HMGB1 contributes to kidney ischemia reperfusion injury

Single-Cell Spatial Transcriptomics Unveils Platelet-Fueled Cycling Macrophages for Kidney Fibrosis

With the increasing incidence of kidney diseases, there is an urgent need to develop therapeutic strategies to combat post-injury fibrosis. Immune cells, including platelets, play a pivotal role in this repair process, primarily through their released cytokines. However, the specific role of platelets in kidney injury and subsequent repair remains underexplored. Here, the detrimental role of platelets in renal recovery following ischemia/reperfusion injury and its contribution to acute kidney injury  to chronic kidney disease transition is aimed to investigated. In this study, it is shown that depleting platelets accelerates injury resolution and significantly reduces fibrosis. Employing advanced single-cell and spatial transcriptomic techniques, macrophages as the primary mediators modulated by platelet signals is identified. A novel subset of macrophages, termed "cycling M2", which exhibit an M2 phenotype combined with enhanced proliferative activity is uncovered. This subset emerges in the injured kidney during the resolution phase and is modulated by platelet-derived thrombospondin 1 (THBS1) signaling, acquiring profibrotic characteristics. Conversely, targeted inhibition of THBS1 markedly downregulates the cycling M2 macrophage, thereby mitigating fibrotic progression. Overall, this findings highlight the adverse role of platelet THBS1-boosted cycling M2 macrophages in renal injury repair and suggest platelet THBS1 as a promising therapeutic target for alleviating inflammation and kidney fibrosis.

Demotion of canonical/non-canonical inflammasome and pyroptosis alleviates ischemia/reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury: Novel role of the D2/D3 receptor agonist ropinirole

Ropinirole used to treat Parkinson's disease highly targets the dopaminergic receptor D3 over the D2 receptor but although both are expressed in the kidneys the ropinirole potential to treat kidney injury provoked by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) is undraped. We investigated whether ropinirole can alleviate renal I/R by studying its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-pyroptotic effects targeting its aptitude to inhibit the High-mobility group box 1/Toll-like receptor 4/Nuclear factor-kappa B (HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB) cue and the canonical/non-canonical NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome trajectories. Herein, bilateral I/R surgery was induced in animals to be either untreated or treated with ropinirole for three days after the insult. Ropinirole successfully improved the histopathological picture and renal function which was confirmed by reducing cystatin C and the standard parameters creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). Ropinirole achieved this through its anti-inflammatory capacity mediated by reducing the HMGB1/TLR4 axis and inactivating NF-κB, which are upstream regulators of the NLRP3 pathway. As a result, the injurious inflammasome markers (NLRP3, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), active caspase-1) and their target cytokines interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and IL-18 were decreased. Ropinirole also reduced the pyroptotic cell death markers caspase-11 and gasdermin-D. Furthermore, ropinirole by replenishing antioxidants and decreasing malondialdehyde helped to reduce oxidative stress in the kidneys. The docking findings confirmed that ropinirole highly binds to the dopaminergic D3 receptor more than to the D2 receptor. In conclusion, ropinirole has the potential to be a reno-therapeutic treatment against I/R insult by abating the inflammatory NLRP3 inflammasome signal, pyroptosis, and oxidative stress.

Effect of high-dose vitamin C on renal ischemia-reperfusion injury

Acute kidney injury frequently occurs after cardiac surgery, and is primarily attributed to renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and inflammation from surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass. Vitamin C, an antioxidant that is often depleted in critically ill patients, could potentially mitigate I/R-induced oxidative stress at high doses. We investigated the effectiveness of high-dose vitamin C in preventing I/R-induced renal injury. The ideal time and optimal dosage for administration were determined in a two-phase experiment on Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were assigned to four groups: sham, IRC (I/R + saline), and pre- and post-vitC (vitamin C before and after I/R, respectively), with vitamin C administered at 200 mg/kg. Additional groups were examined for dose modification based on the optimal timing determined: V100, V200, and V300 (100, 200, and 300 mg/kg, respectively). Renal I/R was achieved through 45 min of ischemia followed by 24 h of reperfusion. Vitamin C administration during reperfusion significantly reduced renal dysfunction and tubular damage, more than pre-ischemic administration. Doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg during reperfusion reduced oxidative stress markers, including myeloperoxidase and inflammatory responses by decreasing high mobility group box 1 release and nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-like receptor 3 inflammasome. Overall beneficial effect was most prominent with 200 mg/kg. The 300 mg/kg dose, however, showed no additional benefits over the IRC group regarding serum blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels and histological evaluation. During reperfusion, high-dose vitamin C administration (200 mg/kg) significantly decreased renal I/R injury by effectively attenuating the major triggers of oxidative stress and inflammation.

Impact of folic acid supplementation on ischemia‒reperfusion-induced kidney injury in rats: folic acid prophylactic role revisited

Folic acid (FA), with its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, may offer protection against ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. This study investigated whether FA safeguards rat kidneys from IR by targeting high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), a key inflammatory mediator. Fifty adult male Wistar rats were randomly allocated into four groups: control, IR, IR + FA pretreatment, and FA alone. Compared to controls, IR significantly impaired renal function and elevated levels of malondialdehyde, HMGB1, NF-κB, and caspase 3. FA pretreatment effectively reversed these detrimental changes, protecting renal function and minimizing tissue damage. The FA-alone group showed no significant differences compared to the control group, indicating no adverse effects of FA treatment. Mechanistically, FA inhibited HMGB1 expression and its downstream activation of NF-κB and caspase 3, thereby quelling inflammation and cell death. FA shields rat kidneys from IR-induced injury by suppressing HMGB1-mediated inflammation and apoptosis, suggesting a potential therapeutic avenue for IR-associated kidney damage.

Interorgan communication networks in the kidney-lung axis

The homeostasis and health of an organism depend on the coordinated interaction of specialized organs, which is regulated by interorgan communication networks of circulating soluble molecules and neuronal connections. Many diseases that seemingly affect one primary organ are really multiorgan diseases, with substantial secondary remote organ complications that underlie a large part of their morbidity and mortality. Acute kidney injury (AKI) frequently occurs in critically ill patients with multiorgan failure and is associated with high mortality, particularly when it occurs together with respiratory failure. Inflammatory lung lesions in patients with kidney failure that could be distinguished from pulmonary oedema due to volume overload were first reported in the 1930s, but have been largely overlooked in clinical settings. A series of studies over the past two decades have elucidated acute and chronic kidney-lung and lung-kidney interorgan communication networks involving various circulating inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, metabolites, uraemic toxins, immune cells and neuro-immune pathways. Further investigations are warranted to understand these clinical entities of high morbidity and mortality, and to develop effective treatments.

Disulfide-HMGB1 signals through TLR4 and TLR9 to induce inflammatory macrophages capable of innate-adaptive crosstalk in human liver transplantation

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) during orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) contributes to graft rejection and poor clinical outcomes. The disulfide form of high mobility group box 1 (diS-HMGB1), an intracellular protein released during OLT-IRI, induces pro-inflammatory macrophages. How diS-HMGB1 differentiates human monocytes into macrophages capable of activating adaptive immunity remains unknown. We investigated if diS-HMGB1 binds toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and TLR9 to differentiate monocytes into pro-inflammatory macrophages that activate adaptive immunity and promote graft injury and dysfunction. Assessment of 106 clinical liver tissue and longitudinal blood samples revealed that OLT recipients were more likely to experience IRI and graft dysfunction with increased diS-HMGB1 released during reperfusion. Increased diS-HMGB1 concentration also correlated with TLR4/TLR9 activation, polarization of monocytes into pro-inflammatory macrophages, and production of anti-donor antibodies. In vitro, healthy volunteer monocytes stimulated with purified diS-HMGB1 had increased inflammatory cytokine secretion, antigen presentation machinery, and reactive oxygen species production. TLR4 inhibition primarily impeded cytokine/chemokine and costimulatory molecule programs, whereas TLR9 inhibition decreased HLA-DR and reactive oxygen species production. diS-HMGB1-polarized macrophages also showed increased capacity to present antigens and activate T memory cells. In murine OLT, diS-HMGB1 treatment potentiated ischemia-reperfusion-mediated hepatocellular injury, accompanied by increased serum alanine transaminase levels. This translational study identifies the diS-HMGB1/TLR4/TLR9 axis as potential therapeutic targets in OLT-IRI recipients.

SARS-CoV-2 N protein induced acute kidney injury in diabetic db/db mice is associated with a Mincle-dependent M1 macrophage activation

"Cytokine storm" is common in critically ill COVID-19 patients, however, mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we reported that overexpression of SARS-CoV-2 N protein in diabetic db/db mice significantly increased tubular death and the release of HMGB1, one of the damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), to trigger M1 proinflammatory macrophage activation and production of IL-6, TNF-α, and MCP-1 via a Mincle-Syk/NF-κB-dependent mechanism. This was further confirmed in vitro that overexpression of SARS-CoV-2 N protein caused the release of HMGB1 from injured tubular cells under high AGE conditions, which resulted in M1 macrophage activation and production of proinflammatory cytokines via a Mincle-Syk/NF-κB-dependent mechanism. This was further evidenced by specifically silencing macrophage Mincle to block HMGB1-induced M1 macrophage activation and production of IL-6, TNF-α, and MCP-1 in vitro. Importantly, we also uncovered that treatment with quercetin largely improved SARS-CoV-2 N protein-induced AKI in db/db mice. Mechanistically, we found that quercetin treatment significantly inhibited the release of a DAMP molecule HMGB1 and inactivated M1 pro-inflammatory macrophage while promoting reparative M2 macrophage responses by suppressing Mincle-Syk/NF-κB signaling in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, SARS-CoV-2 N protein-induced AKI in db/db mice is associated with Mincle-dependent M1 macrophage activation. Inhibition of this pathway may be a mechanism through which quercetin inhibits COVID-19-associated AKI.

HMGB1 Is a Prognostic Factor for Mortality in Acute Kidney Injury Requiring Renal Replacement Therapy

INSTRUCTION

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that reportedly causes kidney injury and other organ damage in rodent acute kidney injury (AKI) models. However, it remains unclear whether HMGB1 is associated with clinical AKI and related outcomes. This study aimed to evaluate the association with HMGB1 and prognosis of AKI requiring continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT).

METHODS

AKI patients treated with CRRT in our intensive care unit were enrolled consecutively during 2013-2016. Plasma HMGB1 was measured on initiation. Classic initiation was defined as presenting at least one of the following conventional indications: hyperkalemia (K ≥6.5 mEq/L), severe acidosis (pH <7.15), uremia (UN >100 mg/dL), and diuretics-resistant pulmonary edema. Early initiation was defined as presenting no conventional indications. The primary outcome was defined as 90-day mortality.

RESULTS

A total of 177 AKI patients were enrolled in this study. HMGB1 was significantly associated with the primary outcome (hazard ratio, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.04-1.08). When the patients were divided into two-by-two groups by the timing of CRRT initiation and the HMBG1 cutoff value obtained by receiver operating curve (ROC) analysis, the high HMGB1 group (>10 ng/mL) with classic initiation was significantly associated with the primary outcome compared with the others, even after adjusting for other factors including the nonrenal serial organ failure assessment (SOFA) score.

CONCLUSION

HMGB1 was associated with 90-day mortality in AKI patients requiring CRRT. Notably, the highest mortality was observed in the high HMGB1 group with classic initiation. These findings suggest that CRRT should be considered for AKI patients with high HMGB1, regardless of the conventional indications.

NQO1 alleviates renal fibrosis by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB and TGF-β/Smad signaling pathways in diabetic nephropathy

OBJECTIVE

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the main complications of diabetes, and inflammation and fibrosis play an important role in its progression. NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) protects cells from oxidative stress and damage caused by toxic quinones. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the protective effects of NQO1 against diabetes-induced renal inflammation and fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

In vivo, the kidneys of type 2 diabetes model db/db mice were infected with adeno-associated virus vectors to induce NQO1 overexpression. In vitro, human renal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells transfected with NQO1 pcDNA3.1(+) were cultured under high-glucose (HG) conditions. Gene and protein expression was assessed by quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting, immunofluorescence, and immunohistochemical staining. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected with MitoSOX Red.

RESULT

Our study revealed that the expression of NQO1 was markedly downregulated and that Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 and TGF-β1 expression was upregulated in vivo and in vitro under diabetic conditions. Overexpression of NQO1 suppressed proinflammatory cytokine (IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1) secretion, extracellular matrix (ECM) (collagen IV, fibronectin) accumulation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) (α-SMA, E-cadherin) in the db/db mouse kidneys and HG-cultured HK-2 cells. Furthermore, NQO1 overexpression ameliorated HG-induced TLR4/NF-κB and TGF-β/Smad pathways activation. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that a TLR4 inhibitor (TAK-242) suppressed the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, proinflammatory cytokine secretion, EMT and ECM-related protein expression in HG-exposed HK-2 cells. In addition, we found that the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and tempol increased the expression of NQO1 and decreased the expression of TLR4, TGF-β1, Nox1, and Nox4 and ROS production in HK-2 cells cultured under HG conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that NQO1 alleviates diabetes-induced renal inflammation and fibrosis by regulating the TLR4/NF-κB and TGF-β/Smad signaling pathways.

Urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and plasma IL-6 in discontinuation of continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration for severe acute kidney injury: a multicenter prospective observational study

BACKGROUND

Patients with severe acute kidney injury (AKI) who require continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration (CVVHDF) in intensive care unit (ICU) are at high mortality risk. Little is known about clinical biomarkers for risk prediction, optimal initiation, and optimal discontinuation of CVVHDF.

METHODS

This prospective observational study was conducted in seven university-affiliated ICUs. For urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) and plasma IL-6 measurements, samples were collected at initiation, 24 h, 48 h after, and CVVHDF discontinuation in adult patients with severe AKI. The outcomes were deaths during CVVHDF and CVVHDF dependence.

RESULTS

A total number of 133 patients were included. Twenty-eight patients died without CVVHDF discontinuation (CVVHDF nonsurvivors). Urinary NGAL and plasma IL-6 at the CVVHDF initiation were significantly higher in CVVHDF nonsurvivors than in survivors. Among 105 CVVHDF survivors, 70 patients were free from renal replacement therapy (RRT) or death in the next 7 days after discontinuation (success group), whereas 35 patients died or needed RRT again (failure group). Urinary NGAL at CVVHDF discontinuation was significantly lower in the success group (93.8 ng/ml vs. 999 ng/ml, p < 0.01), whereas no significant difference was observed in plasma IL-6 between the groups. Temporal elevations of urinary NGAL levels during the first 48 h since CVVHDF initiation were observed in CVVHDF nonsurvivors and those who failed in CVVHDF discontinuation.

CONCLUSIONS

Urinary NGAL at CVVHDF initiation and discontinuation was associated with mortality and RRT dependence, respectively. The serial changes of urinary NGAL might also help predict the prognosis of patients with AKI on CVVHDF.

Peroxiredoxin 1 aggravates acute kidney injury by promoting inflammation through Mincle/Syk/NF-κB signaling

Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are a cause of acute kidney injury (AKI). Our knowledge of these DAMPs remains incomplete. Here, we report serum peroxiredoxin 1 (Prdx1) as a novel DAMP for AKI. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury instigated AKI with concurrent increases in serum Prdx1 and reductions of Prdx1 expression in kidney tubular epithelial cells. Genetic knockout of Prdx1 or use of a Prdx1-neutralizing antibody protected mice from AKI and this protection was impaired by introduction of recombinant Prdx1 (rPrdx1). Mechanistically, lipopolysaccharide increased serum and kidney proinflammatory cytokines, macrophage infiltration, and the content of M1 macrophages. All these events were suppressed in Prdx1-/- mice and renewed upon introduction of rPrdx1. In primary peritoneal macrophages, rPrdx1 induced M1 polarization, activated macrophage-inducible C-type lectin (Mincle) signaling, and enhanced proinflammatory cytokine production. Prdx1 interacted with Mincle to initiate acute kidney inflammation. Of note, rPrdx1 upregulated Mincle and the spleen tyrosine kinase Syk system in the primary peritoneal macrophages, while knockdown of Mincle abolished the increase in activated Syk. Additionally, rPrdx1 treatment enhanced the downstream events of Syk, including transcription factor NF-κB signaling pathways. Furthermore, serum Prdx1 was found to be increased in patients with AKI; the increase of which was associated with kidney function decline and inflammatory biomarkers in patient serum. Thus, kidney-derived serum Prdx1 contributes to AKI at least in part by activating Mincle signaling and downstream pathways.

The STAT1/HMGB1/NF-κB pathway in chronic inflammation and kidney injury after cisplatin exposure

Rationale: Cisplatin, a potent chemotherapeutic drug, induces side effects in normal tissues including the kidney. To reduce the side effects, repeated low-dose cisplatin (RLDC) is commonly used in clinical setting. While RLDC reduces acute nephrotoxicity to certain extents, a significant portion of patients later develop chronic kidney problems, underscoring the need for novel therapeutics to alleviate the long-term sequelae of RLDC therapy. Methods: In vivo, the role of HMGB1 was examined by testing HMGB1 neutralizing antibodies in RLDC mice. In vitro, the effects of HMGB1 knockdown on RLDC-induced nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation and fibrotic phenotype changes were tested in proximal tubular cells. To study signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), siRNA knockdown and its pharmacological inhibitor Fludarabine were used. We also searched the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database for transcriptional expression profiles and evaluated kidney biopsy samples from CKD patients to verify the STAT1/HMGB1/NF-κB signaling axis. Results: We found that RLDC induced kidney tubule damage, interstitial inflammation, and fibrosis in mice, accompanied by up-regulation of HMGB1. Blockage of HMGB1with neutralizing antibodies and Glycyrrhizin suppressed NF-κB activation and associated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reduced tubular injury and renal fibrosis, and improved renal function after RLDC treatment. Consistently, knockdown of HMGB1 decreased NF-κB activation and prevented the fibrotic phenotype in RLDC-treated renal tubular cells. At the upstream, knockdown of STAT1 suppressed HMGB1 transcription and cytoplasmic accumulation in renal tubular cells, suggesting a critical role of STAT1 in HMGB1 activation. Upregulation of STAT1/HMGB1/NF-κB along with inflammatory cytokines was also verified in kidney tissues of CKD patients. Conclusion: These results unravel the STAT1/HMGB1/NF-κB pathway that contributes to persistent inflammation and chronic kidney problems after cisplatin nephrotoxicity, suggesting new therapeutic targets for kidney protection in cancer patients receiving cisplatin chemotherapy.

Tubular Epithelial Cell HMGB1 Promotes AKI-CKD Transition by Sensitizing Cycling Tubular Cells to Oxidative Stress: A Rationale for Targeting HMGB1 during AKI Recovery

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Cells undergoing necrosis release extracellular high mobility group box (HMGB)-1, which triggers sterile inflammation upon AKI in mice. Neither deletion of HMGB1 from tubular epithelial cells, nor HMGB1 antagonism with small molecules, affects initial ischemic tubular necrosis and immediate GFR loss upon unilateral ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI). On the contrary, tubular cell-specific HMGB1 deficiency, and even late-onset pharmacological HMGB1 inhibition, increased functional and structural recovery from AKI, indicating that intracellular HMGB1 partially counters the effects of extracellular HMGB1. In vitro studies indicate that intracellular HMGB1 decreases resilience of tubular cells from prolonged ischemic stress, as in unilateral IRI. Intracellular HMGB1 is a potential target to enhance kidney regeneration and to improve long-term prognosis in AKI.

BACKGROUND

Late diagnosis is a hurdle for treatment of AKI, but targeting AKI-CKD transition may improve outcomes. High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a nuclear regulator of transcription and a driver of necroinflammation in AKI. We hypothesized that HMGB1 would also modulate AKI-CKD transition in other ways.

METHODS

We conducted single-cell transcriptome analysis of human and mouse AKI and mouse in vivo and in vitro studies with tubular cell-specific depletion of Hmgb1 and HMGB1 antagonists.

RESULTS

HMGB1 was ubiquitously expressed in kidney cells. Preemptive HMGB1 antagonism with glycyrrhizic acid (Gly) and ethyl pyruvate (EP) did not affect postischemic AKI but attenuated AKI-CKD transition in a model of persistent kidney hypoxia. Consistently, tubular Hmgb1 depletion in Pax8 rtTA, TetO Cre, Hmgb1fl/fl mice did not protect from AKI, but from AKI-CKD transition. In vitro studies confirmed that absence of HMGB1 or HMGB1 inhibition with Gly and EP does not affect ischemic necrosis of growth-arrested differentiated tubular cells but increased the resilience of cycling tubular cells that survived the acute injury to oxidative stress. This effect persisted when neutralizing extracellular HMGB1 with 2G7. Consistently, late-onset HMGB1 blockade with EP started after the peak of ischemic AKI in mice prevented AKI-CKD transition, even when 2G7 blocked extracellular HMGB1.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of AKI could become feasible when ( 1 ) focusing on long-term outcomes of AKI; ( 2 ) targeting AKI-CKD transition with drugs initiated after the AKI peak; and ( 3 ) targeting with drugs that block HMGB1 in intracellular and extracellular compartments.

Cytoplasmic HMGB1 induces renal tubular ferroptosis after ischemia/reperfusion

As a damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is well-studied and is released from injured tubular epithelial cells to trigger cell death. However, the role of intracellular HMGB1 induced cell death during acute kidney injury (AKI) is poorly understood. We showed that cytosolic HMGB1 induced ferroptosis by binding to acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), the driver of ferroptosis, following renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Both mouse and human kidneys with acute tubular injury were characterized by nucleocytoplasmic translocation of HMGB1in tubular cells. Pharmacological inhibition of HMGB1 nucleocytoplasmic translocation and deletion of HMGB1 in tubular epithelial cells in mice inhibited I/R-induced AKI, tubular ferroptosis, and inflammation compared to those in controls. Co-immunoprecipitation and serial section staining confirmed the interaction between HMGB1 and ACSL4. Taken together, our results demonstrated that cytoplasmic HMGB1 is essential for exacerbating inflammation-associated cellular injury by activating renal tubular ferroptosis via ACSL4 after I/R injury. These findings indicate that cytoplasmic HMGB1 is a regulator of ferroptosis and a promising therapeutic target for AKI.

Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonism Attenuates Multiple Organ Failure after Renal Ischemia and Reperfusion in Mice

Renal ischemia reperfusion (IR) injury is a major cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) that is often complicated by multiple organ failure of the liver and intestine. The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is activated in patients with renal failure associated with glomerular and tubular damage. We thus investigated whether canrenoic acid (CA), a mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonist, protects against AKI-induced hepatic and intestinal injury, suggesting the underlying mechanisms. Mice were divided into five groups: sham mice, mice subjected to renal IR, and mice pretreated with canrenoic acid (CA; 1 or 10 mg/kg) 30 min prior to renal IR. At 24 h after renal IR, the levels of plasma creatinine, alanine aminotransferase and aldosterone were measured, and structural changes and inflammatory responses of the kidney, liver, and intestine were analyzed. We found that CA treatment reduced plasma creatinine levels, tubular cell death and oxidative stress induced by renal IR. CA treatment also decreased renal neutrophil infiltration and inflammatory cytokine expression and inhibited the release of high-mobility group box 1 induced by renal IR. Consistently, CA treatment reduced renal IR-induced plasma alanine transaminase, hepatocellular injury and neutrophil infiltration, and inflammatory cytokine expression. CA treatment also decreased small intestinal cell death, neutrophil infiltration and inflammatory cytokine expression induced by renal IR. Taken together, we conclude that MR antagonism by CA treatment protects against multiple organ failure in the liver and intestine after renal IR.

Toll-like Receptor 4 in Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common and devastating pathologic condition, associated with considerable high morbidity and mortality. Although significant breakthroughs have been made in recent years, to this day no effective pharmacological therapies for its treatment exist. AKI is known to be connected with intrarenal and systemic inflammation. The innate immune system plays an important role as the first defense response mechanism to tissue injury. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a well-characterized pattern recognition receptor, and increasing evidence has shown that TLR4 mediated inflammatory response, plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of acute kidney injury. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which are the conserved microbial motifs, are sensed by these receptors. Endogenous molecules generated during tissue injury, and labeled as damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs), also activate pattern recognition receptors, thereby offering an understanding of sterile types of inflammation. Excessive, uncontrolled and/or sustained activation of TLR4, may lead to a chronic inflammatory state. In this review we describe the role of TLR4, its endogenous ligands and activation in the inflammatory response to ischemic/reperfusion-induced AKI and sepsis-associated AKI. The potential regeneration signaling patterns of TLR4 in acute kidney injury, are also discussed.

Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 stress signaling and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 in kidney disease

Kidney disease is the 6th fastest-growing cause of death and a serious global health concern that urges effective therapeutic options. The inflammatory response is an initial reaction from immune and parenchymal cells in kidney diseases. Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4 are highly expressed by various kidney cells and respond to 'signaling danger' proteins, such as high mobility group box binding protein 1 (HMGB1) and prompt the progression of kidney disease by releasing inflammatory mediators. Burgeoning reports suggest that both SGLT2 and ER stress elevates TLR2/4 signaling via different axis. Moreover, SGLT2 signaling aggravates inflammation under the disease condition by promoting the NLR family pyrin domain-containing three inflammasomes and ER stress. Intriguingly, TLR2/4 downstream adaptors activate ER stress regulators. The above-discussed interactions imply that TLR2/4 does more than immune response during kidney disease. Here, we discuss in detail evidence of the roles and regulation of TLR2/4 in the context of a relationship between ER stress and SGLT2. Also, we highlighted different preclinical studies of SGLT2 inhibitors against TLR2/4 signaling in various kidney diseases. Moreover, we discuss the observational and interventional evidence about the relation between TLR2/4, ER stress, and SGLT2, which may represent the TLR2/4 as a potential therapeutic target for kidney disease.

The multifunctional roles of autophagy in the innate immune response: Implications for regulation of transplantation rejection

Organ transplantation is the main treatment for end-stage organ failure, which has rescued tens of thousands of lives. Immune rejection is the main factor affecting the survival of transplanted organs. How to suppress immune rejection is an important goal of transplantation research. A graft first triggers innate immune responses, leading to graft inflammation, tissue injury and cell death, followed by adaptive immune activation. At present, the importance of innate immunity in graft rejection is poorly understood. Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved intracellular degradation system, is proven to be involved in regulating innate immune response following graft transplants. Moreover, there is evidence indicating that autophagy can regulate graft dysfunction. Although the specific mechanism by which autophagy affects graft rejection remains unclear, autophagy is involved in innate immune signal transduction, inflammatory response, and various forms of cell death after organ transplantation. This review summarizes how autophagy regulates these processes and proposes potential targets for alleviating immune rejection.

Necroptosis: A Pathogenic Negotiator in Human Diseases

Over the past few decades, mechanisms of programmed cell death have attracted the scientific community because they are involved in diverse human diseases. Initially, apoptosis was considered as a crucial mechanistic pathway for programmed cell death; recently, an alternative regulated mode of cell death was identified, mimicking the features of both apoptosis and necrosis. Several lines of evidence have revealed that dysregulation of necroptosis leads to pathological diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, lung, renal, hepatic, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory diseases. Regulated forms of necrosis are executed by death receptor ligands through the activation of receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIPK)-1/3 and mixed-lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL), resulting in the formation of a necrosome complex. Many papers based on genetic and pharmacological studies have shown that RIPKs and MLKL are the key regulatory effectors during the progression of multiple pathological diseases. This review focused on illuminating the mechanisms underlying necroptosis, the functions of necroptosis-associated proteins, and their influences on disease progression. We also discuss numerous natural and chemical compounds and novel targeted therapies that elicit beneficial roles of necroptotic cell death in malignant cells to bypass apoptosis and drug resistance and to provide suggestions for further research in this field.

From AKI to CKD: Maladaptive Repair and the Underlying Mechanisms

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined as a pathological condition in which the glomerular filtration rate decreases rapidly over a short period of time, resulting in changes in the physiological function and tissue structure of the kidney. An increasing amount of evidence indicates that there is an inseparable relationship between acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease (CKD). With the progress in research in this area, researchers have found that the recovery of AKI may also result in the occurrence of CKD due to its own maladaptation and other potential mechanisms, which involve endothelial cell injury, inflammatory reactions, progression to fibrosis and other pathways that promote the progress of the disease. Based on these findings, this review summarizes the occurrence and potential mechanisms of maladaptive repair in the progression of AKI to CKD and explores possible treatment strategies in this process so as to provide a reference for the inhibition of the progression of AKI to CKD.

Inflammation in kidney repair: Mechanism and therapeutic potential

The kidney has a remarkable ability of repair after acute kidney injury (AKI). However, when injury is severe or persistent, the repair is incomplete or maladaptive and may lead to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Maladaptive kidney repair involves multiple cell types and multifactorial processes, of which inflammation is a key component. In the process of inflammation, there is a bidirectional interplay between kidney parenchymal cells and the immune system. The extensive and complex crosstalk between renal tubular epithelial cells and interstitial cells, including immune cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells, governs the repair and recovery of the injured kidney. Further research in this field is imperative for the discovery of biomarkers and promising therapeutic targets for kidney repair. In this review, we summarize the latest progress in the immune response and inflammation during maladaptive kidney repair, analyzing the interaction between immune cells and intrinsic kidney cells, pointing out the potentialities of inflammation-related pathways as therapeutic targets, and discussing the challenges and future research prospects in this field.

Inhibition of HMGB1/RAGE Signaling Reduces the Incidence of Medication-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaw (MRONJ) in Mice

Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ) is a severe complication of antiresorptive or antiangiogenic medications, used in the treatment of bone malignancy or osteoporosis. Bone necrosis, mainly represented by osteocytic death, is always present in MRONJ sites; however, the role of osteocyte death in MRONJ pathogenesis is unknown. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a non-histone nucleoprotein that in its acetylated form accumulates in the cytoplasm, whereas non-acetylated HMGB1 localizes in the nucleus. SIRT1 deacetylase regulates cellular localization of HMGB1. Interestingly, HMGB1 is released during cell necrosis and promotes inflammation through signaling cascades, including activation of the RAGE receptor. Here, we utilized a well-established mouse MRONJ model that utilizes ligature-induced experimental periodontitis (EP) and treatment with either vehicle or zolendronic acid (ZA). Initially, we evaluated HMGB1-SIRT1 expression in osteocytes at 1, 2, and 4 weeks of treatment. Significantly increased cytoplasmic and perilacunar HMGB1 expression was observed at EP sites of ZA versus vehicle (Veh) animals at all time points. SIRT1 colocalized with cytoplasmic HMGB1 and presented a statistically significant increased expression at the EP sites of ZA animals for all time points. RAGE expression was significantly higher in the submucosal tissues EP sites of ZA animals compared with those in vehicle group. To explore the significance of increased cytoplasmic and extracellular HMGB1 and increased RAGE expression in MRONJ pathogenesis, we used pharmacologic inhibitors of these molecules. Combined HMGB1/RAGE inhibition resulted in lower MRONJ incidence with statistically significant decrease in osteonecrotic areas and bone exposure versus non-inhibitor treated ZA animals. Together, our data point to the role of HMGB1 as a central alarmin, overexpressed at early phase of MRONJ pathogenesis during osteocytic death. Moreover, HMGB1-RAGE pathway may represent a new promising therapeutic target in patients at high risk of MRONJ. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

DAMPs Released From Injured Renal Tubular Epithelial Cells Activate Innate Immune Signals in Healthy Renal Tubular Epithelial Cells

BACKGROUND

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) predictably causes acute kidney injury after shock and major cardiovascular procedures in all kidneys procured for transplantation. The earliest events of IRI are triggered by molecules released from injured cells, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), that bind pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) constitutively expressed on many cells within the kidney. Activation of PRR signaling leads to production of proinflammatory molecules, which incite a cascade of inflammatory events leading to acute kidney injury. Renal tubular epithelial cells (RTECs) are particularly susceptible to ischemic injury, and proximal RTEC injury is pathognomonic of renal IRI. To better understand how injured RTECs contribute to the cycle of deleterious inflammation in the setting of renal IRI, this study asked whether DAMPs released from injured RTECs induced PRR signals in healthy RTECs.

METHODS

Human RTECs were necrosed ex vivo to release intracellular DAMPs and resulting necrotic supernatant used to stimulate healthy RTECs, T lymphocytes, and monocytes.

RESULTS

DAMPs released from necrosed RTECs upregulated PRRs known to be associated with renal IRI and activated mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. Proinflammatory cytokines were upregulated in response to necrotic supernatant, and this upregulation was abrogated by MEK-1 inhibition. The RTEC-derived DAMPs were also potent inducers of T-cell activation/proliferation and monocyte migration.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to our knowledge to show that endogenous DAMPs released from injured RTECs directly activate PRR signaling in healthy RTECs. These findings provide new insights directed to therapeutics for renal IRI.

Current status of xenotransplantation research and the strategies for preventing xenograft rejection

Transplantation is often the last resort for end-stage organ failures, e.g., kidney, liver, heart, lung, and pancreas. The shortage of donor organs is the main limiting factor for successful transplantation in humans. Except living donations, other alternatives are needed, e.g., xenotransplantation of pig organs. However, immune rejection remains the major challenge to overcome in xenotransplantation. There are three different xenogeneic types of rejections, based on the responses and mechanisms involved. It includes hyperacute rejection (HAR), delayed xenograft rejection (DXR) and chronic rejection. DXR, sometimes involves acute humoral xenograft rejection (AHR) and cellular xenograft rejection (CXR), which cannot be strictly distinguished from each other in pathological process. In this review, we comprehensively discussed the mechanism of these immunological rejections and summarized the strategies for preventing them, such as generation of gene knock out donors by different genome editing tools and the use of immunosuppressive regimens. We also addressed organ-specific barriers and challenges needed to pave the way for clinical xenotransplantation. Taken together, this information will benefit the current immunological research in the field of xenotransplantation.

Remote ischemic preconditioning causes transient cell-cycle arrest and renal protection by a NF-kB-dependent Sema5B pathway

Acute kidney injury increases morbidity and mortality, and previous studies have shown that remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) reduces the risk of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. RIPC increases urinary high mobility group box protein-1 (HMGB1) levels in patients, and this correlates with kidney protection. Here, we show that RIPC reduces renal ischemia-reperfusion injury and improves kidney function in mice. Mechanistically, RIPC increases HMGB1 levels in the plasma and urine, and HMGB1 binds to TLR4 on renal tubular epithelial cells, inducing transcriptomic modulation of renal tubular epithelial cells and providing renal protection, whereas TLR4 activation on nonrenal cells was shown to contribute to renal injury. This protection is mediated by activation of induction of AMPKα and NF-κB; this induction contributes to the upregulation of Sema5b, which triggers a transient, protective G₁ cell cycle arrest. In cardiac surgery patients at high risk for postoperative acute kidney injury, increased HMGB1 and Sema5b levels after RIPC were associated with renal protection after surgery. The results may help to develop future clinical treatment options for acute kidney injury.

The Effect of Hypothermic Machine Perfusion to Ameliorate Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Donor Organs

Hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP) has become the new gold standard in clinical donor kidney preservation and a promising novel strategy in higher risk donor livers in several countries. As shown by meta-analysis for the kidney, HMP decreases the risk of delayed graft function (DGF) and improves graft survival. For the liver, HMP immediately prior to transplantation may reduce the chance of early allograft dysfunction (EAD) and reduce ischemic sequelae in the biliary tract. Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), unavoidable during transplantation, can lead to massive cell death and is one of the main causes for DGF, EAD or longer term impact. Molecular mechanisms that are affected in IRI include levels of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), induction of cell death, endothelial dysfunction and immune responses. In this review we have summarized and discussed mechanisms on how HMP can ameliorate IRI. Better insight into how HMP influences IRI in kidney and liver transplantation may lead to new therapies and improved transplant outcomes.

The Protective Effect of Anethole against Renal Ischemia/Reperfusion: The Role of the TLR2,4/MYD88/NFκB Pathway

Background: Anethole is the principle essential oil component of anise and fennel. Renal ischemia/reperfusion (RIR) is one of the utmost imperative reasons for acute kidney injury and often associated with high mortality rate. The aim of this study is to investigate the protective effect of anethole on RIR status, exploring the involved mechanisms. Methods: RIR was accomplished by bilateral renal pedicle clamping for 45 min, after which the clamps were removed to achieve the reperfusion phase. Rats were randomized into five groups; Sham, Sham + anethole, RIR, and finally RIR + anethole (125 mg/kg or 250 mg/kg) groups. Animals were given anethole (in specified groups in doses) for 14 days before RIR. Results: RIR-experienced animals developed renal injury evidenced by diminished renal function and histopathological alteration. RIR induced severe oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic status within renal tissue. Pre-RIR management with anethole enhanced renal morphology and improved renal function. Anethole amplified GSH content and SOD, CAT, and GPx activities and lowered MDA. Anethole reduced gene and protein expression levels of HMGB1, TLR2, TLR4, MYD88, and NFκB. Anethole distinctly dropped TNF-α, IFN-γ, and MCP-1 levels, increased IL-10, and diminished caspase 3 and 9, reflecting its anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic actions. Conclusion: Anethole displayed anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic actions against RIR-induced injury. Anethole exhibited renal protective actions, which could be through inhibiting the HMGB1/TLR2, 4/MYD88/NFκB pathway. These results could suggest anethole as a protective agent against RIR.

Augmenter of liver regeneration protects the kidney against ischemia-reperfusion injury by inhibiting necroptosis

Necroptosis plays an important role in the pathogenesis of acute kidney injury (AKI), and necroptosis-related interventions may therefore be an important measure for the treatment of AKI. Our previous study has shown that augmenter of liver regeneration (ALR) inhibits renal tubular epithelial cell apoptosis and regulates autophagy; however, the influence of ALR on necroptosis remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of ALR on necroptosis caused by ischemia-reperfusion and the underlying mechanism. In vivo experiments indicated that kidney-specific knockout of ALR aggravated the renal dysfunction and pathological damage induced by ischemia-reperfusion. Simultaneously, the expression of renal necroptosis-associated protein receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1), receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3), and mixed-lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) significantly increased. In vitro experiments indicated that overexpression of ALR decreased the expression of hypoxia-reoxygenation-induced kidney injury molecules, the inflammation-associated factor tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and monocyte chemotactic protein. Additionally, the expression of RIP1, RIP3, and MLKL, which are elevated after hypoxia and reoxygenation, was also inhibited by ALR overexpression. Both in vivo and in vitro results indicated that ALR has a protective effect against acute kidney injury caused by ischemia-reperfusion, and the RIP1/RIP3/MLKL pathway should be further verified as a probable necroptosis regulating mechanism.

Macrophages in the kidney in health, injury and repair

Macrophages are a key component of the renal mononuclear phagocyte system, playing a major role in defense against infection, renal injury and repair. Yolk sac macrophage precursors seed the early embryonic kidney and are important for renal development. Later, renal macrophages are derived from hematopoietic stem cells and in adult life, there is a significant contribution from circulating monocytes, which is enhanced in response to infection or injury. Macrophages are highly plastic and can alter their phenotype in response to cues from parenchymal renal cells. Danger-associated molecules released from injured kidney cells may activate macrophages toward a pro-inflammatory phenotype, mediating further recruitment of inflammatory cells, exacerbating renal injury and activating renal fibroblasts to promote scarring. In acute kidney injury, once the injury stimulus has abated, macrophages may adopt a more reparative phenotype, dampening the immune response and promoting repair of renal tissue. However, in chronic kidney disease ongoing activation of pro-inflammatory monocytes and persistence of reparative macrophages leads to glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, the hallmarks of end-stage kidney disease. Several strategies to inhibit the recruitment, activation and secretory products of pro-inflammatory macrophages have proven beneficial in pre-clinical models and are now undergoing clinical trials in patients with kidney disease. In addition, macrophages may be utilized in cell therapy as a "Trojan Horse" to deliver targeted therapies to the kidney. Single-cell RNA sequencing has identified a previously unappreciated spectrum of macrophage phenotypes, which may be selectively present in injury or repair, and ongoing functional analyses of these subsets may identify more specific targets for therapeutic intervention.

The Protective Mechanism of Dexmedetomidine on Renal in Hemorrhagic Shock

Objective

To explore the protective effect of dexmedetomidine on renal function in patients with hemorrhagic shock and its possible mechanism.

Methods

Seventy patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock requiring surgical treatment were randomly divided into the control group (group C) and the dexmedetomidine group (group D), with 35 patients in each group. Patients in both groups were actively treated with volumetric resuscitation while surgical hemostasis. Group D was given dexmedetomidine 0.5 μg/kg before skin incision after anesthesia induction, for 10 min, followed by intravenous infusion at a rate of 0.4 μg·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹ until 30 min before surgery, and group C was given equal volume of normal saline before skin resection (H1). Venous blood was collected 2 h (H2) and 4 h (H4) after skin resection, and plasma levels of BUN, creatinine (SCr), lipid peroxides (MDA), and inflammatory mediators IL-6 and IL-8 were measured on the 1st and 2nd day after surgery.

Results

Compared with H1, BUN and SCr levels had no significant difference at 2 h and 4 h after skin resection but significantly decreased at 1 and 2 postoperative days (D1) (P < 0.05). There were significant differences in MDA, IL-6, and IL-8 at 2 and 4 h after skin resection (P < 0.05), but there were no significant differences at 1 day after surgery (D1) and 2 days after surgery (D2). Compared with group C, the levels of MDA, IL-6, and IL-8 in group U were significantly decreased at 2 h and 4 h after skin resection (P < 0.05), and the levels of BUN and SCr in group U were significantly decreased at 1 and 2 days after skin resection (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Dexmedetomidine can effectively inhibit the release of oxygen free radicals in the shock stage and the shock recovery stage in patients with hemorrhagic trauma shock and has a protective effect on renal function.

Molecular Mechanisms of Kidney Injury and Repair

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) will become the fifth global cause of death by 2040, thus emphasizing the need to better understand the molecular mechanisms of damage and regeneration in the kidney. CKD predisposes to acute kidney injury (AKI) which, in turn, promotes CKD progression. This implies that CKD or the AKI-to-CKD transition are associated with dysfunctional kidney repair mechanisms. Current therapeutic options slow CKD progression but fail to treat or accelerate recovery from AKI and are unable to promote kidney regeneration. Unraveling the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in kidney injury and repair, including the failure of this process, may provide novel biomarkers and therapeutic tools. We now review the contribution of different molecular and cellular events to the AKI-to-CKD transition, focusing on the role of macrophages in kidney injury, the different forms of regulated cell death and necroinflammation, cellular senescence and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SAPS), polyploidization, and podocyte injury and activation of parietal epithelial cells. Next, we discuss key contributors to repair of kidney injury and opportunities for their therapeutic manipulation, with a focus on resident renal progenitor cells, stem cells and their reparative secretome, certain macrophage subphenotypes within the M2 phenotype and senescent cell clearance.

Heme oxygenase-1 gene delivery for altering high mobility group box-1 protein in pancreatic islet

Pancreatic islet transplantation is a promising strategy for the treatment of type I diabetes. High-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), highly expressed in islet cells, is a potent immune stimulator in immune rejection. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) gene therapy can modulate the release of HMGB1 by altering intracellular molecules for successful cell transplantation. After delivery of the heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) gene to islet cells using an adeno-associated viral vector (AAV), it was evaluated the changes in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ ions and calcineurin activity as well as histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and Poly(ADP) ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1). Inhibition of HMGB1 release was evaluated through altering these intracellular molecules. Then, after transplantation of HO1-transduced islets, the therapeutic effect of them was evaluated through measuring blood glucose level to diabetic mice and through immunohistochemical analysis. The transduced HO1 gene significantly inhibited HMGB1 release in islets that was under the cell damage by hypoxia exposure. It was confirmed that this result was initially due to the decrease in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ ion concentration and calcineurin activity. In addition, the delivered HO1 gene simultaneously reduced the activity of HAT and PARP-1, which are involved in the translocation of HMGB1 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. As a result, when the HO1 gene-transduced islets were transplanted into diabetic mice, the treatment efficiency of diabetes was effectively improved by increasing the survival rate of the islets. Collectively, these results suggest that HO1 gene transfer can be used for successful islet transplantation by altering the activity of intracellular signal molecules and reducing HMGB1 release.

Targeting Ferroptosis Attenuates Interstitial Inflammation and Kidney Fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated necrosis mediated by lipid peroxidation, predominantly polyunsaturated fatty acids, is involved in postischemic and toxic kidney injury. However, the role and mechanisms for tubular epithelial cell (TEC) ferroptosis in kidney fibrosis remain largely unknown.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to decipher the role and mechanisms for TEC ferroptosis in kidney fibrosis.

METHODS

Mouse models with unilateral ureter obstruction (UUO) or ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) were generated.

RESULTS

We found that TEC ferroptosis exhibited as reduced glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression and increased 4-hydroxynonenal abundance was appeared in kidneys from chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and mouse models with UUO or IRI. Inhibition of ferroptosis could largely mitigate kidney injury, interstitial fibrosis, and inflammatory cell accumulation in mice after UUO or IRI. Additionally, treatment of TECs with (1S,3R)-RSL-3, an inhibitor of GPX4, could enhance cell ferroptosis and recruit macrophages. Furthermore, inhibiting TEC ferroptosis reduced monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) secretion and macrophage chemotaxis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study uncovers that TEC ferroptosis may promote interstitial fibrosis and inflammation, and targeting ferroptosis may shine a light on protecting against kidney fibrosis in patients with CKDs.

Interorgan crosstalk mechanisms in disease: the case of acute kidney injury-induced remote lung injury

Homeostasis and health of multicellular organisms with multiple organs depends on interorgan communication. Tissue injury in one organ disturbs this homeostasis and can lead to disease in multiple organs, or multiorgan failure. Many routes of interorgan crosstalk during homeostasis are relatively well known, but interorgan crosstalk in disease still lacks understanding. In particular, how tissue injury in one organ can drive injury at remote sites and trigger multiorgan failure with high mortality is poorly understood. As examples, acute kidney injury can trigger acute lung injury and cardiovascular dysfunction; pneumonia, sepsis or liver failure conversely can cause kidney failure; lung transplantation very frequently triggers acute kidney injury. Mechanistically, interorgan crosstalk after tissue injury could involve soluble mediators and their target receptors, cellular mediators, in particular immune cells, as well as newly identified neuro-immune connections. In this review, I will focus the discussion of deleterious interorgan crosstalk and its mechanistic concepts on one example, acute kidney injury-induced remote lung injury.

Intravenous calcitriol administration modulates mesenteric lymph node CD4+ T-cell polarization and attenuates intestinal inflammation in obese mice complicated with polymicrobial sepsis

BACKGROUND

Sepsis is a lethal syndrome with T-cell dysregulation, imbalanced inflammatory reactions, and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Obesity coexistent with sepsis can cause more-deleterious disease outcomes. Vitamin D is a nutrient with immunomodulatory ability and helps maintain intestinal homeostasis. This study investigated treatment with calcitriol on mesenteric lymph node (MLN) CD4⁺ T-cell polarization and intestinal injury in obese mice with sepsis.

METHODS

Mice received a high-fat diet for 10 weeks; then, mice were separated into an obese control group without sepsis and sepsis groups that underwent cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Septic mice were subdivided into a group that was injected with saline (SS group) or a group that was injected with calcitriol (SD group) via a tail vein 1 h after CLP. Obese mice with sepsis were euthanized at 12 or 24 h post CLP.

RESULTS

Sepsis resulted in increased percentages of type 2 T helper (Th2), Th17, and regulatory T (Treg) cells in MLNs. Also, inflammation-associated genes were upregulated and tight junction genes downregulated in the intestines after CLP. Compared with the SS group, the SD group exhibited reduced Th2, Th17, and Treg percentages in MLNs. Also, intestinal inflammatory chemokine expressions were reduced, whereas MUC2, ZO-1, and occludin had increased after CLP. Lower inflammatory cytokine levels in peritoneal lavage fluid in the ileum were also noted in the SD group.

CONCLUSIONS

Intravenous calcitriol treatment after sepsis can elicit more-balanced CD4 T-cell subsets in lymph nodes near the intestines and alleviate intestinal inflammation and injury in obese mice complicated with sepsis.

Soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products protects from ischemia- and reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury

The full-length receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a multiligand pattern recognition receptor. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a RAGE ligand of damage-associated molecular patterns that elicits inflammatory reactions. The shedded isoform of RAGE and endogenous secretory RAGE (esRAGE), a splice variant, are soluble isoforms (sRAGE) that act as organ-protective decoys. However, the pathophysiologic roles of RAGE/sRAGE in acute kidney injury (AKI) remain unclear. We found that AKI was more severe, with enhanced renal tubular damage, macrophage infiltration, and fibrosis, in mice lacking both RAGE and sRAGE than in wild-type control mice. Using murine tubular epithelial cells (TECs), we demonstrated that hypoxia upregulated messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of HMGB1 and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), whereas RAGE and esRAGE expressions were paradoxically decreased. Moreover, the addition of recombinant sRAGE canceled hypoxia-induced inflammation and promoted cell viability in cultured TECs. sRAGE administration prevented renal tubular damage in models of ischemia/reperfusion-induced AKI and of anti-glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) glomerulonephritis. These results suggest that sRAGE is a novel therapeutic option for AKI.

High mobility group box 1 and homocysteine as preprocedural predictors for contrast-induced acute kidney injury after percutaneous coronary artery intervention

PURPOSE

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and homocysteine (Hcy) play important roles in contrast-induced acute kidney injury (CI-AKI). We compared HMGB1 to Hcy as preprocedural predictors for CI-AKI in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients after percutaneous coronary artery intervention (PCI).

METHODS

We included 257 eligible patients who were categorized into CI-AKI ( +) and CI-AKI ( -) group. The differences in clinical characteristics and biochemical indexes between two groups were analyzed.

RESULTS

We observed that thirty-eight (14.8%) of 257 eligible CAD patients developed CI-AKI. HMGB1 (14.65 [11.13-24.89] vs 10.88 [7.94-13.23], p < 0.001) and Hcy (14.07 [12.07-17.31] vs 12.09 [10.71-13.47], p < 0.001) increased significantly in CI-AKI ( +) group. Both age (r = 0.210, p = 0.001), serum creatinine (r = 0.509, p < 0.001), eGFR (r =  - 0.459, p < 0.001) and Hcy (r = 0.531, p < 0.001) were significantly correlated with HMGB1. Among all patients, HMGB1 (OR 1.181, 95% CI 1.081-1.290, p < 0.001) and Hcy (OR 1.260, 95% CI 1.066-1.489, p = 0.007) were independent predictors for the development of CI-AKI. We built the propensity score matching (PSM) using 38 pairs of patients. After adjustment, HMGB1 (OR 1.169, 95% CI 1.035-1.322, p = 0.012) and Hcy (OR 1.457, 95% CI 1.064-1.997, p = 0.019) were also independent predictors for the development of CI-AKI. Both HMGB1 (AUC: 0.704, 95% CI: 0.588-0.819, p = 0.002) and Hcy (AUC: 0.708, 95% CI: 0.593-0.823, p = 0.002) had predictive values for CI-AKI.

CONCLUSION

There is a significant positive association between HMGB1 and Hcy in CAD patients. Both HMGB1 and Hcy are potential preprocedural predictors of CI-AKI after PCI.

Performance of High Mobility Protein Group 1 and Interleukin-6 as Predictors of Outcomes Resulting from Variceal Bleeding in Patients with Advanced Chronic Liver Disease

Variceal bleeding is a serious complication in cirrhotic patients and is related to increased expression of inflammatory mediators that accentuate circulatory dysfunction. The study aims to evaluate the performance of high mobility protein group 1 (HMG1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) as predictors of acute kidney injury (AKI), infection and death in these patients. Fifty patients who were diagnosed with advanced chronic liver disease with variceal bleeding were included. The mean age was 52.8 ± 10.8 years, and 33 (66%) were male. Twenty-one (42%) patients were classified as Child-Pugh C, 21 (42%) Child-Pugh B and 8 (16%) Child-Pugh A. The mean HMG1 serum level was 2872.36 pg/mL ± 2491.94, and the median IL-6 serum level was 47.26 pg/mL (0-1102.4). In AKI, the serum level of HMG1 that performed best on the ROC curve was 3317.9 pg/mL. The IL-6 serum level was not associated with AKI. HMG1 and IL-6 cut-off values that better predicted infection were 3317.9 pg/mL and 72.9 pg/mL, and for mortality, the values were 2668 pg/mL and 84.5 pg/mL, respectively. In multivariate analysis, the variables that were associated with AKI and infection outcomes were model for end-stage liver disease and HMG1. Infections were related to the risk of death. Clinical and laboratory variables related to the outcomes were identified. Serum levels of HMG1 were associated with AKI and infection and had good performance in the ROC curve. IL-6 levels were not maintained in logistic regression outcomes but had good performance in infection and death outcomes. Such data will be useful for comparisons and possible future validations.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Heme Oxygenase-1 in Kidney Disease

Kidney disease is a general term for heterogeneous damage that affects the function and the structure of the kidneys. The rising incidence of kidney diseases represents a considerable burden on the healthcare system, so the development of new drugs and the identification of novel therapeutic targets are urgently needed. The pathophysiology of kidney diseases is complex and involves multiple processes, including inflammation, autophagy, cell-cycle progression, and oxidative stress. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an enzyme involved in the process of heme degradation, has attracted widespread attention in recent years due to its cytoprotective properties. As an enzyme with known anti-oxidative functions, HO-1 plays an indispensable role in the regulation of oxidative stress and is involved in the pathogenesis of several kidney diseases. Moreover, current studies have revealed that HO-1 can affect cell proliferation, cell maturation, and other metabolic processes, thereby altering the function of immune cells. Many strategies, such as the administration of HO-1-overexpressing macrophages, use of phytochemicals, and carbon monoxide-based therapies, have been developed to target HO-1 in a variety of nephropathological animal models, indicating that HO-1 is a promising protein for the treatment of kidney diseases. Here, we briefly review the effects of HO-1 induction on specific immune cell populations with the aim of exploring the potential therapeutic roles of HO-1 and designing HO-1-based therapeutic strategies for the treatment of kidney diseases.

The Macrophage Iron Signature in Health and Disease

Throughout life, macrophages are located in every tissue of the body, where their main roles are to phagocytose cellular debris and recycle aging red blood cells. In the tissue niche, they promote homeostasis through trophic, regulatory, and repair functions by responding to internal and external stimuli. This in turn polarizes macrophages into a broad spectrum of functional activation states, also reflected in their iron-regulated gene profile. The fast adaptation to the environment in which they are located helps to maintain tissue homeostasis under physiological conditions.

Protective effect of glycyrrhizin, a direct HMGB1 inhibitor, on post-contrast acute kidney injury

Post contrast-acute kidney injury (PC-AKI) is defined as the deterioration of renal function after administration of iodinated contrast media. HMGB1 is known to play an important role in the development of acute kidney injury. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between HMGB1 and PC-AKI and the protective effect of glycyrrhizin, a direct inhibitor of HMGB1, in rats. Rats were divided into three groups: control, PC-AKI and PC-AKI with glycyrrhizin. Oxidative stress was measured with MDA levels and H₂DCFDA fluorescence intensity. The mRNA expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) and kidney injury markers (KIM-1, NGAL and IL-18) were assessed using RT-PCR and ELISA in kidney tissue. In addition, the serum and intracellular protein levels of HMGB1were analyzed with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blotting. Histologic changes were assessed with H&E staining using the transmission electron microscope (TEM). Moreover, serum creatinine (SCr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were assessed. Oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokines, kidney injury markers and LDH were significantly higher in PC-AKI compared to the controls, but were lower in PC-AKI with glycyrrhizin. Intracellular and serum HMGB1 levels significantly increased after contrast media exposure, whereas they markedly decreased after glycyrrhizin pretreatment. SCr and BUN also decreased in PC-AKI with glycyrrhizin compared to PC-AKI. In PC-AKI, we could frequently observe tubular dilatation with H&E staining and cytoplasmic vacuoles on TEM, whereas these findings were attenuated in PC-AKI with glycyrrhizin. Our findings indicate that HMGB1 plays an important role in the development of PC-AKI and that glycyrrhizin has a protective effect against renal injury and dysfunction by inhibiting HMGB1 and reducing oxidative stress.

Ipragliflozin Ameliorates Diabetic Nephropathy Associated with Perirenal Adipose Expansion in Mice

Sodium glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors inhibit the development of diabetic nephropathy (DN). We determined whether changes in perirenal fat (PRAT) by a SGLT2 inhibitor ipragliflozin (Ipra) contribute to the suppression of DN development. High-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice were used as a DN model and were treated with or without Ipra for 6 weeks. Ipra treatment reduced urinary albumin excretion (UAE) and glomerular hypertrophy in HFD-fed mice. In the PRAT of Ipra-treated mice, adipocyte size was increased, and inflammation, fibrosis, and adipocyte death were suppressed. In conditioned medium made from PRAT (PRAT-CM) of Ipra-treated mice, the concentration of leptin was significantly lower than PRAT-CM of mice without Ipra treatment. Serum leptin concentration in renal vein positively correlated with UAE. PRAT-CM from HFD-fed mice showed greater cell proliferation signaling in mouse glomerular endothelial cells (GECs) than PRAT-CM from standard diet-fed mice via p38MAPK and leptin-dependent pathways, whose effects were significantly attenuated in PRAT-CM from Ipra-treated mice. These findings suggest that Ipra-induced PRAT expansion may play an important role in the improvement of DN in HFD-fed mice. In vitro experiments suggest that reduced PRAT-derived leptin by Ipra could inhibit GECs proliferation, possibly contributing to the suppression of DN development.

Pentoxifylline treatment alleviates kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury: Novel involvement of galectin-3 and ASK-1/JNK & ERK1/2/NF-κB/HMGB-1 trajectories

Despite the documented renoprotective effect of pentoxifylline (PTX), a non-selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor, the studies appraised only its anti-inflammatory/-oxidant/-apoptotic capacities without assessment of the possible involved trajectories. Here, we evaluated the potential role of galectin-3 and the ASK-1/NF-κB p65 signaling pathway with its upstream/downstream signals in an attempt to unveil part of the cascades involved in the renotherapeutic effect using a renal bilateral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) model. Rats were randomized into sham-operated, renal I/R (45 min/72 h) and I/R + PTX (100 mg/kg; p.o). Post-treatment with PTX improved renal function and abated serum levels of cystatin C, creatinine, BUN and renal KIM-1 content, effects that were reflected on an improvement of the I/R-induced renal histological changes. On the molecular level, PTX reduced renal contents of galectin-3, ASK-1 with its downstream molecule JNK and ERK1/2, as well as NF-κB p65 and HMGB1. This inhibitory effect extended also to suppress neutrophil infiltration, evidenced by diminishing ICAM-1 and MPO, as well as inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α/IL-18), oxidative stress (MDA/TAC), and caspase-3. The PTX novel renotherapeutic effect involved in part the inhibition of galectin-3 and ASK-1/JNK and ERK1/2/NF-κB/HMGB-1 trajectories to mitigate renal I/R injury and to provide basis for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic impacts.

HMGB1-TLR4-IL-23-IL-17A axis accelerates renal ischemia-reperfusion injury via the recruitment and migration of neutrophils

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is an important cause of setting off acute kidney injury. Neutrophil-mediated immunomodulation has a pivotal role in the evolving of IRI. The HMGB1-TLR4-IL-23-IL-17A axis gives rise to neutrophil activation. Therefore, in the study, the role of the HMGB1-TLR4-IL-23-IL-17A axis in IRI was evaluated. Cell viability, inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, survival, renal function and pathology, and the activation of macrophages and neutrophils were measured. Moreover, we evaluated the acetylation, translocation, and secretion of HMGB1 as well as levels of TLR-4, IL-23, IL-17A, and neutrophil chemokines (KC, LIX, and MIP-2). In vivo, anti-HMGB1 antibody decreased the acetylation, translocation, and secretion of HMGB1, reduced the expression of TLR-4, IL-23, IL-17A, KC, LIX, and MIP-2, alleviated the activation of macrophages and neutrophils, improved the survival rate and renal dysfunction, and decreased inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and pathological injury of the kidney. However, the intervention with recombinant HMGB1(R-HMGB1) significantly abolish the above effect of anti-HMGB1 in IRI. Neutralization IL-23 or IL-17A can alleviated the neutrophils mediated renal dysfunction by suppressing inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative stress in IRI. In vitro, we confirmed that hypoxic/deoxygenation (H/R) induces the secretion of HMGB1 though acetylation on HK-2 and HMGB1 promotes the secretion of IL-23 in a HMGB1/TLR-4-dependent manner on macrophages. Together, these results implied that the HMGB1-TLR4-IL-23-IL-17A axis regulates inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and renal injury in IRI by promoting the recruitment and migration of neutrophils.

Phosphodiesterase (1, 3 & 5) inhibitors attenuate diclofenac-induced acute kidney toxicity in rats

Diclofenac, one of the most commonly used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, leads to severe adverse effects on the kidneys. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential pretreatment effect of phosphodiesterase (1, 3 & 5) inhibitors on diclofenac-induced acute renal failure in rats. Rats orally received pentoxifylline (100 mg/kg), vinpocetine (20 mg/kg), cilostazol (50 mg/kg), or sildenafil (5 mg/kg) once per day for 6 consecutive days. Diclofenac (15 mg/kg) was injected on day-4, -5 and -6 in all groups except normal control group. The used phosphodiesterase inhibitors significantly reduced the diclofenac-induced elevation in the serum levels of blood urea nitrogen, creatinine and cystatin C. Moreover, the renal tissue contents of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, nuclear factor (NF)-κB as well as the protein expression of toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and high mobility group box (HMGB) 1 were markedly reduced by the used phosphodiesterase inhibitors, as compared to the diclofenac control. This was reflected on the marked improvement in histopathological changes induced by diclofenac. Sildenafil showed the best protection regarding TNF-α and NF-κB, while cilostazol showed the best results regarding TLR4, HMGB1 and histopathological examination. This study revealed the good protective effect of these phosphodiesterase inhibitors against diclofenac-induced acute renal failure.

Inhibition of Cochlear HMGB1 Expression Attenuates Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in an Experimental Murine Model of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss

Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is a common inner ear disease but has complex pathological mechanisms, one of which is increased oxidative stress in the cochlea. The high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein acts as an inflammatory mediator and shows different activities with redox modifications linked to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We aimed to investigate whether manipulation of cochlear HMGB1 during noise exposure could prevent noise-induced oxidative stress and hearing loss. Sixty CBA/CaJ mice were divided into two groups. An intraperitoneal injection of anti-HMGB1 antibodies was administered to the experimental group; the control group was injected with saline. Thirty minutes later, all mice were subjected to white noise exposure. Subsequent cochlear damage, including auditory threshold shifts, hair cell loss, expression of cochlear HMGB1, and free radical activity, was then evaluated. The levels of HMGB1 and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), as respective markers of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and ROS formation, showed slight increases on post-exposure day 1 and achieved their highest levels on post-exposure day 4. After noise exposure, the antibody-treated mice showed markedly less ROS formation and lower expression of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4), nitrotyrosine, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) than the saline-treated control mice. A significant amelioration was also observed in the threshold shifts of the auditory brainstem response and the loss of outer hair cells in the antibody-treated versus the saline-treated mice. Our results suggest that inhibition of HMGB1 by neutralization with anti-HMGB1 antibodies prior to noise exposure effectively attenuated oxidative stress and subsequent inflammation. This procedure could therefore have potential as a therapy for NIHL.

Glutamine Administration Attenuates Kidney Inflammation in Obese Mice Complicated with Polymicrobial Sepsis

Obesity is a well-known public health issue around the world. Sepsis is a lethal clinical syndrome that causes multiorgan failure. Obesity may aggravate inflammation in septic patients. Glutamine (GLN) is a nutrient with immune regulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Since sepsis is a common contributing factor for acute kidney injury (AKI), this study investigated the effects of GLN administration on sepsis-induced inflammation and AKI in obese mice. A high-fat diet which consists of 60% of calories from fat was provided for 10 weeks to induce obesity in the mice. Then, the obese mice were subdivided into sepsis with saline (SS) or GLN (SG) groups. Cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) was performed to produce sepsis. The SS group was intravenously injected with saline while the SG group was administered GLN one or two doses after CLP. Obese mice with sepsis were sacrificed at 12, 24, or 48 h post-CLP. Results revealed that sepsis resulted in upregulated high-mobility group box protein-1 pathway-associated gene expression in obese mice. Also, expressions of macrophage/neutrophil infiltration markers and inflammatory cytokines in kidneys were elevated. Obese mice treated with GLN after sepsis reversed the depletion of plasma GLN, reduced production of lipid peroxides, and downregulated macrophage/neutrophil infiltration and the inflammatory-associated pathway whereas tight junction gene expression increased in the kidneys. These findings suggest that intravenously administered GLN to obese mice after sepsis alleviated inflammation and attenuated AKI. This model may have clinical application to obese patients with a risk for infection in abdominal surgery.

HMGB-1 and TGFβ-1 highlight immuno-inflammatory and fibrotic processes before proteinuria onset in pediatric patients with Alport syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Alport syndrome (ALP) is a rare genetic condition characterized by progressive involvement of the basal membranes and renal dysfunction. The purpose of the study was to evaluate urinary (u) and serum (s) levels of tumor growth factor (TGF)-beta(β) and high mobility group box (HMGB)-1 in ALP patients with normal renal function, albuminuria and proteinuria.

METHODS

A prospective, single-center study was performed with a follow-up period of 12 months, enrolling 11 pediatric ALP patients and 10 healthy subjects (HS). Normal values of serum creatinine, albuminuria and proteinuria, as well as unaltered estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) were required at enrollment.

RESULTS

ALP patients had significantly higher levels of serum and urinary HMGB1 compared to HS. The same trend was observed for TGF-β1, with higher values in ALP patients than in HS. HMGB1 and TGF-β1 correlated with each other and with markers of renal function and damage. Urinary biomarkers did not correlate with eGFR, whereas sHMGB1 and sTGF-β1 were negatively related to filtration rate (r: - 0.66; p = 0.02, r: - 0.96; p < 0.0001, respectively). Using proteinuria as a dependent variable in a multiple regression model, only the association with sTGF-β1 (β = 0.91, p < 0.0001) remained significant.

CONCLUSIONS

High levels of HMGB1 and TGF-β1 characterized ALP patients with normal renal function, highlighting the subclinical pro-fibrotic and inflammatory mechanisms triggered before the onset of proteinuria. Further studies are needed to evaluate the role of HMGB1 and TGFβ-1 in ALP patients.

Role of Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns in Septic Acute Kidney Injury, From Injury to Recovery

Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are a group of immunostimulatory molecules, which take part in inflammatory response after tissue injury. Kidney-specific DAMPs include Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein, crystals, and uromodulin, released by tubular damage for example. Non-kidney-specific DAMPs include intracellular particles such as nucleus [histones, high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1)] and cytosol parts. DAMPs trigger innate immunity by activating the NRLP3 inflammasome, G-protein coupled class receptors or the Toll-like receptor. Tubular necrosis leads to acute kidney injury (AKI) in either septic, ischemic or toxic conditions. Tubular necrosis releases DAMPs such as histones and HMGB1 and increases vascular permeability, which perpetuates shock and hypoperfusion via Toll Like Receptors. In acute tubular necrosis, intracellular abundance of NADPH may explain a chain reaction where necrosis spreads from cell to cell. The nature AKI in intensive care units does not have preclinical models that meet a variation of blood perfusion or a variation of glomerular filtration within hours before catecholamine infusion. However, the dampening of several DAMPs in AKI could provide organ protection. Research should be focused on the numerous pathophysiological pathways to identify the relative contribution to renal dysfunction. The therapeutic perspectives could be strategies to suppress side effect of DAMPs and to promote renal function regeneration.