). Test-retest reliability was acceptable for the Physical, Emotional, and Overall domains of the GHD-CTB versions, and the Emotional and Overall domains of the GHD-PTB (intraclass correlation coefficient above 0.70). All but one of the convergent validity hypotheses for the GHD-CTB versions and all hypotheses for the GHD-PTB were proven (r > 0.40). Known-groups validity hypotheses were significant for length of time to administer the injections in the GHD-CTB versions (p < 0.001 for Physical, Emotional, and Overall, and p < 0.01 for Interference) and whether parents/guardians versus child gave the injections more often for the Emotional domain of the GHD-PTB (p < 0.05). Associated effect sizes ranged from -0.27 to -0.57 for GHD-CTB versions and from -0.74 to -0.69 for the GHD-PTB, indicating that the measures are sensitive to change. Anchor-based patient and parent/guardian ratings of severity suggest preliminary meaningful change thresholds (GHD-CTB: 6 points for Physical score, 9 for Emotional, and 6 for Interference; GHD-PTB: 10 points for Emotional and 6 for Interference scores).

CONCLUSIONS

The psychometric properties of the GHD-CTB-Child, GHD-CTB-Observer, and GHD-PTB support the validity of their use as PRO and ObsRO measures to capture the experiences associated with treatment burden for children with GHD and their parents/guardians in both clinical and research settings. The Clinicaltrials.gov registration number NCT02580032 was first posted October 20, 2015.

Growth Hormone Replacement Therapy Seems to Be Safe in Children with Low-Grade Midline Glioma: A Series of 124 Cases with Review of the Literature

There is little scientific evidence regarding the safety of GHRT in LGG, where GH deficiency is common.

PURPOSE

to compare the recurrence rate in children with midline LGG, depending on whether or not they have received GHRT, in order to assess its impact on the risk of tumor recurrence.

METHODS

This bicentric retrospective study included 124 patients under the age of 18 who were diagnosed with a midline low-grade glial tumor between 1998 and 2016. We also reviewed literature on this subject. The main outcome measure was tumor relapse, demonstrated by brain MRI.

RESULTS

There were 17 patients in the GH-supplemented group (14%) and 107 patients in the non-supplemented group (86%). Relapse occurred in 65 patients (45.5%); 7 patients died (4.9%); no deaths occurred in patients receiving GHRT. Two patients developed a second tumor (1.4%), none of which had received GHRT. Relapse concerned 36.4% of patients without GHRT and 52.9% of patients with GHRT. The difference was not statistically significant between the two groups (p = 0.3).

CONCLUSION

GHRT does not lead to a statistically significant increase in risk of relapse for pediatric midline low-grade pediatric glioma in our cohort. Although these results appear reassuring, future natural history or prospective studies should be done to ascertain these findings. Nevertheless, these reassuring data regarding GHRT are in agreement with the data in the current literature.

Increase of serum lipoprotein (a), an adverse effect of growth hormone treatment

A number of reports show that high endogenous, or therapeutic administration of human growth hormone (hGH) cause an increase of serum lipoprotein a, Lp(a). Being thrombogenic Lp(a) is an independent risk factor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Hence, it is hypothesized that the recently reported association between childhood hGH treatment and cardiovascular morbidity is probably due to the GH effect on Lp(a) synthesis. It is therefore suggested to determine serum Lp(a) levels before and during hGH treatment in children and adults.

Safety and Efficacy of Pediatric Growth Hormone Therapy: Results From the Full KIGS Cohort

CONTEXT

The Kabi/Pfizer International Growth Database (KIGS) is a large, international database (1987-2012) of children treated with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in real-world settings.

OBJECTIVE

This work aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of rhGH from the full KIGS cohort.

METHODS

Data were collected by investigators from children with growth disorders treated with rhGH (Genotropin [somatropin]; Pfizer). Safety was evaluated in all treated patients, and efficacy in those treated for 1 year or more. A subgroup included patients treated for 5 years or more (≥ 2 years prepubertal) who had reached near-adult height (NAH). Main outcomes included adverse events (AEs), serious AEs (SAEs), and height growth.

RESULTS

The full KIGS cohort (N = 83 803 [58% male]) was treated for idiopathic GH deficiency (IGHD; 46.9%), organic GHD (10.0%), small for gestational age (SGA; 9.5%), Turner syndrome (TS; 9.2%), idiopathic short stature (ISS; 8.2%), and others (16.2%). Median rhGH treatment duration was 2.7 years and observation 3.1 years. SAEs occurred in 3.7% of patients and death in 0.4%. The most common SAEs were recurrence of craniopharyngioma (n = 151), neoplasm (n = 99), and cancer (n = 91); and scoliosis (n = 91). Median first-year delta height-SD score (SDS) (Prader) in prepubertal patients was 0.66 (IGHD), 0.55 (ISS), 0.58 (TS), and 0.71 (SGA). Median gains in NAH-SDS were 1.79 (IGHD), 1.37 (ISS), and 1.34 (SGA) for boys, and 2.07 (IGHD), 1.62 (ISS), 1.07 (TS), and 1.57 (SGA) for girls.

CONCLUSION

Data from KIGS, the largest and longest running international database of rhGH-treated children, show that rhGH is safe and increases short-term height gain and adult height across GHD and non-GHD conditions.

Exogenous growth hormone promotes an epithelial-mesenchymal hybrid phenotype in cancerous HeLa cells but not in non-cancerous HEK293 cells

In cancer, the Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) is the process in which epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal features that allow metastasis, and chemotherapy resistance. Growth hormone (GH) has been associated with melanoma, breast, and endometrial cancer progression through an autocrine regulation of EMT. Since exogenous and autocrine expression of GH is known to have different molecular effects, we investigated whether exogenous GH is capable of regulating the EMT of cancer cells. Furthermore, we investigated whether exogenous GH could promote EMT in non-cancerous cells. To study the effect of GH (100 ng/ml) on cancer and non-cancer cells, we used HeLa and HEK293 cell lines, respectively. We evaluated the loss of cell-cell contacts, by cell scattering assay and migration by wound-healing assay. Additionally, we evaluated the morphological changes by phalloidin-staining. Finally, we evaluated the molecular markers E-cadherin and vimentin by flow cytometry. GH enhances cell scattering and the migratory rate and promotes morphological changes such as cell area increase and actin cytoskeleton filaments formation on HeLa cell line. Moreover, we found that GH favors the expression of the mesenchymal protein vimentin, followed by an increase in E-cadherin's epithelial protein expression, characteristics of an epithelial-mesenchymal hybrid phenotype that is associated with metastasis. On HEK293cells, GH promotes morphological changes, including cell area increment and filopodia formation, but not affects scattering, migration, nor EMT markers expression. Our results suggest that exogenous GH might participate in cervical cancer progression favoring a hybrid EMT phenotype but not on non-cancerous HEK293 cells.

Circulating Exosomal circRNA_0063476 Impairs Expression of Markers of Bone Growth Via the miR-518c-3p/DDX6 Axis in ISS

OBJECTIVES

Idiopathic short stature (ISS), a disorder of unknown cause, accounts for approximately 80% of the clinical diagnoses of children with short stature. Exosomal circular RNA in plasma has been implicated in various disease processes. However, the role of exosome-derived circRNA in ISS has not been elucidated yet.

METHODS

Plasma exosomes of ISS and normal children were cocultured with human chondrocytes. Microarray analysis and RT-PCR identified the differential expression of circRNA in exosomes between ISS and normal children. Hsa_circ_0063476 was upregulated or downregulated in human chondrocytes. Subsequently, overexpression rats of hsa_circ_0063476 was constructed via adenoviral vector to further validate the role of hsa_circ_0063476 on longitudinal bone growth via in vivo experiment.

RESULTS

The plasma exosome of ISS children suppressed the expression of markers of chondrocyte hypertrophy and endochondral ossification. Subsequently, upregulation of hsa_circ_0063476 in ISS exosome was identified. In vitro experiments demonstrated that chondrocyte proliferation, cell cycle and endochondral ossification were suppressed, and apoptosis was increased following hsa_circ_0063476 overexpression in human chondrocytes. Conversely, silencing hsa_circ_0063476 in human chondrocytes can show opposite outcomes. Our study further revealed hsa_circ_0063476 overexpression in vitro can enhance chondrocyte apoptosis and inhibit the expression of markers of chondrocyte proliferation and endochondral ossification via miR-518c-3p/DDX6 axis. Additionally, the rats with hsa_circ_0063476 overexpression showed a short stature phenotype.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors identified a novel pathogenesis in ISS that exosome-derived hsa_circ_0063476 retards the expression of markers of endochondral ossification and impairs longitudinal bone growth via miR-518c-3p/DDX6 axis, which may provide a unique therapeutic avenue for ISS.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary and Other Endocrine Surveillance Among Childhood Cancer Survivors

Endocrine disorders in survivors of childhood, adolescent, and young adult (CAYA) cancers are associated with substantial adverse physical and psychosocial effects. To improve appropriate and timely endocrine screening and referral to a specialist, the International Late Effects of Childhood Cancer Guideline Harmonization Group (IGHG) aims to develop evidence and expert consensus-based guidelines for healthcare providers that harmonize recommendations for surveillance of endocrine disorders in CAYA cancer survivors. Existing IGHG surveillance recommendations for premature ovarian insufficiency, gonadotoxicity in males, fertility preservation, and thyroid cancer are summarized. For hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) dysfunction, new surveillance recommendations were formulated by a guideline panel consisting of 42 interdisciplinary international experts. A systematic literature search was performed in MEDLINE (through PubMed) for clinically relevant questions concerning HP dysfunction. Literature was screened for eligibility. Recommendations were formulated by drawing conclusions from quality assessment of all evidence, considering the potential benefits of early detection and appropriate management. Healthcare providers should be aware that CAYA cancer survivors have an increased risk for endocrine disorders, including HP dysfunction. Regular surveillance with clinical history, anthropomorphic measures, physical examination, and laboratory measurements is recommended in at-risk survivors. When endocrine disorders are suspected, healthcare providers should proceed with timely referrals to specialized services. These international evidence-based recommendations for surveillance of endocrine disorders in CAYA cancer survivors inform healthcare providers and highlight the need for long-term endocrine follow-up care in subgroups of survivors and elucidate opportunities for further research.

What do we do now that the long-acting growth hormone is here?

In standard 52-week phase III clinical trials, once weekly lonapegsomatropin, somatrogon and somapacitan have been found to yield non-inferior height velocities and similar safety profiles to daily GH (DGH) in children with pediatric growth hormone deficiency (PGHD). Lonapegsomatropin, a long-acting GH therapy (LAGH), was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in August 2021 for the treatment of PGHD and has also been approved in other regions of the world. Somatrogon was approved for the treatment of PGHD beginning in some regions beginning in late 2021. Somapacitan was approved by the FDA for the treatment of Adult GHD in August 2020. The phase III clinical trial of somapacitan for the treatment of PGHD has been completed and demonstrated non-inferiority of somapacitan to DGH. New LAGH products may improve patient adherence, quality of life and clinical outcomes, particularly in patients with poor adherence to daily GH injections in the future. With the availability of new LAGH products, clinicians will need to identify the best candidates for LAGH therapy and understand how to monitor and adjust therapy. Long-term surveillance studies are needed to demonstrate adherence, efficacy, cost-effectiveness and safety of LAGH preparations and to understand how the non-physiological pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles following administration of each LAGH product relate to short- and long-term safety and efficacy of LAGH therapy.

The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties and short-term outcome of a novel once-weekly PEGylated recombinant human growth hormone for children with growth hormone deficiency

Objectives

To investigate the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of Y-shape branched PEGylated recombinant human growth hormone (YPEG-rhGH) and evaluate its short-term efficacy and safety in children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD).

Methods

A total of 43 children with GHD from 12 sites in China were enrolled in this randomized, multicenter, active-controlled, double-blind (YPEG-rhGH doses) trial. Patients were randomized 1:1:1:1 to 100, 120, and 140 μg/kg/week of YPEG-rhGH groups and daily rhGH 35 μg/kg/day groups. The treatment lasted 12 weeks. The primary outcome was the area under the curve of the change of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). The secondary outcome was the height velocity (HV) increment at week 12.

Results

A dose-dependent response of maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the concentration-time curves from 0 to 168 hours (AUC0-168h) were observed for YPEG-rhGH. The ratio of Cmax and the ratio of AUC0-168h from the first to the last dosing were 1.09~1.11 and 1.22~1.26 respectively. A YPEG-rhGH dose-dependent increase in area under effect curve (AUEC) of IGF-1 fold change was observed. Model-derived mean IGF-1 SDS was in the normal range for all three YPEG-rhGH doses. At week 12, HV was 7.07, 10.39, 12.27 cm/year, and 11.58 cm/year for YPEG-rhGH 100, 120, and 140 μg/kg/week and daily rhGH respectively. Adherence and safety were consistent with the profile of daily rhGH. No related serious adverse events were reported.

Conclusion

The PK/PD suggests that YPEG-rhGH is suitable for the once-weekly treatment of pediatric GHD. YPEG-rhGH 120 ~ 140 μg/kg/week provides the closest HV increment with similar safety and tolerability compared to daily rhGH 35 μg/kg/day in children with GHD.

Clinical Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier [NCT04513171].

Polyethylene glycol recombinant human growth hormone in Chinese prepubertal slow-growing short children: doses reported in a multicenter real-world study

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the effectiveness of individualized-dose polyethylene glycol recombinant human growth hormone (PEG-rhGH) for short stature.

METHODS

This real-world study enrolled children with short stature in 19 hospitals throughout China. They were treated with PEG-rhGH for 6 months. The starting dosage ranged from 0.10 to 0.20 mg/kg/week. The primary outcome was the change in height standard deviation score (ΔHt SDS).

RESULTS

Five hundred and ten patients were included and grouped based on dosage as A (0.10-0.14 mg/kg/week), B (0.15-0.16 mg/kg/week), C (0.17-0.19 mg/kg/week), and D (0.20 mg/kg/week). The mean 6-month ΔHt SDS for the total cohort was 0.49 ± 0.27, and the means differed among the four dose groups (P = 0.002). The ΔHt SDS was lower in group A than in groups B (LSM difference [95%CI], -0.09 [-0.17, -0.01]), C (LSM difference [95%CI], -0.10 [-0.18, -0.02]), and D (LSM difference [95%CI], -0.13 [-0.21, -0.05]) after adjusting baseline covariates. There were no significant differences among groups B, C, and D. When the baseline IGF-1 was < -2 SDS or > 0 SDS, the △Ht SDS was not different among the four groups (P = 0.931 and P = 0.400). In children with baseline IGF-1 SDS of -2 ~ 0 SDS, a higher dosage was associated with a better treatment effect (P = 0.003), and the △Ht SDS was lower in older children than in younger ones (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

PEG-rhGH could effectively increase height in prepubertal short children. When the baseline IGF-1 was < -2 SDS, 0.10 mg/kg/week could be a starting dose. In other IGF-1 statuses, 0.15-0.20 mg/kg/week might be preferred.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03249480 , retrospectively registered.

Integrative traditional Korean medicine treatment for children with idiopathic short stature: A STROBE-compliant case series

Integrative traditional Korean medicine (TKM) treatment including herbal medicine and acupuncture has been used frequently by parents in South Korea for the treatment of children with idiopathic short stature (ISS). We aimed to report the TKM treatments currently being used for children with ISS and explore their therapeutic effects. The medical records of children who met the criteria for ISS and who had been treated with TKM for the management of ISS were retrospectively reviewed. In total, 116 patients (mean [standard deviation] age, 8.07 [3.08] years; 52.6% girls) enrolled in the study. Their mean height percentile was 1.45 and body mass index was 16.19 kg/m2. During the study period of 5 years, participants visited the outpatient clinic an average of 2.93 times; the mean number of days to the next visit was 101 days. All patients received herbal medicine treatment, and the formulation was mainly decoction type. Additional treatments including ear acupuncture and moxibustion were also used. After treatment with TKM, the height percentile and standard deviation scores increased in both girls and boys (P < .001 and P < .01, respectively). Additionally, the predicted adult height, estimated based on bone age, increased in girls (P < .05). This study provided preliminary data for future research in TKM use in children with ISS.

Expert Opinion on the Management of Growth Hormone Deficiency in Brain Tumor Survivors: Results From an Italian Survey

Background

Growth hormone deficiency (GHD) is the first and most common endocrine complication in pediatric brain tumor survivors (BTS). GHD can occur due to the presence of the tumor itself, surgery, or cranial radiotherapy (CRT).

Aims

This study aimed to evaluate management and adherence to current guidelines of the Italian centers engaged in the diagnosis and follow-up of GHD patients with BTS.

Methods

A multidisciplinary scientific board of pediatric endocrinologists, oncologists and radiologists with neuroimaging expertise discussed and reviewed the main issues relating to the management of GHD in pediatric BTS and developed a survey. The survey included questions relating to organizational aspects, risk factors, diagnosis, definition of stable disease, and treatment. The online survey was sent to an expanded panel of specialists dedicated to the care of pediatric BTS, distributed among the three specialty areas and throughout the country (23 Italian cities and 37 Centers).

Results

The online questionnaire was completed by 86.5% (32 out of 37) of the Centers involved. Most had experience in treating these patients, reporting that they follow more than 50 BTS patients per year. Responses were analyzed descriptively and aggregated by physician specialty. Overall, the results of the survey showed some important controversies in real life adherence to the current guidelines, with discrepancies between endocrinologists and oncologists in the definition of risk factors, diagnostic work-up, decision-making processes and safety. Furthermore, there was no agreement on the neuroimaging definition of stable oncological disease and how to manage growth hormone therapy in patients with residual tumor and GHD.

Conclusions

The results of the first Italian national survey on the management of GHD in BTS highlighted the difference in management on some important issues. The time to start and stop rhGH treatment represent areas of major uncertainty. The definition of stable disease remains critical and represents a gap in knowledge that must be addressed within the international guidelines in order to increase height and to improve metabolic and quality of life outcomes in cancer survivors with GHD.

Spotlight on Lonapegsomatropin Once-Weekly Injection and Its Potential in the Treatment of Growth Hormone Deficiency in Pediatric Patients

Lonapegsomatropin, a long-acting GH therapy (LAGH), was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in August 2021 for the treatment of pediatric growth hormone deficiency (GHD). Lonapegsomatropin is a prodrug consisting of unmodified GH transiently conjugated to methoxypolyethylene glycol which enables time-release of GH with a half-life of ~25 hours allowing for once-weekly administration. Clinical trials of lonapegsomatropin have demonstrated positive efficacy results in children (phase 2 and 3) and adults (phase 2) with GHD. The phase 3 trial in children with GHD established non-inferiority and statistical superiority of height velocity with lonapegsomatropin (11.2 cm/yr) compared to daily GH (10.3 cm/yr), with no concerning side effects with lonapegsomatropin. Similar growth responses have been reported in other LAGH products in phase 2 (somapacitan) and phase 3 (somatrogon) trials. Lonapegsomatropin is distributed in temperature-stable, prefilled cartridges at 9 different doses that can be prescribed based upon specific weight brackets designed to deliver approximately 0.24 mg/kg/wk. An electronic delivery device is required to combine the powdered medication with the diluent and deliver the medication subcutaneously through a small gauge needle to the recipient. The pharmacodynamic data from the clinical trials of lonapegsomatropin has been used to develop models to estimate an average IGF-1 value drawn at any time during the weekly injection interval. This average IGF-1 value may be used to for safety monitoring and/or to guide dose adjustment. New LAGH products, including lonapegsomatropin, may potentially improve patient adherence, quality of life and clinical outcomes, particularly in patients with poor adherence to daily GH injections in the future. With the availability of new LAGH products, clinicians will need to identify the best candidates for LAGH therapy and understand how to monitor and adjust therapy. Long-term surveillance studies are needed to demonstrate adherence, efficacy, cost-effectiveness and safety of LAGH preparations.

Efficacy and Safety of Weekly Somatrogon vs Daily Somatropin in Children With Growth Hormone Deficiency: A Phase 3 Study

CONTEXT

Somatrogon is a long-acting recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in development for once-weekly treatment of children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD).

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of once-weekly somatrogon with once-daily somatropin in prepubertal children with GHD.

METHODS

In this 12-month, open-label, randomized, active-controlled, parallel-group, phase 3 study, participants were randomized 1:1 to receive once-weekly somatrogon (0.66 mg/kg/week) or once-daily somatropin (0.24 mg/kg/week) for 12 months. A total of 228 prepubertal children (boys aged 3-11 years, girls aged 3-10 years) with GHD, impaired height and height velocity (HV), and no prior rhGH treatment were randomized and 224 received ≥1 dose of study treatment (somatrogon: 109; somatropin: 115). The primary endpoint was annualized HV at month 12.

RESULTS

HV at month 12 was 10.10 cm/year for somatrogon-treated subjects and 9.78 cm/year for somatropin-treated subjects, with a treatment difference (somatrogon-somatropin) of 0.33 (95% CI: -0.24, 0.89). The lower bound of the 2-sided 95% CI was higher than the prespecified noninferiority margin (-1.8 cm/year), demonstrating noninferiority of once-weekly somatrogon vs daily somatropin. HV at month 6 and change in height standard deviation score at months 6 and 12 were similar between both treatment groups. Both treatments were well tolerated, with a similar percentage of subjects experiencing mild to moderate treatment-emergent adverse events in both groups (somatrogon: 78.9%, somatropin: 79.1%).

CONCLUSION

The efficacy of once-weekly somatrogon was noninferior to once-daily somatropin, with similar safety and tolerability profiles. (ClinicalTrials.gov no. NCT02968004).

Evaluation of efficacy and safety of long-acting PEGylated recombinant human growth hormone (Jintrolong) for patients with growth hormone deficiency

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to compare the efficacy, safety and metabolic effects of once-weekly pegylated human growth hormone (PEG-rhGH) with daily rhGH in patients with growth hormone deficiency (GHD).

DESIGN

48 patients enrolled in this 12-month single-center, open-label, prospective, randomized controlled trial is allocated to PEG-rhGH 0.12 mg/kg/w and 0.20 mg/kg/w treatment. Besides, the control group allocated 23 patients treated with daily rhGH 0.28 mg/kg/w matched with sex, age, and baseline IGF-1 levels. The primary endpoint included height velocity (HV) and IGF-1 increase at the end of treatment. Other parameters associated with growth, metabolism and safety were also monitored.

RESULTS

In terms of HV increase, the efficacy of PEG-rhGH dosed at 0.12 mg/kg/w and 0.20 mg/kg/w was comparable to that of daily rhGH dosed at 0.28 mg/kg/w after 3, 6 and 12 treatment (p>0.05). IGF-1 concentration and IGF-1 SDS were both elevated significantly at 3, 6 and 12 months (p=0.000) into normal range following PEG-rhGH treatment. BMI SDS elevated after PEG-rhGH treatment for 3, 6 and 12 months (p=0.000). HbA1c elevated after 3 and 12 months (p=0.009) and METS-IR elevated after 6 months (p=0.019) compared with baseline. The differences of other metabolic indexes (such as blood glucose, blood lipid, etc.) have no statistical significance (p>0.05). No severe adverse event was observed among the three groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficacy and safety were promising and comparable between once-weekly PEG-rhGH and daily rhGH injection within 12 months. The negative influence on glucose homeostasis needed attention and monitoring.

Association Between Recombinant Growth Hormone Therapy and All-Cause Mortality and Cancer Risk in Childhood: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVES

The safety of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) treatment in childhood and the role of rhGH therapy in promoting tumorigenesis and progression have been the subject of debate for decades. We aimed to systematically assess the relationship between rhGH therapy in children and adolescents and clinical outcomes, including all-cause mortality, cancer mortality, cancer incidence, and risk of the second neoplasm.

METHODS

Literature retrieval, study selection, and data extraction were completed independently and in duplicate. Effect-size estimates are expressed as standardized mortality ratios (SMRs), standardized incidence ratio (SIR), and relative risk (RR) with a 95% CI.

RESULTS

Data from 24 articles, involving 254,776 persons, were meta-analyzed. Overall analyses revealed the association of rhGH therapy was not statistically significant with all-cause mortality (SMR = 1.28; 95% CI: 0.58-2.84; P = 0.547; I 2 = 99.2%; Tau2 = 2.154) and cancer mortality (SMR = 2.59; 95% CI: 0.55-12.09; P = 0.228; I 2 = 96.7%; Tau2 = 2.361) and also cancer incidence (SIR = 1.54; 95% CI: 0.68-3.47; P = 0.229; I 2 = 97.5%; Tau2 = 2.287), yet statistical significance was observed for second neoplasm (RR = 1.77; 95% CI: 1.33-2.35; P = 0.001; I 2 = 26.7%; Tau2 = 0.055). Differences in the geographic region, gender, treatment duration, mean rhGH dose, overall rhGH exposure dose, and initial disease accounted for heterogeneity in the subgroup analyses.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that the rhGH therapy is not related to all-cause mortality and cancer mortality and cancer incidence, yet it seems to trigger a second tumor risk. Future prospective studies are needed to confirm our findings and answer the more challenging question regarding the optimal dose of rhGH therapy in children and adolescents.

Safety of growth hormone replacement in survivors of cancer and intracranial and pituitary tumours: a consensus statement

Growth hormone (GH) has been used for over 35 years, and its safety and efficacy has been studied extensively. Experimental studies showing the permissive role of GH/insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I) in carcinogenesis have raised concerns regarding the safety of GH replacement in children and adults who have received treatment for cancer and those with intracranial and pituitary tumours. A consensus statement was produced to guide decision-making on GH replacement in children and adult survivors of cancer, in those treated for intracranial and pituitary tumours and in patients with increased cancer risk. With the support of the European Society of Endocrinology, the Growth Hormone Research Society convened a Workshop, where 55 international key opinion leaders representing 10 professional societies were invited to participate. This consensus statement utilized: (1) a critical review paper produced before the Workshop, (2) five plenary talks, (3) evidence-based comments from four breakout groups, and (4) discussions during report-back sessions. Current evidence reviewed from the proceedings from the Workshop does not support an association between GH replacement and primary tumour or cancer recurrence. The effect of GH replacement on secondary neoplasia risk is minor compared to host- and tumour treatment-related factors. There is no evidence for an association between GH replacement and increased mortality from cancer amongst GH-deficient childhood cancer survivors. Patients with pituitary tumour or craniopharyngioma remnants receiving GH replacement do not need to be treated or monitored differently than those not receiving GH. GH replacement might be considered in GH-deficient adult cancer survivors in remission after careful individual risk/benefit analysis. In children with cancer predisposition syndromes, GH treatment is generally contraindicated but may be considered cautiously in select patients.

Approach to the Patient: Safety of Growth Hormone Replacement in Children and Adolescents

The use of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in children and adolescents has expanded since its initial approval to treat patients with severe GH deficiency (GHD) in 1985. rhGH is now approved to treat several conditions associated with poor growth and short stature. Recent studies have raised concerns that treatment during childhood may affect morbidity and mortality in adulthood, with specific controversies over cancer risk and cerebrovascular events. We will review 3 common referrals to a pediatric endocrinology clinic, followed by a summary of short- and long-term effects of rhGH beyond height outcomes. Methods to mitigate risk will be reviewed. Finally, this information will be applied to each clinical case, highlighting differences in counseling and clinical outcomes. rhGH therapy has been used for more than 3 decades. Data are largely reassuring, yet we still have much to learn about pharmaceutical approaches to growth in children and the lifelong effect of treatment.

Safety and effectiveness of Omnitrope® (somatropin) in PATRO Children: a multi-center, post-marketing surveillance study comparison of US and international cohort data

There are known geographical differences in growth hormone deficiency (GHD) patient populations and treatment practices. Here, we present a comparison of safety and effectiveness data from patients treated with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in the USA versus other countries. PAtients TReated with Omnitrope® (PATRO) Children is an international, non-interventional study with Omnitrope® (somatropin, Sandoz Inc.). All visits and assessments are carried out according to routine clinical practice, and doses of Omnitrope® are given according to country-specific prescribing information. By September 2018, 294 patients had been enrolled in the USA (53% rhGH-naïve) and 6206 patients had been enrolled across 13 other countries (international group; 86% rhGH-naïve). The most common indication in both groups was GHD. Overall, 194 US patients (66%) and 2977 international patients (48%) experienced adverse events (AEs; 886 and 11,716 events, respectively), most of which were of mild or moderate intensity. The AEs were suspected to be treatment-related in five US patients (1.7%) and 452 international patients (7.3%). All reported neoplasms were benign, non-serious, and considered unrelated to rhGH therapy. No cases of diabetes mellitus or hyperglycemia were reported. In rhGH-naïve GHD patients, after 3 years of rhGH therapy, the improvement in mean height SD score from baseline was + 1.25 and + 1.35 in US and international patients, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Omnitrope® treatment appears to be well tolerated and effective in US patients and those from other countries. Across the pediatric indications included, there was no evidence of an increased risk of developing uncommon or unexpected AEs with rhGH.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NA.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Continued monitoring of patients treated with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) is important, particularly in terms of diabetogenic potential and the risk of malignancies. • The PAtients TReated with Omnitrope® (PATRO) Children study is a long-term, post-marketing surveillance program for the rhGH Omnitrope®.

WHAT IS NEW

• Omnitrope® is well tolerated and effective in US patients, and those from other countries. • Across all indications included, there were no unexpected adverse events and there was no evidence of an increased risk of developing malignancies or diabetes.

Average IGF-1 Prediction for Once-Weekly Lonapegsomatropin in Children With Growth Hormone Deficiency

CONTEXT

Serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels are relatively constant in somatropin-treated children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD), and guide dose adjustments for clinical efficacy and long-term safety. IGF-1 levels following treatment with long-acting growth hormones such as lonapegsomatropin (lonapegsomatropin-tcgd, TransCon hGH), a once-weekly somatropin prodrug, exhibit a characteristic profile over the dosing interval.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop a method to predict average IGF-1 in lonapegsomatropin-treated GHD children to interpret IGF-1 data based on a single sample obtained any time at steady state.

METHODS

A population nonlinear mixed-effect pharmacodynamic model for IGF-1 was developed based on 2 randomized, open-label trials of TransCon hGh in GHD children and used to develop a linear mixed model with Taylor series to fit simulated IGF-1 profiles of lonapegsomatropin-treated children.

A TOTAL OF

49 896 IGF-1 sample data simulated from 105 lonapegsomatropin-treated GHD children were utilized for the final prediction model. The dosage range of TransCon hGh was 0.14 to 0.30 hGH mg/kg/week, and weekly average IGF-1 was calculated using IGF-1 profiles simulated from the nonlinear pharmacodynamic model. Predicted average IGF-1 was obtained by linear mixed model with Taylor series.

RESULTS

The nonlinear mixed-effect model provided satisfactory model fit. The linear mixed model with Taylor series fit simulated IGF-1 data well, with a relatively straightforward prediction formula. IGF-1 values sampled at ~4.5 days post-dose coincided with weekly average IGF-1 at steady state.

CONCLUSION

A formula to predict average IGF-1 from a single sample of IGF-1 at steady state was established to aid clinicians in interpreting IGF-1 levels in GHD children administered lonapegsomatropin.

Development of a Novel Algorithm to Identify People with High Likelihood of Adult Growth Hormone Deficiency in a US Healthcare Claims Database

OBJECTIVE

Adult growth hormone deficiency (AGHD) is an underdiagnosed disease associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Identifying people who may benefit from growth hormone (GH) therapy can be challenging, as many AGHD symptoms resemble those of aging. We developed an algorithm to potentially help providers stratify people by their likelihood of having AGHD.

DESIGN

The algorithm was developed with, and applied to, data in the anonymized Truven Health MarketScan® claims database. Patients. A total of 135 million adults in the US aged ≥18 years with ≥6 months of data in the Truven database. Measurements. Proportion of people with high, moderate, or low likelihood of having AGHD, and differences in demographic and clinical characteristics among these groups.

RESULTS

Overall, 0.5%, 6.0%, and 93.6% of people were categorized into groups with high, moderate, or low likelihood of having AGHD, respectively. The proportions of females were 59.3%, 71.6%, and 50.4%, respectively. People in the high- and moderate-likelihood groups tended to be older than those in the low-likelihood group, with 58.3%, 49.0%, and 37.6% aged >50 years, respectively. Only 2.2% of people in the high-likelihood group received GH therapy as adults. The high-likelihood group had a higher incidence of comorbidities than the low-likelihood group, notably malignant neoplastic disease (standardized difference -0.42), malignant breast tumor (-0.27), hyperlipidemia (-0.26), hypertensive disorder (-0.25), osteoarthritis (-0.23), and heart disease (-0.22).

CONCLUSIONS

This algorithm may represent a cost-effective approach to improve AGHD detection rates by identifying appropriate patients for further diagnostic testing and potential GH replacement treatment.

Gonadal Y-chromosome mosaicism with 45, X Turner syndrome complicated with bilateral HCG-secreting gonadoblastoma

We report a rare case of bilateral HCG-secreting gonadoblastomas (Gb) in a 5.25-year-old girl of 45, X Turner syndrome (TS) with gonadal Y chromosome mosaicism. The clinical data were summarized, and the literatures were reviewed. The patient had enlarged breasts for 2 years and 3 months, with elevated β-HCG of blood found for 8 months. The level of β-HCG of cerebrospinal fluid, cranial MRI, chest and abdominal CT, and pelvic MRI were normal. After surgical gonad exploration, biopsy and excision, gonad venous blood hormone examination and SRY gene detection of gonad tissue, the diagnosis was confirmed as HCG-secreting Gb (bilateral) and TS (45, X) with gonad Y chromosome mosaicism. The patient received 4 courses of chemotherapy, and regular outpatient follow-up. At 9 months after gonadectomy, there was no clinical, laboratory, or radiological evidence of recurrence. We reported a nonclassical case of 45, X Turner syndrome (TS) with gonadal Y chromosome mosaicism, who presented with breast development as the first manifestation and then virilization due to bilateral HCG-secreting gonadoblastomas. Detection of serum β-HCG and AFP is requisite for the diagnosis of precocious puberty, karyotyping is important for virilizing phenotypic female, and virilization in Turner syndrome implies the existence of Y chromosome(substance) (peripheral blood or tissue mosaicism) and the occurrence of gonadal tumors.

Guidance for the treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency with somapacitan, a long-acting growth hormone preparation

Adult growth hormone deficiency (AGHD) is a rare endocrine disorder characterized by an abnormal body composition, metabolic abnormalities associated with increased cardiovascular diseases, bone loss, and impaired quality of life. Daily subcutaneous injections with recombinant growth hormone (GH) can alleviate the abnormalities associated with AGHD. Several long-acting GH (LAGH) preparations are currently in development that aim to reduce treatment burden for patients receiving daily GH injections. Somapacitan (Sogroya^®; Novo Nordisk, Denmark) is the first LAGH preparation that has been approved for treatment of AGHD in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The recent approval of somapacitan and anticipated approval of other LAGH molecules presents new questions for physicians planning to treat AGHD with LAGH in the future. Differences in the technologies used to prolong the half-life of recombinant GH are expected to result in variations in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles between preparations. Therefore, it is essential that physicians understand and consider such variations when treating patients with these novel GH replacement therapies. Here, we present a set of treatment recommendations that have been created to guide physicians initiating therapy with somapacitan in patients with AGHD who are eligible for GH replacement. Furthermore, we will review the published data that underlie these recommendations to explain the rationale for the treatment and monitoring advice provided.