Cellular effects of guanylin and uroguanylin

Long-term excessive salt consumption alters villous and crypt morphology and the protein expression of uroguanylin, TRPV6 and PMCA1b in the rat small intestine

Although long-term high dietary sodium consumption often aggravates hypertension and bone loss, sodium in the intestinal lumen has been known to promote absorption of nutrients and other ions, e.g., glucose and calcium. However, whether high-salt diet (HSD) altered mucosal morphology, villous cell turnover and calcium transporter expression remained elusive. Herein, rats were treated with HSD containing 8% wt/wt NaCl for up to 5 months. HSD rats exhibited a marked increase in sodium intake with high fecal and urinary sodium excretion, as compared to the control group treated with normal diet. Intestinal histomorphometry revealed increasing of crypt depth and villous height in 3- and 4-month HSD groups, respectively, consistent with larger mucosal-to-serosal amplification ratio that reflected an increased surface area for nutrient absorption. The signals of Ki-67-positive cells was enhanced in the crypts as visualized by multiphoton fluorescence microscopy, whereas the TUNEL-positive cells were decreased in the villi of HSD, suggesting greater crypt cell proliferation and a reduction of villous cell apoptosis. Confocal microscopy showed higher expression of TRPV6 protein in the villous tip of HSD, while PMCA1 expression was increased in villous tip and crypt areas. The percentage of cells with highly expressed uroguanylin-an endogenous intestinal natriuretic peptide-was significantly higher in HSD group. In conclusion, HSD profoundly changed the intestinal morphology and turnover of epithelial cell, increased the expression of calcium transporters and uroguanylin. Our findings reflect pathophysiological adaptations in the intestine, which might be another target organ for drug discovery against HSD-induced osteopathy in the future.

Synergistic Effect of Uroguanylin and D1 Dopamine Receptors on Sodium Excretion in Hypertension

Background

Oral NaCl produces a greater natriuresis and diuresis than the intravenous infusion of the same amount of NaCl, indicating the existence of a gastro‐renal axis. As one of the major natriuretic hormones secreted by both the intestines and the kidney, we hypothesized that renal uroguanylin interacts with dopamine receptors to increase sodium excretion synergistically, an impaired interaction of which may be involved in the pathogenesis of hypertension.

Methods and Results

In Wistar‐Kyoto rats, the infusion of uroguanylin or fenoldopam (a D₁‐like receptor agonist) induced natriuresis and diuresis. Although subthreshold dosages of uroguanylin or fenoldopam had no effect, the coinfusion of subthreshold dosages of those reagents significantly increased sodium excretion. The coinfusion of an antagonist against D₁‐like receptors, SCH23390, or an antagonist against uroguanylin, 2‐methylthioadenosine triphosphate, prevented the fenoldopam‐ or uroguanylin‐mediated natriuresis and diuresis in Wistar‐Kyoto rats. However, the natriuretic effects of uroguanylin and fenoldopam were not observed in spontaneously hypertensive rats. The uroguanylin/D₁‐like receptor interaction was also confirmed in renal proximal tubule cells. In renal proximal tubule cells from Wistar‐Kyoto rats but not spontaneously hypertensive rats, stimulation of either D₁‐like receptors or uroguanylin inhibited Na⁺‐K⁺‐ATPase activity, an effect that was blocked in the presence of SCH23390 or 2‐methylthioadenosine triphosphate. In renal proximal tubule cells from Wistar‐Kyoto rats, guanylyl cyclase C receptor (uroguanylin receptor) and D₁ receptor coimmunoprecipitated, which was increased after stimulation by either uroguanylin or fenoldopam; stimulation of one receptor increased renal proximal tubule cell membrane expression of the other.

Conclusions

These data suggest that there is synergism between uroguanylin and D₁‐like receptors to increase sodium excretion. An aberrant interaction between the renal uroguanylin and D₁‐like receptors may play a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension.

Human gastrointestinal epithelia of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum resolved at single-cell resolution

The upper gastrointestinal tract, consisting of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum, controls food transport, digestion, nutrient uptake, and hormone production. By single-cell analysis of healthy epithelia of these human organs, we molecularly define their distinct cell types. We identify a quiescent COL17A1high KRT15high stem/progenitor cell population in the most basal cell layer of the esophagus and detect substantial gene expression differences between identical cell types of the human and mouse stomach. Selective expression of BEST4, CFTR, guanylin, and uroguanylin identifies a rare duodenal cell type, referred to as BCHE cell, which likely mediates high-volume fluid secretion because of continual activation of the CFTR channel by guanylin/uroguanylin-mediated autocrine signaling. Serotonin-producing enterochromaffin cells in the antral stomach significantly differ in gene expression from duodenal enterochromaffin cells. We, furthermore, discover that the histamine-producing enterochromaffin-like cells in the oxyntic stomach express the luteinizing hormone, yet another member of the enteroendocrine hormone family.

Molecular mechanisms for intestinal HCO3− secretion and its regulation by guanylin in seawater-acclimated eels

The intestine of marine teleosts secretes HCO3− into the lumen and precipitates Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the imbibed seawater as carbonates to decrease luminal fluid osmolality and facilitate water absorption. However, hormonal regulation of HCO3−secretion is largely unknown. Here, mucosally-added guanylin (GN) increased HCO3− secretion, measured by pH-stat, across isolated seawater-acclimated eel intestine bathed in saline at pH 7.4 (5% CO2). The effect of GN on HCO3− secretion was slower than that on the short-circuit current, and the time-course of the GN effect was similar to that of bumetanide. Mucosal bumetanide and serosal 4,4’-dinitrostilbene-2,2’-disulfonic acid (DNDS) inhibited the GN effect, suggesting an involvement of apical Na+-K+-2Cl− cotransporter (NKCC2) and basolateral Cl−/HCO3− exchanger (AE)/Na+-HCO3− cotransporter (NBC) in the GN effect. As mucosal DNDS failed to inhibit the GN effect, apical DNDS-sensitive AE may not be involved. To identify molecular species of transporters involved in the GN effect, we performed RNA-seq analyses followed by quantitative real-time PCR after transfer of eels to seawater. Among the genes upregulated after seawater transfer, AE genes, draa, b, and pat1a, c, on the apical membrane, and NBC genes, nbce1a, n1, n2a, and a AE gene, sat-1, on the basolateral membrane were candidates involved in HCO3− secretion. Judging from the slow effect of GN, we suggest that GN inhibits NKCC2b on the apical membrane and decreases cytosolic Cl− and Na+, which then activates apical DNDS-insensitive DRAs and basolateral DNDS-sensitive NBCs to enhance transcellular HCO3− flux across the intestinal epithelia of seawater-acclimated eels.

Long-term treatment with plecanatide was safe and tolerable in patients with irritable bowel syndrome with constipation

Objective: This open-label, multi-center, fixed-dose study (NCT02706483) evaluated the long-term safety and tolerability of plecanatide for the treatment of adults with irritable bowel syndrome with constipation (IBS-C).Methods: Safety and tolerability of once-daily plecanatide 6 mg for up to 53 weeks was assessed in patients with IBS-C who either had been enrolled in one of the phase 3 studies or were study-naïve but met eligibility criteria of the double-blind studies. Safety was assessed by treatment-emergent adverse events (AEs). Patient-reported questionnaires assessed overall IBS symptoms, treatment satisfaction, and desire for treatment continuation. No dose adjustments or treatment interruptions were permitted during the study.Results: Of the 2272 patients enrolled, 1842 (81.1%) completed the study. AEs were experienced by 27.3%, and 4.3% discontinued due to an AE. Most AEs were mild or moderate (90.3%). The incidence of diarrhea, the most commonly reported AE, was low (6.7%), and declined in frequency over time. Diarrhea was the most common cause of AE-related withdrawals (2.7% of patients). At week 53 or end of treatment, 88.2% of patients reported "significant" or "moderate" relief, 72.4% were "very" or "quite" satisfied with treatment, and 76.6% were "very" or "quite" likely to continue treatment.Conclusions: Plecanatide 6 mg was safe and well tolerated in patients with IBS-C treated for up to 53 weeks, with an overall safety profile similar to the 12-week IBS-C studies. Patients reported high rates of relief and satisfaction with treatment, and interest in continuing therapy.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02706483.

Dietary Influence on Body Fluid Acid-Base and Volume Balance: The Deleterious "Norm" Furthers and Cloaks Subclinical Pathophysiology

The popular modern diet, characterized by an excess of animal protein and salt but insufficient in fruits, vegetables and water, is a poor fit for human physiological and homeostatic regulatory systems. Sustained net acid and sodium retention, coupled with an insufficient intake of cardiovascular protective potassium-rich foods and hydration in the modern diet can give rise to debilitating chronic organ dysfunction and ultimately, mortality. This holds true, especially in our aging population who are already facing inevitable decline in organ functional reserve. Importantly, in most cases, despite the mismatch and adverse effects to multiple organ systems, plasma electrolyte and acid-base parameters can, on the surface, be maintained within a “normal” reference range, primarily by activating (often maximally activating) compensatory homeostatic mechanisms. These diet-induced effects can thus be clinically silent for decades. Embodied in the chronic corrective homeostatic processes, however, are real risks for multiorgan damage. According to the Dietary Guideline Advisory Committee (DGAC), half of American adults have one or more chronic diseases that are preventable with dietary modification. Here, homeostasis of body fluid acid-base, sodium, potassium and water is examined. Our current dietary habits and their required regulatory adaptation, maladaptation and relevant physiology and pathophysiology are discussed. A framework of dietary modifications to avoid a propensity for maladaptation and thus lowers the risks of common modern diseases (primary prevention) and minimizes the risk of chronic and age-related disease progression (secondary prevention) is emphasized. Although there are other variables at play, a key to restoring the all-important dietary potassium to sodium ratio is greater consumption of vegetables/fruits and adopting salt temperance. Dietary and nutritional optimization is an under-emphasized area of health care that has an enormous potential to temper the epidemics of prevalent chronic diseases in modern society and improve population health.

Neutralizing Anti-Heat-Stable Toxin (STa) Antibodies Derived from Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Toxoid Fusions with STa Proteins Containing N12S, L9A/N12S, or N12S/A14T Mutations Show Little Cross-Reactivity with Guanylin or Uroguanylin

Heat-stable toxin (STa)-producing enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains are a top cause of moderate-to-severe diarrhea in children from developing countries and a common cause of travelers' diarrhea. Recent progress in using STa toxoids and toxoid fusions to induce neutralizing anti-STa antibodies has accelerated ETEC vaccine development. However, concern remains regarding whether the derived anti-STa antibodies cross-react with STa-like guanylin and uroguanylin, two guanylate cyclase C (GC-C) ligands regulating fluid and electrolyte transportation in human intestinal and renal epithelial cells. To further divert STa from guanylin and uroguanylin structurally and antigenically and to eliminate anti-STa antibody cross-reactivity with guanylin and uroguanylin, we mutated STa at the 9th (leucine), 12th (asparagine), and 14th (alanine) residues for the double and triple mutants STa_L9A/N12S, STa_L9A/A14H, STa_N12S/A14T, and STa_{L9A/N12S/A14H} We then fused each STa mutant (three copies) to a monomeric heat-labile toxin (LT) mutant (mnLT_R192G/L211A) for the toxoid fusions 3×STa_L9A/N12S-mnLT_R192G/L211A, 3×STa_L9A/A14H-mnLT_R192G/L211A, 3×STa_N12S/A14T-mnLT_R192G/L211A, and 3×STa_{L9A/N12S/A14H}-mnLT_R192G/L211A; examined each fusion for anti-STa immunogenicity; and assessed the derived antibodies for in vitro neutralization activity against STa toxicity and for cross-reactivity with guanylin and uroguanylin. Mice subcutaneously immunized with each fusion protein developed anti-STa antibodies, and the antibodies derived from 3×STa_N12S-mnLT_R192G/L211A, 3×STa_L9A/N12S-mnLT_R192G/L211A, or 3×STa_N12S/A14T-mnLT_R192G/L211A prevented STa from the stimulation of intracellular cGMP in T-84 cells. Competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) showed that guanylin and uroguanylin hardly blocked the binding of anti-STa antibodies to the coated STa-ovalbumin conjugate. These results indicated that antibodies derived from 3×STa_N12S-mnLT_R192G/L211A, 3×STa_L9A/N12S-mnLT_R192G/L211A, or 3×STa_N12S/A14T-mnLT_R192G/L211A neutralized STa and had little cross-reactivity with guanylin and uroguanylin, suggesting that these toxoid fusions are suitable antigens for ETEC vaccines.IMPORTANCE Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains are a leading cause of children's diarrhea and travelers' diarrhea. Currently, there is no licensed vaccine against ETEC diarrhea. One key challenge is to identify safe antigens to induce antibodies neutralizing the key STa without cross-reacting with guanylin and uroguanylin, two important ligands controlling homeostasis in human intestinal and renal epithelial cells. In this study, we generated nontoxic fusion antigens that induced antibodies that neutralize STa enterotoxicity in vitro and do not cross-react with guanylin or uroguanylin. These fusions have become the preferred antigens for the development of ETEC vaccines to potentially prevent the deaths of hundreds of thousands of young children and hundreds of millions of diarrheal cases each year.

Mashiningan Improves Opioid-Induced Constipation in Rats by Activating Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Chloride Channel

Opioid receptor stimulants are analgesics used in patients with and without cancer; however, they often cause constipation, resulting in poor adherence and deterioration of the quality of life. Hence, suitable treatments for constipation are required. In this study, we investigated the pharmacological mechanisms of action of mashiningan (MNG), a Kampo medicine used to treat constipation, and evaluated the effect of MNG on opioid-induced constipation in rats. MNG (100 or 300 mg/kg) was orally administered to normal or codeine phosphate (CPH)-induced constipation in rats, and its effect was evaluated on the basis of fecal counts, characteristics, and weight. Small intestinal fluid secretion was measured after treatment with MNG alone or coadministration with a cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-specific inhibitor (CFTRinh-172). The effects of MNG on the CFTR and type-2 chloride channel were determined using patch-clamp or short-circuit current experiments, respectively. MNG increased the fecal weight and proportion of soft feces in normal rats. CPH-induced constipation in rats decreased fecal counts and weight, whereas MNG prevented these effects and increased the proportion of soft feces. MNG increased the electronic chloride current, and this effect was inhibited by the CFTRinh-172 in the CFTR assay. Furthermore, MNG increased small intestinal fluid secretion, and this effect was abolished by coadministration with the CFTRinh-172. MNG improved opioid-induced constipation in rats, and this improvement may have been mediated by increasing intestinal fluid secretion via CFTR chloride channel activation. Therefore, MNG is expected as a medicine of the treatment of constipation in patients taking opioids.

Theoretical structural characterization of lymphoguanylin: A potential candidate for the development of drugs to treat gastrointestinal disorders

Guanylin peptides (GPs) are small cysteine-rich peptide hormones involved in salt absorption, regulation of fluids and electrolyte homeostasis. This family presents four members: guanylin (GN), uroguanylin (UGN), lymphoguanylin (LGN) and renoguanylin (RGN). GPs have been used as templates for the development of drugs for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Currently, LGN is the only GP with only one disulfide bridge, making it a remarkable member of this family and a potential drug template; however, there is no structural information about this peptide. In fact, LGN is predicted to be highly disordered and flexible, making it difficult to obtain structural information using in vitro methods. Therefore, this study applied a series of 1μs molecular dynamics simulations in order to understand the structural behavior of LGN, comparing it to the C115Y variant of GN, which shows the same Cys to Tyr modification. LGN showed to be more flexible than GN C115Y. While the negatively charged N-terminal, despite its repellent behavior, seems to be involved mainly in pH-dependent activity, the hydrophobic core showed to be the determinant factor in LGN's flexibility, which could be essential in its activity. These findings may be determinant in the development of new medicines to help in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Moreover, our investigation of LGN structure clarified some issues in the structure-activity relationship of this peptide, providing new knowledge of guanylin peptides and clarifying the differences between GN C115Y and LGN.

Genome-Wide microRNA Binding Site Variation between Extinct Wild Aurochs and Modern Cattle Identifies Candidate microRNA-Regulated Domestication Genes

The domestication of cattle from the now-extinct wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) involved selection for physiological and behavioral traits, with underlying genetic factors that remain largely unknown. Non-coding microRNAs have emerged as key regulators of the spatio-temporal expression of target genes controlling mammalian growth and development, including in livestock species. During the domestication process, selection of mutational changes in miRNAs and/or miRNA binding sites could have provided a mechanism to generate some of the traits that differentiate domesticated cattle from wild aurochs. To investigate this, we analyzed the open reading frame DNA sequence of 19,994 orthologous protein-coding gene pairs from extant Bos taurus genomes and a single extinct B. primigenius genome. We identified miRNA binding site polymorphisms in the 3′ UTRs of 1,620 of these orthologous genes. These 1,620 genes with altered miRNA binding sites between the B. taurus and B. primigenius lineages represent candidate domestication genes. Using a novel Score Site ratio metric we have ranked these miRNA-regulated genes according to the extent of divergence between miRNA binding site presence, frequency and copy number between the orthologous genes from B. taurus and B. primigenius. This provides an unbiased approach to identify cattle genes that have undergone the most changes in miRNA binding (i.e., regulation) between the wild aurochs and modern-day cattle breeds. In addition, we demonstrate that these 1,620 candidate domestication genes are enriched for roles in pigmentation, fertility, neurobiology, metabolism, immunity and production traits (including milk quality and feed efficiency). Our findings suggest that directional selection of miRNA regulatory variants was important in the domestication and subsequent artificial selection that gave rise to modern taurine cattle.

cGMP Signaling Increases Antioxidant Gene Expression by Activating Forkhead Box O3A in the Colon Epithelium

Signaling through cGMP has therapeutic potential in the colon, where it has been implicated in the suppression of colitis and colon cancer. In this study, we tested the ability of cGMP and type 2 cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG2) to activate forkhead box O (FoxO) in colon cancer cells and in the colon epithelium of mice. We show that activation of PKG2 in colon cancer cells inhibited cell proliferation, inhibited AKT, and activated FoxO. Treatment of colon explants with 8Br-cGMP also activated FoxO target gene expression at both RNA and protein levels, and reduced epithelial reduction-oxidation (redox) stress. FoxO3a was the most prominent isoform in the distal colon epithelium, with prominent luminal staining. FoxO3a levels were reduced in Prkg2^-/- animals, and FoxO target genes were unaffected by 8Br-cGMP challenge in vitro. Treatment of mice with the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor vardenafil (Levitra) mobilized FoxO3a to the nucleus of luminal epithelial cells, which corresponded to increased FoxO target gene expression, reduced redox stress, and increased epithelial barrier integrity. Treatment of human colonic biopsy specimens with 8Br-cGMP also activated catalase and manganese superoxide dismutase expression, indicating that this pathway is conserved in humans. Taken together, these results identify a novel signaling pathway in the colon epithelium, where FoxO tumor suppressors could provide protection from redox stress. Moreover, this pathway is regulated by endogenous cGMP/PKG2 signaling, and can be targeted using phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors.

Structural impact analysis of missense SNPs present in the uroguanylin gene by long-term molecular dynamics simulations

The guanylate cyclase activator 2B, also known as uroguanylin, is part of the guanylin peptide family, which includes peptides such as guanylin and lymphoguanylin. The guanylin peptides could be related to sodium absorption inhibition and water secretion induction and their dysfunction may be related to various pathologies such as chronic renal failure, congestive heart failure and nephrotic syndrome. Besides, uroguanylin point mutations have been associated with essential hypertension. However, currently there are no studies on the impact of missense SNPs on uroguanylin structure. This study applied in silico SNP impact prediction tools to evaluate the impact of uroguanylin missense SNPs and to filter those considered as convergent deleterious, which were then further analyzed through long-term molecular dynamics simulations of 1μs of duration. The simulations suggested that all missense SNPs considered as convergent deleterious caused some kind of structural change to the uroguanylin peptide. Additionally, four of these SNPs were also shown to cause modifications in peptide flexibility, possibly resulting in functional changes.

Cellular localization of guanylin and uroguanylin mRNAs in human and rat duodenal and colonic mucosa

Guanylin (GUCA2A/Guca2a/GN) and uroguanylin (GUCA2B/Guca2b/UGN) are expressed in the gastrointestinal tract and have been implicated in ion and fluid homeostasis, satiety, abdominal pain, growth and intestinal barrier integrity. Their cellular sources are debated and include goblet cells, entero-/colonocytes, enteroendocrine (EE) cells and tuft cells. We therefore investigated the cellular sources of GN and UGN mRNAs in human and rat duodenal and colonic epithelium with in situ hybridization (ISH) to determine co-expression with Chromogranin A (CHGA/Chga/CgA; enterochromaffin [EC] cells), defensin alpha 6 (DEFA6/Defa6; Paneth cells), mucin 2 (MUC2/Muc2; goblet cells) and selected tuft cell markers. GUCA2A/Guca2a expression was localized to goblet cells and colonocytes in human and rat colon. In human duodenum, GUCA2A was expressed in Paneth cells and was scarce in villous epithelial cells. In rat duodenum, Guca2a was only localized to goblet cells. Guca2b was focally expressed in rat colon. In human and rat duodenum and in human colon, GUCA2B/Guca2b was expressed in dispersed solitary epithelial cells, some with a tuft cell-like appearance. Neither GUCA2A nor GUCA2B were co-expressed with CHGA in human duodenal cells. Consequently, EC cells are probably not the major source of human GN or UGN but other EE cells as a source of GN or UGN are not entirely excluded. No convincing overlap with tuft cell markers was found. For the first time, we demonstrate the cellular expression of GUCA2B in human duodenum. The specific cellular distribution of both GN and UGN differs between duodenum and colon and between human and rat intestines.

Guanylin activates Cl(-) secretion into the lumen of seawater eel intestine via apical Cl(-) channel under simulated in vivo conditions

Guanylin (GN) action on seawater eel intestine was examined under simulated in vivo conditions, where isotonic luminal fluid has low NaCl and high MgSO4 (MgSO4 Ringer). In Ussing chamber, MgSO4 Ringer induced serosa-negative potential difference (PD) even after bumetanide treatment, which is due to the higher paracellular Na(+) permeability over Cl(-), as confirmed by the replacement by MgCl2 (no Cl(-) gradient) or Na2SO4 Ringer (no Na(+) gradient). Luminal GN reversed serosa-negative PD, probably by enhancing Cl(-) secretion into the lumen, as the GN effect was blocked by apical Cl(-) channel blockers [diphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid (DPC), 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid, glibenclamide but not cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR)inh-172] or replacement of luminal fluid by MgCl2 Ringer. The blockers' effect was undetectable when normal Ringer was on both sides. In the sac preparation, NaCl secretion occurred into the lumen (Na(+) > Cl(-)), and GN further enhanced Cl(-) secretion (Cl(-) > Na(+)), resulting in water secretion. These GN effects were also blocked by DPC. Quantitative analyses showed that isotonic NaCl is absorbed when luminal fluid is normal Ringer, but, when luminal fluid is MgSO4 Ringer, hypertonic NaCl, almost equivalent to seawater, is secreted into the lumen after GN. These results indicate that GN stimulates the secretion of hypertonic NaCl into the lumen of seawater eel intestine, like rectal gland of marine elasmobranchs, to get rid of excess NaCl although marine teleost intestine is thought to have only absorptive-type cells with a unique Na-K-Cl cotransport system. The secreted NaCl may activate the cotransport system and further help absorb water in the final segment of seawater eel intestine.

Characterization of immunological cross-reactivity between enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-stable toxin and human guanylin and uroguanylin

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) expressing the heat-stable toxin (ST) (human-type [STh] and porcine-type [STp] variants) is among the five most important enteric pathogens in young children living in low- and middle-income countries. ST mediates diarrheal disease through activation of the guanylate cyclase C (GC-C) receptor and is an attractive vaccine target with the potential to confer protection against a wide range of ETEC strains. However, immunological cross-reactivity to the endogenous GC-C ligands guanylin and uroguanylin is a major concern because of the similarities to ST in amino acid sequence, structure, and function. We have investigated the presence of similar epitopes on STh, STp, guanylin, and uroguanylin by analyzing these peptides in eight distinct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). A fraction (27%) of a polyclonal anti-STh antibody and an anti-STh monoclonal antibody (MAb) cross-reacted with uroguanylin, the latter with a 73-fold-lower affinity. In contrast, none of the antibodies raised against STp, one polyclonal antibody and three MAbs, cross-reacted with the endogenous peptides. Antibodies raised against guanylin and uroguanylin showed partial cross-reactivity with the ST peptides. Our results demonstrate, for the first time, that immunological cross-reactions between ST and the endogenous peptides can occur. However, the partial nature and low affinity of the observed cross-reactions suggest that the risk of adverse effects from a future ST vaccine may be low. Furthermore, our results suggest that this risk may be reduced or eliminated by basing an ST immunogen on STp or a selectively mutated variant of STh.

Guanylate cyclase-C/cGMP: an emerging pathway in the regulation of visceral pain

Activation of guanylate cyclase-C (GC-C) expressed predominantly on intestinal epithelial cells by guanylin, uroguanylin or the closely related GC-C agonist peptide, linaclotide, stimulates generation, and release of cyclic guanosine-3′,5′-monophosphate (cGMP). Evidence that the visceral analgesic effects of linaclotide are mediated by a novel, GC-C-dependent peripheral sensory mechanism was first demonstrated in animal models of visceral pain. Subsequent studies with uroguanylin or linaclotide have confirmed the activation of a GC-C/cGMP pathway leading to increased submucosal cGMP mediated by cGMP efflux pumps, which modulates intestinal nociceptor function resulting in peripheral analgesia. These effects can be reproduced by the addition of exogenous cGMP and support a role for GC-C/cGMP signaling in the regulation of visceral sensation, a physiological function that has not previously been linked to the GC-C/cGMP pathway. Notably, targeting the GC-C/cGMP pathway for treatment of gastrointestinal pain and abdominal sensory symptoms has now been validated in the clinic. In 2012, linaclotide was approved in the United States and European Union for the treatment of adult patients with irritable bowel syndrome with constipation.

Pendrin, a novel transcriptional target of the uroguanylin system

Guanylin (GN) and uroguanylin (UGN) are low-molecular-weight peptide hormones produced mainly in the intestinal mucosa in response to oral salt load. GN and UGN (guanylin peptides) induce secretion of electrolytes and water in both intestine and kidney. Thought to act as "intestinal natriuretic factors", GN and UGN modulate renal salt secretion by both endocrine mechanisms (linking the digestive system and kidney) and paracrine/autocrine (intrarenal) mechanisms. The cellular function of GN and UGN in intestine and proximal tubule is mediated by guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C)-, cGMP-, and G protein-dependent pathways, whereas, in principal cells of the cortical collecting duct (CCD), these peptide hormones act via GC-C-independent signaling through phospholipase A2 (PLA2). The Cl(-)/HCO(-)3 exchanger pendrin (SLC26A4), encoded by the PDS gene, is expressed in non-α intercalated cells of the CCD. Pendrin is essential for CCD bicarbonate secretion and is also involved in NaCl balance and blood pressure regulation. Our recent studies have provided evidence that pendrin-mediated anion exchange in the CCD is regulated at the transcriptional level by UGN. UGN exerts an inhibitory effect on the pendrin gene promoter likely via heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) action at a defined heat shock element (HSE) site. Recent studies have unraveled novel roles for guanylin peptides in several organ systems including involvement in appetite regulation, olfactory function, cell proliferation and differentiation, inflammation, and reproductive function. Both the guanylin system and pendrin have also been implicated in airway function. Future molecular research into the receptors and signal transduction pathways involved in the action of guanylin peptides and the pendrin anion exchanger in the kidney and other organs, and into the links between them, may facilitate discovery of new therapies for hypertension, heart failure, hepatic failure and other fluid retention syndromes, as well as for diverse diseases such as obesity, asthma, and cancer.

The guanylin peptide family and the proposed gastrointestinal-renal natriuretic signaling axis

According to a proposed concept of a gastrointestinal-renal natriuretic signaling axis, natriuretic peptides are released from the intestine into the circulation in response to oral salt intake and act on the kidneys as hormones to increase sodium excretion. The peptides guanylin and uroguanylin and their precursors proguanylin and prouroguanylin, respectively, have been suggested to be the mediators of this axis. A study by Preston and co-workers, however, provides important data not supporting this putative concept.

Intestinal and renal guanylin peptides system in hypertensive obese mice

Guanylin (GN), uroguanylin (UGN) and the GC-C receptor have been associated with two endocrine axes: the salt and water homeostasis regulating enterorenal axis and the recently described appetite-regulating UGN/GC-C extraintestinal axis. The present work assessed the mRNA expression levels of GN peptides system (GPS) in a model of diet-induced obesity. Male C57BL/6J mice were submitted to either a high-fat high-simple carbohydrate diet (obese) or a normal diet (control). The renal and intestinal GN, UGN and GC-C receptor mRNA expression were evaluated by reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction in both groups, during normo-saline (NS) and high-saline (HS) diet. The diet-induced obesity was accompanied by glucose intolerance and insulin resistance as well as by a significant increase in blood pressure. During NS diet, obese mice presented reduced mRNA expression of GN in ileum and colon, UGN in duodenum, ileum and colon and GC-C in duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon. This was accompanied by increased UGN mRNA expression in renal cortex. During HS diet, obese mice presented reduced mRNA expression of GN in jejunum as well as reduced mRNA expression of UGN and GC-C in duodenum, jejunum and colon. The data obtained suggest that, in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity, a down-regulation of intestinal mRNA expression of GN, UGN and its GC-C receptor is accompanied by a compensatory increase of renal UGN mRNA expression. We hypothesize that the decrease in gene expression levels of intestinal GPS may contribute to the development of hypertension and obesity during hypercaloric diet intake.

The uroguanylin system and human disease

The uroguanylin system is a newly discovered endocrine/paracrine system that may have a role in the regulation of salt balance, appetite and gut health. The precursor pro-uroguanylin is predominantly synthesized in the gut, although there may be other sites of synthesis, including the kidney tubules. Products from pro-uroguanylin may mediate natriuresis following oral consumption of a salt load through both GC-C (guanylate cyclase C)-dependent and -independent mechanisms, and recent evidence suggests a role in appetite regulation. Local paracrine effects in the gut through GC-C stimulation may have tumour-suppressing actions through the regulation of cell proliferation and metabolism. Although most information on this system has been derived from knockout models, recent human studies have indicated possible roles in heart failure and renal failure. An improved understanding of the nature of its natriuretic, appetite and tumour-suppressing actions may facilitate the discovery of new therapies for heart failure, obesity and cancer prophylaxis.

Novel Therapeutics: NSAIDs, Derivatives, and Phosphodiesterases

The chemopreventive efficacy of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for colorectal cancer has been well documented. However, long-term use of NSAIDs is precluded owing to potentially fatal toxicities associated with their mechanism of action involving cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition. But studies have shown that their anticancer activity may be due, in part, to an off-target effect. Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which are responsible for negative regulation of cGMP signaling, are an attractive COX-independent target. cGMP signaling is aberrantly suppressed in cancer cells and its activation appears to be sufficient to inhibit tumor cell growth. Chemically modifying sulindac has produced a series of new derivatives that lack COX-inhibitory activity but have improved cGMP PDE inhibitory activity. This approach is proving to be a promising strategy for the discovery of improved agents for the prevention and/or treatment of colorectal cancer.

WITHDRAWN: Expression and functional characterization of guanylyl cyclase C receptor in HepG2 cells: Two-step regulation by dexamethasone and hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4)

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The pendrin anion exchanger gene is transcriptionally regulated by uroguanylin: a novel enterorenal link

The pendrin/SLC26A4 Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger, encoded by the PDS gene, is expressed in cortical collecting duct (CCD) non-A intercalated cells. Pendrin is essential for CCD bicarbonate secretion and is also involved in NaCl balance and blood pressure regulation. The intestinal peptide uroguanylin (UGN) is produced in response to oral salt load and can function as an "intestinal natriuretic hormone." We aimed to investigate whether UGN modulates pendrin activity and to explore the molecular mechanisms responsible for this modulation. Injection of UGN into mice resulted in decreased pendrin mRNA and protein expression in the kidney. UGN decreased endogenous pendrin mRNA levels in HEK293 cells. A 4.2-kb human PDS (hPDS) promoter sequence and consecutive 5' deletion products were cloned into luciferase reporter vectors and transiently transfected into HEK293 cells. Exposure of transfected cells to UGN decreased hPDS promoter activity. This UGN-induced effect on the hPDS promoter occurred within a 52-bp region encompassing a single heat shock element (HSE). The effect of UGN on the promoter was abolished when the HSE located between nt -1119 and -1115 was absent or was mutated. Furthermore, treatment of HEK293 cells with heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) small interfering RNA (siRNA) reversed the UGN-induced decrease in endogenous PDS mRNA level. In conclusion, pendrin-mediated Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange in the renal tubule may be regulated transcriptionally by the peptide hormone UGN. UGN exerts its inhibitory activity on the hPDS promoter likely via HSF1 action at a defined HSE site. These data define a novel signaling pathway involved in the enterorenal axis controlling electrolyte and water homeostasis.

Transcriptional regulation of the pendrin gene

Pendrin (SLC26A4), a Cl(-)/anion exchanger encoded by the gene PDS, is highly expressed in the kidney, thyroid and inner ear epithelia and is essential for bicarbonate secretion/chloride reabsorption, iodide accumulation and endolymph ion balance, respectively. The molecular mechanisms controlling pendrin activity in renal, thyroid and inner ear epithelia have been the subject of recent studies. The effects of ambient pH, the hormone aldosterone and the peptide uroguanylin (UGN; the "intestinal natriuretic hormone"), known modulators of electrolyte balance, on transcription of the pendrin gene, have been investigated. Luciferase reporter plasmids containing different length fragments of the human PDS (hPDS) promoter were transfected into renal HEK293, thyroid LA2, and inner ear VOT36 epithelial cells. Acidic pH decreased and alkaline pH increased hPDS promoter activity in transfected HEK293 and VOT36, but not in LA2 cells. Aldosterone reduced hPDS promoter activity in HEK293 but had no effect in LA2 and VOT36 cells. These pH and aldosterone-induced effects on the hPDS promoter occurred within 96-bp and 89-bp regions, respectively, which likely contain distinct response elements to these modulators. Injection of UGN into mice resulted in decreased pendrin mRNA and protein expression in the kidney. Exposure of transfected HEK293 to UGN decreased hPDS promoter activity. The findings provided evidence for the presence of a UGN response element within the 96-bp region overlapping with the pH response element on the hPDS promoter. Pendrin is also expressed in airway epithelium. The cytokins interleukin 4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), known regulators of airway surface function, have been shown to increase hPDS promoter activity by a STAT6-dependent mechanism. In conclusion, systemic pH, the hormone aldosterone, and the peptide UGN influence renal tubular pendrin gene expression and, perhaps, pendrin-mediated Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange at the transcriptional level. Pendrin-driven anion transport in the endolymph and at the airway surface may be regulated transcriptionally by systemic pH and IL-3/IL-4, respectively. The distinct response elements and the corresponding transcription factors mediating the effect of these modulators on the PDS promoter remain to be identified and characterized.

Ectopic expression of guanylyl cyclase C and endogenous ligand guanylin correlates significantly with Helicobacter pylori infection in gastric carcinogenesis

The molecular mechanisms leading to gastric carcinogenesis still remain unclear. Recently, several studies demonstrated that over-expression of guanylyl cyclase C (GCC) has been detected in intestinal-type gastric cancer (GC) and precursor lesions. Our objective was to explore the expression levels of GCC and endogenous ligands guanylin (GN) and uroguanylin (UGN) and the correlation between Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and GCC, GN, and UGN expressions in patients at different stages from normal mucosa to superficial gastritis, atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasia (IM), dysplasia, and finally adenocarcinoma. The expression of GCC and GN was absent in the distal normal gastric tissues and superficial gastritis in all cases, whereas they were measured in IM, dysplasia, and GC. The expression of GCC and GN was closely related to intestinal-type GC. From superficial gastritis to gastric carcinomas, the H. pylori positive rate was 19.7, 33.3, 69.6, 80.0, and 82.1%, respectively. The positive correlation was found between GCC and GN in IM, dysplasia, and GC. Also, the positive correlation was found between GCC, GN, and H. pylori infection in them. These results demonstrate that the detection of GCC and GN will be beneficial to diagnosis human gastric carcinoma and precancerous lesions. Ectopic expression of GCC and GN in human gastric mucosa and H. pylori infection may play an important role in the carcinogenesis of the intestinal-type GC.

A uroguanylin-GUCY2C endocrine axis regulates feeding in mice

Intestinal enteroendocrine cells are critical to central regulation of caloric consumption, since they activate hypothalamic circuits that decrease appetite and thereby restrict meal size by secreting hormones in response to nutrients in the gut. Although guanylyl cyclase and downstream cGMP are essential regulators of centrally regulated feeding behavior in invertebrates, the role of this primordial signaling mechanism in mammalian appetite regulation has eluded definition. In intestinal epithelial cells, guanylyl cyclase 2C (GUCY2C) is a transmembrane receptor that makes cGMP in response to the paracrine hormones guanylin and uroguanylin, which regulate epithelial cell dynamics along the crypt-villus axis. Here, we show that silencing of GUCY2C in mice disrupts satiation, resulting in hyperphagia and subsequent obesity and metabolic syndrome. This defined an appetite-regulating uroguanylin-GUCY2C endocrine axis, which we confirmed by showing that nutrient intake induces intestinal prouroguanylin secretion into the circulation. The prohormone signal is selectively decoded in the hypothalamus by proteolytic liberation of uroguanylin, inducing GUCY2C signaling and consequent activation of downstream anorexigenic pathways. Thus, evolutionary diversification of primitive guanylyl cyclase signaling pathways allows GUCY2C to coordinate endocrine regulation of central food acquisition pathways with paracrine control of intestinal homeostasis. Moreover, the uroguanylin-GUCY2C endocrine axis may provide a therapeutic target to control appetite, obesity, and metabolic syndrome.

Proguanylin and prouroguanylin--assay evaluation and clinical analyte characterization

BACKGROUND

The biomarkers proguanylin and prouroguanylin are members of the natriuretic peptide family. The aim of this study was to evaluate two commercially available assays for proguanylin and prouroguanylin and to further characterize both analytes in terms of important clinical features.

METHODS

We evaluated precision and linearity of the BioVendor human proguanylin and prouroguanylin ELISAs. In order to characterize both analytes, we tested in vitro analyte stabilities at -80 °C, and determined biological variability and reference values for proguanylin and prouroguanylin.

RESULTS

Within-run and total coefficients of variation were <10% for the BioVendor proguanylin and prouroguanylin assays. Both methods were linear across the tested measurement ranges. The analytes proguanylin and prouroguanylin were stable for at least 2 months at -80 °C. With respect to biological variability, the reference change values (RCV) were 27% and 59% for proguanylin and prouroguanylin, respectively. For proguanylin, age-independent reference values were 4.0-13.4 ng/mL in males and 4.6-16.3 ng/mL in females. For prouroguanylin, age- and sex-independent reference values were 2.1-11.2 ng/mL.

CONCLUSION

The BioVendor human proguanylin ELISA and the BioVendor human prouroguanylin ELISA meet the needs of quality specifications of laboratory medicine. The results of the characterization of both analytes provide essential information for further clinical studies.

Regulation of electroneutral NaCl absorption by the small intestine

Na(+) and Cl(-) movement across the intestinal epithelium occurs by several interconnected mechanisms: (a) nutrient-coupled Na(+) absorption, (b) electroneutral NaCl absorption, (c) electrogenic Cl(-) secretion by CFTR, and (d) electrogenic Na(+) absorption by ENaC. All these transport modes require a favorable electrochemical gradient maintained by the basolateral Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, a Cl(-) channel, and K(+) channels. Electroneutral NaCl absorption is observed from the small intestine to the distal colon. This transport is mediated by apical Na(+)/H(+) (NHE2/3) and Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) (Slc26a3/a6 and others) exchangers that provide the major route of NaCl absorption. Electroneutral NaCl absorption and Cl(-) secretion by CFTR are oppositely regulated by the autonomic nerve system, the immune system, and the endocrine system via PKAα, PKCα, cGKII, and/or SGK1. This integrated regulation requires the formation of macromolecular complexes, which are mediated by the NHERF family of scaffold proteins and involve internalization of NHE3. Through use of knockout mice and human mutations, a more detailed understanding of the integrated as well as subtle regulation of electroneutral NaCl absorption by the mammalian intestine has emerged.

Microarray assessment of the influence of the conceptus on gene expression in the mouse uterus during decidualization

During pregnancy in several species including humans and rodents, the endometrium undergoes decidualization. This process of differentiation from endometrial to decidual tissue occurs only after the onset of implantation in mice. It can also be artificially induced causing the formation of deciduomal tissue. The purpose of this study was to compare the gene expression profile of the developing decidua in pregnant mice with the deciduoma formed after artificial induction in an effort to identify conceptus-influenced changes in uterine gene expression during decidualization. We induced decidualization artificially by transferring blastocyst-sized ConA-coated agarose beads into the uterus on day 2.5 of pseudopregnancy. Recently published work has found this model to be more 'physiological' than other methods. Total RNA was isolated from blastocyst and bead-induced 'implantation' sites of the uteri of day 7.5 pregnant (decidua) and pseudopregnant (deciduoma) mice respectively. This RNA was then used for microarray analysis using Mouse Illumina BeadArray chips. This analysis revealed potential differential mRNA levels of only 45 genes between the decidua and bead-induced deciduoma tissues. We confirmed the differential mRNA levels of 31 of these genes using quantitative RT-PCR. Finally, the level and localization of some of the mRNAs for select genes (Aldh3a1, Bcmo1, Guca2b, and Inhbb) identified by our microarray analysis were examined in more detail. This study provides the identity of a small set of genes whose expression in the uterus during decidualization may be influenced by molecular signals from the conceptus.

Defying the stereotype: non-canonical roles of the Peptide hormones guanylin and uroguanylin

The peptide hormones uroguanylin and guanylin have been traditionally thought to be mediators of fluid-ion homeostasis in the vertebrate intestine. They serve as ligands for receptor guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C), and both receptor and ligands are expressed predominantly in the intestine. Ligand binding to GC-C results in increased cyclic GMP production in the cell which governs downstream signaling. In the last decade, a significant amount of research has unraveled novel functions for this class of peptide hormones, in addition to their action as intestinal secretagogues. An additional receptor for uroguanylin, receptor guanylyl cyclase D, has also been identified. Thus, unconventional roles of these peptides in regulating renal filtration, olfaction, reproduction, and cell proliferation have begun to be elucidated in detail. These varied effects suggest that these peptide hormones act in an autocrine, paracrine as well as endocrine manner to regulate diverse cellular processes.

Linaclotide, through activation of guanylate cyclase C, acts locally in the gastrointestinal tract to elicit enhanced intestinal secretion and transit

Linaclotide is a first-in-class, orally administered 14-amino acid peptide that is in development for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome with constipation and chronic constipation. We have characterized the solution structure of linaclotide, the in vitro binding and agonist activity to guanylate cyclase C receptors, the stability of linaclotide under conditions mimicking the gastric environment, oral bioavailability, and the pharmacodynamic effects in rat models of gastrointestinal transit and intestinal secretion. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis determined that the molecular structure of linaclotide is stabilized by three intramolecular disulfide bridges. Linaclotide exhibited high affinity and pH-independent binding (K(i): 1.23-1.64 nM) to guanylate cyclase C receptors on human colon carcinoma T84 cells and concomitantly, linaclotide binding resulted in a significant, concentration-dependent accumulation of intracellular cyclic guanosine-3', 5'-monophosphate (cGMP) (EC₅₀:99 nM). Linaclotide was stable after 3 h incubation in simulated gastric fluid (pH 1) and similarly, was completely resistant to hydrolysis by pepsin. Pharmacokinetic analysis of linaclotide showed very low oral bioavailability (0.1%). Orally administered linaclotide elicited a significant, dose-dependent increase in gastrointestinal transit rates in rats at doses of ≥5 μg/kg. Exposure of surgically ligated small intestinal loops to linaclotide induced a significant increase in fluid secretion, accompanied by a significant increase in intraluminal cGMP levels. These results suggest that the guanylate cyclase C agonist linaclotide elicits potent pharmacological responses locally in the gastrointestinal tract, and that orally administered guanylate cyclase C agonists may be capable of improving bowel habits in patients suffering from irritable bowel syndrome with constipation and chronic constipation.

Linaclotide is a potent and selective guanylate cyclase C agonist that elicits pharmacological effects locally in the gastrointestinal tract

AIMS

Linaclotide is an orally administered 14-amino acid peptide being developed for the treatment of constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-C) and chronic constipation. We determined the stability of linaclotide in the intestine, measured the oral bioavailability, and investigated whether the pharmacodynamic effects elicited in rodent models of gastrointestinal function are mechanistically linked to the activation of intestinal guanylate cyclase C (GC-C).

MAIN METHODS

Linaclotide binding to intestinal mucosal membranes was assessed in competitive binding assays. Stability and oral bioavailability of linaclotide were measured in small intestinal fluid and serum, respectively, and models of gastrointestinal function were conducted using wild type (wt) and GC-C null mice.

KEY FINDINGS

Linaclotide inhibited in vitro [(125)I]-STa binding to intestinal mucosal membranes from wt mice in a concentration-dependent manner. In contrast, [(125)I]-STa binding to these membranes from GC-C null mice was significantly decreased. After incubation in vitro in jejunal fluid for 30 min, linaclotide was completely degraded. Pharmacokinetic analysis showed very low oral bioavailability (0.10%). In intestinal secretion and transit models, linaclotide exhibited significant pharmacological effects in wt, but not in GC-C null mice: induction of increased fluid secretion into surgically ligated jejunal loops was accompanied by the secretion of elevated levels of cyclic guanosine-3',5'-monophosphate and accelerated gastrointestinal transit.

SIGNIFICANCE

Linaclotide is a potent and selective GC-C agonist that elicits pharmacological effects locally in the gastrointestinal tract. This pharmacological profile suggests that orally administered linaclotide may be capable of improving the abdominal symptoms and bowel habits of patients suffering from IBS-C and chronic constipation.

Release of endogenous opioids from duodenal enteroendocrine cells requires Trpm5

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Enteroendocrine cells, the largest and most diverse population of mammalian endocrine cells, comprise a number of different cell types in the gut mucosa that produce, store, and secrete small molecules, peptides, and/or larger proteins that regulate many aspects of gut physiology. Little is known about less typical endocrine cells in the intestinal mucosa that do not contain secretory granules, such as brush or caveolated cells. We studied a subset of these enteroendocrine cells in duodenum that produce several peptides, including endogenous opioids, and that also express the Trpm5 cation channel.

METHODS

We studied expression patterns of Trpm5 and other molecules by immunohistochemical and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analyses of intestinal tissues from transgenic mice that express green fluorescent protein from the Trpm5 promoter, as well as wild-type and Trpm5-null mice.

RESULTS

We describe a type of enteroendocrine cell in mouse duodenum that is defined by the presence of Trpm5 and that does not contain typical secretory granules yet expresses endogenous opioids (beta-endorphin and Met-enkephalin) and uroguanylin in apical compartments close to the lumen of the gut.

CONCLUSIONS

Solitary chemosensory cells that coexpress beta-endorphin, Met-enkephalin, uroguanylin, and Trpm5 exist in mouse duodenum. These cells are likely to secrete the bioactive peptides into the intestinal lumen in response to dietary factors; release of the opioid peptides requires the Trpm5 ion channel.

High-salt intake primes the rat kidney to respond to a subthreshold uroguanylin dose during ex vivo renal perfusion

In a variety of animal models, uroguanylin causes diuresis, natriuresis and kaliuresis and is found in larger concentrations in the urine compared to controls after oral salt intake or in conditions of excess salt and fluid retention. It has been proposed that uroguanylin functions as an intestinal natriuretic hormone following intake of meals high in salt content. In the present work, we examined if 10 days of salt ingestion resulted in an enhanced response to uroguanylin in the isolated perfused rat kidney. Rats were given normal water, 1% NaCl (HS1%), or 2% NaCl (HS2%) for 10 days, at which time the right kidneys were surgically removed and perfused with a modified Krebs-Henseleit solution for 30 min. After a 30-min control period, the kidneys were perfused with a modified Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 0.06 microM uroguanylin for an additional 90 min. Compared to vehicle-matched time controls, 0.06 microM uroguanylin perfusion of kidneys from rats maintained on HS2% resulted in a significantly increased urine flow (UF; from 0.17+/-0.01 to 0.23+/-0.01, after 60 min, n=6, P<0.05), fractional Na(+) excretion (%E(Na+); from 16.6+/-0.7 to 30+/-2, after 60 min, n=6, P<0.05), fractional K(+) excretion (%E(K+); from 20.5+/-0.58 to 37.4+/-2.1, after 60 min, n=6, P<0.05), and fractional Cl(-) excretion increased from 18.16+/-0.52 to 35.2+/-2.0 at 60 min, n=6, P<0.05. With the exception of a significant increase in the %E(K)(+), no other effect was observed in the kidneys from the rats maintained on HS1%, and no significant effects were seen in those that were maintained on normal water. The effect of a higher dose (0.6 microM) of uroguanylin on urinary flow, sodium or potassium excretion was also significantly increased by 2% NaCl (HS2%) treatment (P<0.05). We also observed an expressive upregulation of the GC-C and a slight downregulation of the GC-A receptor in high-salt treated rats. These data demonstrate that prolonged salt ingestion primes the kidney to enhanced renal responses to uroguanylin.

Atrial natriuretic peptide and nitric oxide signaling antagonizes vasopressin-mediated water permeability in inner medullary collecting duct cells

AVP and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) have opposite effects in the kidney. AVP induces antidiuresis by insertion of aquaporin-2 (AQP2) water channels into the plasma membrane of collecting duct principal cells. ANP acts as a diuretic factor. An ANP- and nitric oxide (NO)/soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC)-induced insertion of AQP2 into the plasma membrane is reported from different models. However, functional data on the insertion of AQP2 is missing. We used primary cultured inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) cells and digital holographic microscopy, calcein-quenching measurements, and immunofluorescence and Western blotting to analyze the effects of ANP and NO donors on AQP2 phosphorylation, membrane expression, and water permeability. While AVP led to acceleration in osmotically induced swelling, ANP had no effect. However, in AVP-pretreated cells ANP significantly decreased the kinetics of cell swelling. This effect was mimicked by 8-bromo-cGMP and blunted by PKG inhibition. Stimulation of the NO/sGC pathway or direct activation of sGC with BAY 58-2667 had similar effects to ANP. In cells treated with AVP, AQP2 was predominantly localized in the plasma membrane, and after additional incubation with ANP AQP2 was mostly localized in the cytosol, indicating an increased retrieval of AQP2 from the plasma membrane by ANP. Western blot analysis showed that ANP was able to reduce AVP-induced phosphorylation of AQP2 at position S256. In conclusion, we show that the diuretic action of ANP or NO in the IMCD involves a decreased localization of AQP2 in the plasma membrane which is mediated by cGMP and PKG.

Guanylin-like peptides, guanylate cyclase and osmoregulation in the European eel (Anguilla anguilla)

Three guanylin-like peptides, guanylin, uroguanylin and renoguanylin and two guanylate cyclase type C (GC-C) receptor isoforms were cloned and sequenced from the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). All peptides and both receptors (GC-C1 and GC-C2) were predominantly expressed within the intestine and kidney of both sexually immature yellow, and sexually maturing, migratory silver eels. The derived amino acid sequences for the pre-prohormones and guanylate cyclase isoforms had structural features in common with sequences previously reported for guanylin-like peptides and guanylate cyclases from teleost fish and other species in general. The highest sequence homologies for the prohormones were found within the active, 15-16 amino acid C-terminal peptide domain, whereas the guanylate cyclase receptors exhibited highest homology throughout the transmembrane domain and intracellular region of the protein comprising the kinase homology, oligomerisation/coiled-coil and catalytic domains. In both yellow and silver eels, seawater (SW) acclimation induced sustained increases in the expression of uroguanylin and GC-C1 mRNAs within the intestine but no significant changes were found in the abundance of mRNAs for guanylin, renoguanylin or GC-C2. Likewise there were no significant changes in expression of any of the prohormone or receptor mRNAs within the renal kidney following transfer to SW. The results suggest that uroguanylin and GC-C1 are key components of a cGMP signalling system that may play an important role within intestinal enterocytes for the regulation of salt and water absorption in the SW-acclimated eel.

Effects of uroguanylin on natriuresis in experimental nephrotic rats

AIM

Uroguanylin, isolated from human and opossum urine, is a candidate intestinal natriuretic hormone that controls the sodium and water balance between the intestine and the kidneys. Levels of immunoreactive (ir)-uroguanylin in the plasma and urine are increased in rats and humans with nephrotic syndrome, which is physiologically characterized by sodium retention with massive proteinuria. The present study evaluates the effect of natriuresis induced by uroguanylin on nephrotic rats.

METHODS

Normal rats and rats rendered nephrotic by injections of puromycin aminonucleoside (PAN) were treated with uroguanylin (0.5 nmol/h, delivered by an osmotic pump) or with vehicle during the sodium retention phase. All rats consumed the same quantity of sodium.

RESULTS

Uroguanylin did not increase urinary excretion of sodium and water in normal rats, but significantly increased urinary sodium excretion during the sodium retention phase in nephrotic rats (untreated vs uroguanylin-treated nephrotic rats in mmol/mmol creatinine; 2.92 +/- 0.65 vs 8.93 +/- 2.53 on day 6, P < 0.05; 3.55 +/- 0.47 vs 10.37 +/- 1.73 on day 7, P < 0.01; 14.88 +/- 2.32 vs 24.47 +/- 2.86 on day 8, P < 0.05). Plasma levels of ir-uroguanylin in uroguanylin-treated nephrotic rats on day 6 were significantly increased compared with those in uroguanylin-treated control and untreated nephrotic rats.

CONCLUSION

Uroguanylin increased urinary sodium excretion in rats with PAN-induced nephrosis, and might be useful for treating sodium retention in patients with nephrotic syndrome.

Regulation of ion transport in eel intestine by the homologous guanylin family of peptides

Since the gene expression of guanylin peptides and their receptors, guanylyl cyclase Cs, is enhanced in the intestine of seawater (SW)-adapted eels compared with fresh water (FW)-adapted fish, the guanylin family may play an important role in SW adaptation in eels. The present study analyzed the effect of three homologous guanylin peptides, guanylin, uroguanylin and renoguanylin, on ion movement through the eel intestine, and examined the target of guanylin action using Ussing chambers. The middle and posterior parts of the intestine, where water and ion absorption occurs actively in SW eels, exhibited serosa-negative transepithelial potential, while the anterior intestine was serosa-positive. Mucosal application of each guanylin in the middle or posterior intestine reduced the short-circuit current (Isc) dose dependently and reversed it at high doses, and reduced electric tissue resistance. The effects were greater in the middle intestine than in the posterior intestine. All three guanylins showed similar potency in the middle segment, but guanylin was more potent in the posterior segment. 8-bromo cGMP mimicked the effect of guanylins. The intestinal response to guanylin was smaller in FW eels. The mucosal presence of NPPB utilized as a CFTR blocker, but not of other inhibitors of the channels/transporters localized on the luminal surface in SW fish intestine, inhibited the guanylin-induced decrease in Isc. In eels, therefore, the guanylin family may be involved in osmoregulation by the intestine by binding to the receptors and activating CFTR-like channels on the mucosal side through cGMP production, perhaps resulting in Cl(-) and HCO3(-) secretion into the lumen.

Guanylin peptides and colorectal cancer (CRC)

Agonists of guanylyl-C receptor, such as guanylin/uroguanylin, are correlated not only with the intestinal cell epithelial physiology but also with the colorectal cancer tumorigenesis. Activation of the second intracellular messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate by guanylyl cyclase-C receptor results in a complex intracellular signalling cascade involving the phosphodiesterase, the ion channels and the protein kinase. After an analytical review of relevant new knowledge, new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for colorectal cancer are discussed.

Renal electrolyte effects of guanylin and uroguanylin

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Guanylin peptides are secreted from the intestine and influence electrolyte and water transport in intestine and kidney, suggesting that these peptides act as intestinal natriuretic peptides. This review presents recent research on renal guanylin and uroguanylin effects.

RECENT FINDINGS

After salty meals guanylin peptides are produced in the intestine activating anion secretion and inhibiting sodium absorption. In the kidney guanylin peptides induce saluresis and diuresis. The signaling of guanylin peptides in the intestine is well known, involving guanylate cyclase C and increases in cellular cGMP concentrations. As in the intestine in proximal tubule cells a cGMP and guanylate cyclase C-dependent signaling pathway exists. In guanylate cyclase C-deficient mice, renal effects are unaltered, which could be by explained by recently described new cGMP-independent signaling pathways. In proximal tubules, Uroguanylin activates a pertussis toxin-sensitive receptor. Another cGMP-independent signaling pathway of guanylin peptides involving phospholipase A2 and arachidonic acid is shown for principal cells of human and mouse cortical collecting ducts.

SUMMARY

Mechanisms and sites of renal actions of guanylin peptides are still not completely understood. Renal receptors for guanylin peptides are probably G-protein-coupled. The influences of guanylin peptides on natriuresis, kaliuresis, and diuresis are complex and only further detailed studies will allow a complete understanding of the function of these peptides.

Effect of uroguanylin on potassium and bicarbonate transport in rat renal tubules

The effect of uroguanylin (UGN) on K+and H+secretion in the renal tubules of the rat kidney was studied using in vivo stationary microperfusion. For the study of K+secretion, a tubule was punctured to inject a column of FDC-green-colored Ringer's solution with 0.5 mmol KCl/L ± 10−6mol UGN/L, and oil was used to block fluid flow. K+activity and transepithelial potential differences (PD) were measured with double microelectrodes (K+ion-selective resin vs. reference) in the distal tubules of the same nephron. During perfusion, K+activity rose exponentially, from 0.5 mmol/L to stationary concentration, allowing for the calculation of K+secretion (JK). JKincreased from 0.63 ± 0.06 nmol·cm–2·s–1in the control group to 0.85 ± 0.06 in the UGN group (p < 0.01). PD was –51.0 ± 5.3 mV in the control group and –50.3 ± 4.98 mV in the UGN group. In the presence of 10−7mol iberiotoxin/L, the UGN effect was abolished: JKwas 0.37 ± 0.038 nmol·cm–2·s–1in the absence of, and 0.38 ± 0.025 in the presence of, UGN, indicating its action on maxi-K channels. In another series of experiments, renal tubule acidification was studied, using a similar method: proximal and distal tubules were perfused with solutions containing 25 mmol NaHCO3/L. Acidification half-time was increased both in proximal and distal segments and, as a consequence, bicarbonate reabsorption decreased in the presence of UGN (in proximal tubules, from 2.40 ± 0.26 to 1.56 ± 0.21 nmol·cm–2·s–1). When the Na+/H+exchanger was inhibited by 10−4mol hexamethylene amiloride (HMA)/L, the control and UGN groups were not significantly different. In the late distal tubule, after HMA, UGN significantly reduced JHCO3–, indicating an effect of UGN on H+-ATPase. These data show that UGN stimulated JK+by acting on maxi-K channels, and decreased JHCO3–by acting on NHE3 in proximal and H+-ATPase in distal tubules.