SARS-CoV-2: Emerging Role in the Pathogenesis of Various Thyroid Diseases

SARS-CoV-2 Entry Factors ACE2 , TMPRSS2 and FURIN in Salivary Glands From Primary Sjögren's Disease

BACKGROUND

Salivary glands are the reservoir for severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 virus (SARS-CoV-2). It is known that SARS-CoV-2 uses angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) and FURIN to infect cells. Salivary glands express these entry factors, and it is unclear if these molecules are expressed in salivary glands from primary Sjögren's disease (pSjD). This study assessed ACE2, TMPRSS2, and FURIN gene expression by RT-qPCR in pSjD compared to normal salivary gland and pleomorphic adenoma.

METHODS

An integrated study of ACE2, TMPRSS2, and FURIN gene expression across pSjD, pleomorphic adenoma, and normal salivary gland by RT-pPCR was performed. The association between gene expression and clinicopathological data was also examined.

RESULTS

pSjD showed ACE2 upregulation compared with normal salivary gland and pleomorphic adenoma (p < 0.05). TMPRSS2 and FURIN mRNA levels are also higher in pSjD compared to pleomorphic adenoma (p < 0.05). ACE2 expression levels were associated with anti-SSA/SSB positivity (p < 0.05). A strong correlation was observed between TMPRSS2 and FURIN in pSjD (r = 0.768; p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our analysis revealed a high expression of ACE2 in pSjD. ACE2, TMPRSS2, and FURIN mRNA levels are increased in pSjD in comparison to pleomorphic adenomas. Neither ACE2, TMPRSS2, nor furin was consistently associated with SARS-CoV-2 positivity in pSjD. These findings may guide future investigations on the effects of SARS-CoV-2 in a subset of salivary gland diseases.

Advances in Subacute Thyroiditis: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapies

Subacute thyroiditis (SAT) is an inflammatory thyroid disease that is often associated with viral infections. In particular, SARS-COV-2 and its vaccine were found to cause SAT during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. However, the pathogenesis, clinical features, and processes still need further profiling. Recently, there are new findings and understanding about the pathogenic mechanisms of SAT. Some HLA genes have been shown to increase the risk of SAT development, and inflammatory cytokine storms could promote the progression of SAT. Some new diagnostic criteria for SAT have been proposed to facilitate clinicians' diagnosis of SAT when facing atypical symptoms in a manner of rapidity and accuracy. Plus, new treatments for SAT with herbal medicines have been proposed recently as an addition to the conventional steroidal drugs and NSAIDs. This review will provide a summary of these recent progresses of SAT on pathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapies with emphasis on the role of a variety of virus pathogens, including the COVID-19 virus.

Thyroid function during COVID-19 and post-COVID complications in adults: a systematic review

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus, has presented multifaceted health challenges. COVID-19 primarily targets the respiratory system but also affects multiple organ systems, including the endocrine system. Emerging evidence suggests interactions between thyroid function, the acute phase of COVID-19, and the prolonged symptoms known as post-COVID sequalae or long COVID. Several studies have reported that COVID-19 can induce thyroid dysfunction, leading to conditions such as thyroiditis and alterations in thyroid hormone levels. The mechanisms through which SARS-CoV-2 affects the thyroid include direct viral infection of thyroid cells, leading to viral thyroiditis, which causes inflammation and transient or sustained thyroid dysfunction, as well as an excessive systemic immune response (cytokine storm). This is associated with elevated levels of cytokines, such as IL-6, that disrupt thyroid function and lead to nonthyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS). Medications administered during the acute illness phase, such as corticosteroids and antiviral drugs, can also impact thyroid hormone actions. The involvement of the thyroid gland in long COVID, or postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection, is an area not well defined, with potential implications for understanding and managing this condition. Persistent low-grade inflammation affecting thyroid function over time can lead to ongoing thyroiditis or exacerbate pre-existing thyroid conditions. Viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2, can trigger or worsen autoimmune thyroid diseases, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease. Long COVID may disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which can, in turn, affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, leading to abnormal thyroid function. This review was designed to systematically capture recent literature on COVID-19-related thyroid dysfunction in the adult population, the prognostic consequences of thyroid dysfunction during COVID-19, and the effects of thyroid dysfunction on patients with long COVID. A comprehensive search of PubMed and EMBASE databases was conducted. The systematic review was performed based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Study quality was assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP). A total of 53 studies met the inclusion criteria. The review summarises recent findings and provides an update of the current understanding of thyroid dysfunction in COVID-19-related spectrum of disorders, underscoring the complex nature of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its far-reaching impacts on human health.

A 6-Year Retrospective Study in Surgery Patients with Thyroid Diseases in Mureș County, Romania, Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background/Objectives: In this study, we aimed to assess the impact of the COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) pandemic period on the time trend prevalence of thyroid pathology in a university hospital in Romania. Methods: We performed a 6-year retrospective study (2017-2022) including all patients who underwent thyroid surgery, registered in the Pathology Department, Emergency County Hospital, Târgu-Mureș, Romania (n = 971). Thyroid lesions were grouped into three major categories: (1) benign, non-tumoral; (2) benign, tumoral; and (3) malignant, tumoral. To assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the annual rate of thyroid surgeries and thyroid pathology, data were analyzed in comparison: before COVID-19 (2017-2019) versus the COVID-19 (2020-2022) period. Results: A significant decrease in the mean number of thyroid specimens per year was observed in the COVID-19 period compared to the previous period (131 versus 192 cases, p = 0.0023). Thyroid benign lesions were the most frequent, but their prevalence was significantly lower during the pandemic period (50.8%) compared to the previous period (58.6%) (p = 0.017). Benign tumors were rare, revealing similar occurrence rates in both periods. By contrast, the annual rate of malignant tumors increased significantly during the COVID-19 period (26.3% versus 35.4%, p = 0.002), the most common histopathological type being papillary thyroid carcinoma. Conclusions: Along with the COVID-19 pandemic (starting in the year 2020), due to reduced access to medical investigations, many thyroid cancers remained unoperated in our hospital. Consequently, this has led to an increased prevalence of malignant cases in the years that came after.

Increasing prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity in childhood type 1 diabetes in the pre-COVID but not during the COVID era

Introduction

Studies assessing longitudinal changes in the prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) among the pediatric population are limited. During the COVID-19 era, several papers proposed a rise in AIT cases. Our study aimed to analyze the prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity (TA) over a 10-year period spanning pre-pandemic and pandemic years in a population who are regularly screened for thyroid disturbances.

Materials and methods

This single-center retrospective cohort study analyzed data from 1,361 children and young adults with type 1 diabetes (T1D) treated between 2013 and 2022 in Hungary's largest pediatric endocrinology center. Results of anti-thyroid autoantibodies (anti-thyroid peroxidase/ATPO/and antithyroglobulin/ATG/), thyroid function tests (TFTs) and thyroid ultrasound examinations were obtained. Annual prevalence rates of TA and ultrasound-proven thyroiditis were calculated. Mean (± SD) follow-up period was 4.7 (± 2.8) years.

Results

The overall prevalence of TA among our T1D children was 22.8% ([20.3;25.5], 310 cases) with significantly more girls affected (p<0.001). From 2013 to 2022, TA prevalence rose from 15.9% to 20.6% (p=0.041). The increase was detected during the pre-pandemic years but not in the COVID-19 era. Ultrasound-confirmed thyroiditis was present in 80.0% of examined TA cases. Ultrasound positivity rate was stable during the study period. Among our children with TA, 28.5% exhibited clinically relevant thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) abnormalities (most commonly subclinical hypothyroidism) and/or were prescribed thyroid medication. Children with AIT had a significantly elevated risk of thyroid dysfunction compared to those with only thyroid autoantibody positivity (p<0.001).

Conclusion

Our results show a rise in the prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity among T1D children over the past decade, but our data do not support the assumed role of SARS-CoV-2 in the development of the disease.

State of Knowledge About Thyroid Cancers in the Era of COVID-19-A Narrative Review

Thyroid cancer (TC), due to its heterogeneous nature, remains a clinical challenge. Many factors can initiate the carcinogenesis process of various types of TC, which complicates diagnosis and treatment. The presented review gathers current information on specific types of TC, taking into account the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is likely that COVID-19 has influenced and continues to influence the function of the thyroid gland. A high percentage of patients with COVID-19 showing simultaneous pathological changes in the thyroid suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may disrupt the function of this gland and initiate pro-oxidative mechanisms, inflammatory states, and autoimmune diseases, thereby promoting the formation of neoplastic changes. Furthermore, changes in the expression of the ACE2, TMPRSS2, CLEC4M and DPP4 genes, observed in TC, also occur in COVID-19. Therefore, it is probable that the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with thyroid cell receptors may initiate carcinogenesis in this gland. Additionally, some drugs used in TC therapy (e.g., levothyroxine) may increase the affinity of SARS-CoV-2 for cells, which could contribute to a more severe course of COVID-19 and the emergence of long-term symptoms (post-COVID-19). Moreover, the consequences of sanitary restrictions (limited access to medical services, reduction in endocrinological and oncological procedures) that took place in many countries during the COVID-19 pandemic may lead in the future to an increased number of missed diagnoses and the emergence of aggressive cancers.

Increased incidence of Graves' disease during the COVID-19 pandemic in children and adolescents in the United States

Introduction

Reports in adults indicate that Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and vaccination trigger the expression of autoimmune disease such as Graves' disease, but the incidence of new onset Graves' disease and its temporal relationship to the peaks of COVID-19 cases in children are unclear.

Methods

This is a retrospective study of children and adolescents with new-onset Graves' disease diagnosed between September 2017 and August 2022, N=156, mean age of 12.5 ± 4 year (y), with a range of 2.9-17.9y. There were 119 female (76.3%) and 37 male (23.7%) subjects. Subjects were categorized into 2 groups: pre-COVID-19 era Graves' disease (n=63, age 12.5 ± 3.3y), and COVID-19 era Graves' disease (n=93, age 12.4 ± 4.4y). We calculated incidence rate based on new cases of Graves' disease and total number of new patient referrals to our endocrine clinic. We first compared the demographic, clinical and biochemical data between the above 2 groups; and also, between subjects with either a history of COVID-19 infection (n=23) or vaccination (n=17) to a control group (n=63).

Results

The incidence of Graves' disease was significantly higher during the pandemic: pre-COVID-19 versus the COVID-19 era, n=55, 0.56% vs n=93, 0.9%, p=0.005, after accounting for the total number of annual new patient referrals during the study period. The rise in the cases of Graves' disease followed the spikes in the number of cases of COVID-19 in NY. There was also a statistically significant difference in the race distribution between the pre-COVID-19 and the COVID-19 era (p=0.026).

Discussion

The incidence of Graves' disease increased significantly in children living in New York during the COVID-19 pandemic. The temporal relationship between the peaks of COVID-19 cases and the increased cases of new onset Graves' disease suggest possible autoimmune triggering by SARS-CoV-2.

National trends in thyroid disease and COVID-19 pandemic-related factors, 1998-2021: A nationwide representative study in South Korea

Objective

Although thyroid disease is a common condition, there is limited research examining the prevalence of thyroid disease over a long period of time, including both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we aimed to investigate sociodemographic aspects that might be associated with thyroid disease and how its prevalence has varied during the pandemic.

Methods

We assessed the prevalence of thyroid disease among Korean adults by using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 1998 to 2021. We evaluated weighted prevalence and β-coefficients with 95 % CI for factors such as age, sex, residential area, education level, household income, perceived stress level, weight change, occupation category, and body mass index groups.

Results

From 1998 to 2021, the prevalence of thyroid disease among 159,896 Korean adults (88,120 females [55.1 %]) aged 20 years and older exhibited an overall increasing trend. The weighted prevalence in the general population rose from 1.52 % (95 % CI, 1.41-1.64) in 1998-2005 to 3.84 % (3.30-4.39) in 2021, with a higher likelihood of thyroid disease exposure as age increased. In addition, females, individuals with lower education levels, those with high levels of perceived stress, those who gained weight, and those classified as overweight or obese emerged as vulnerable groups for thyroid disease. For the majority of subgroups, the change amid the effect of the pandemic on prevalence was minimal. However, the aged ≥60 years group showed a greater increase in prevalence during the pandemic than before the pandemic (βdiff: 0.52 [95 % CI, 0.37-0.68]).

Conclusions

A nationwide representative study in South Korea revealed an increasing trend in the prevalence of thyroid disease over 24 years, particularly among the older population. Despite the minimal variation during the pandemic, our findings emphasize the need for targeted thyroid disease policies and further research, especially for specific subgroups such as the older population.

Comparison of Clinical and Pathological Characteristics of Thyroid Cancer Surgery in the Pandemic Era

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic brought significant challenges for oncology centers and cancer patients, necessitating the implementation of various preventive and restrictive protocols and postponing elective surgeries. We aimed to assess and compare tumor characteristics, including the size, metastasis, and duration of hospitalizations between the periods before and during COVID-19 in patients with thyroid cancer.

Methods

The present cross-sectional study was performed at The Institute of Cancer, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, with 143 patients observed 2 years before the pandemic and 92 during March 2020 and March 2022. Clinical and pathological tumor characteristics were compared between the 2 groups, including surgical details, hospitalization and intensive care unit (ICU) admission durations, time intervals between diagnoses and surgeries, and various metastatic factors. All data were analyzed using SPSS software 21. The chi-square test was used for the statistical analysis of qualitative data, and the t test was used for the statistical analysis of continuous data. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

The most frequent tumor type was papillary thyroid cancer (134 [93.7%] and 82 [89.13%]; P = 0.209). The right lobe was the most prevalent tumor site both before and during COVID-19, respectively (55 [38.5%] and 29 [31.5%]; P = 0.278). Central (64 [50.8%] and 62 [49.2%]; P < 0.001), and lateral (45 [34.5%] and 45 [48.9 %]; P = 0.045) lymph node metastasis in the first surgery and recurrence (P = 0.006 and P = 0.022, respectively) were significantly higher in patients admitted during the COVID-19 pandemic, respectively. The mean interval between the first surgery and subsequent surgery due to recurrence (P < 0.001), duration of ICU admission (P = 0.010), and hospitalization after the second operation were significantly lower during the pandemic (P = 0.006).

Conclusion

During the COVID-19 pandemic, patients exhibited larger tumors, increased lymph node metastasis, and shorter intervals between surgeries. This underscores the need for healthcare decision-makers to implement effective thyroid cancer management strategies in future outbreaks. Our study stands out by analyzing hospitalization and ICU admissions and duration for each patient, unlike any other study. Moreover, we extended our observation period beyond the typical duration found in most of the literature.

The effect of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on the management of differentiated thyroid cancer in Turkey: a single tertiary centre experience

PURPOSE

Many countries have implemented unprecedented health measures since the World Health Organisation declared the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) a global pandemic. These measures have resulted in delays in the diagnosis of differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). However, there is limited data on the impact of restrictions imposed during the pandemic on DTC management. Thus, the aim of this study is to analyse the clinicopathological and follow-up data of DTC patients diagnosed before and during the COVID-19 outbreak.

METHODS

This retrospective study included 191 DTC patients that were diagnosed between December 2018 and June 2021. The patients were divided into two groups: patients diagnosed before (December 2018 to February 2020) and during (March 2020 to June 2021) the COVID-19 pandemic. The clinicopathological and follow-up data between the two groups were compared.

RESULTS

Similar preoperative cytology results were obtained from the two groups. No difference with regard to tumour size, lymphovascular invasion and extrathyroidal invasion was observed between the two groups. While the American Thyroid Association risk stratification was similar between the two groups, radioactive iodine (RAI) therapy was applied less during the COVID-19 period. Although RAI therapy was administered at a lower rate during the COVID-19 period, the recurrence rates among patients after two years of follow-up were similar to those during the pre-COVID-19 period.

CONCLUSION

Although the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions during the pandemic period caused difficulties in the management of DTC patients, this did not negatively affect their prognosis. These findings can confirm the applicability of active surveillance in DTC patients and may help change the real-life treatment practices in selected low-risk DTC patients.

The Spectrum of Endocrine Pathology

Endocrine pathology comprises a spectrum of disorders originating in various sites throughout the body. Some disorders affect endocrine glands, and others arise from endocrine cells that are dispersed in non-endocrine tissues. Endocrine cells can broadly be classified as neuroendocrine, steroidogenic, or thyroid follicular cells; these three families have distinct embryologic origins, morphologic structure, and biochemical hormone synthetic pathways. Lesions affecting the endocrine system include developmental abnormalities, inflammatory processes that can be infectious or autoimmune, hypofunction with atrophy or hyperfunction caused by hyperplasia secondary to pathology in other sites, and neoplasia of many types. Understanding endocrine pathology requires knowledge of both structure and function, including the biochemical signaling pathways that regulate hormone synthesis and secretion. Molecular genetics has clarified sporadic and hereditary disease that is common in this field.

Thyroid disturbances after COVID-19 and the effect of vaccination in children: a prospective tri-center registry analysis

Rapidly evolving clinical data suggest that the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and vaccination against COVID-19 might be associated with thyroid disturbances. However, studies remain limited among the pediatric population. Our aim was to assess the prevalence and permanence of thyroid autoimmunity (TA) and dysfunction in children after an acute infection and its potential association with vaccination. A prospective, multicenter registry analysis was performed among 458 children (mean age: 12.4 ± 3,8 years, 45.4% male) with preceding COVID-19. Patient inclusion lasted from 24th March, 2021 to 23rd March, 2022 at three pediatric outpatient facilities at Semmelweis University, Budapest. Primary outcomes were the rate of thyroid disturbances assessed by laboratory parameters (thyroid function tests, antithyroglobulin [ATG] and anti-thyroid peroxidase [ATPO] antibodies) and thyroid ultrasound. TA rate among vaccinated and unvaccinated children was determined. Children with newly diagnosed thyroid alterations were followed up for 12.7 ± 4.3 months. Six children had previous thyroid disease. Out of 452 children, 30 cases (6.6%) of newly diagnosed TA (six of them had abnormal thyroid-stimulating hormone [TSH] levels) and eight cases (1.8%) of isolated TSH elevation were observed. Ultrasound-proven autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) was 4.0%. No association was found between COVID-19 vaccination and thyroid autoimmunity (χ2(1,N = 452) = 0.138, p = 0.815). Among children with TA, 73.3% had long-lasting alterations.  Conclusion: Vaccination had no effect on the prevalence of TA. Until further controlled studies state otherwise, children with preceding COVID-19 might benefit from thyroid screening. What is Known: • Numerous case reports implicate that coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) and vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 can be responsible for thyroid disturbances. • Thyroid alterations discovered during acute COVID-19 tend to cease by time and only incidental thyroid autoimmunity (TA) is diagnosed after COVID-19. In adults, no increase in vaccine-related hyper- or hypothyroidism was found. What is New: • TA rate after COVID-19 vaccination among children was not increased. TA had no role in long COVID syndrome. • We discovered a considerable rate of TA (6.6%) and ultrasound-proven autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) (4.0%) after SARS-CoV-2 infection, and the majority of these alterations remained positive after 6 months.

Potential impacts of SARS-CoV-2 on parathyroid: current advances and trends

Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection affects several important organs including endocrine glands. Experimental studies demonstrated that the virus exploits the ACE2, a transmembrane glycoprotein on the cell surface as a receptor for cellular entry. This entry process is exclusively facilitated by other intracellular protein molecules such as TMPRSS2, furin, NRP1, and NRP2. Recent findings documented the involvement of the SARS-CoV-2 in inducing various parathyroid disorders including hypoparathyroidism and hypocalcemia, which received significant attention. This review extensively describes rapidly evolving knowledge on the potential part of SARS-CoV-2 in emerging various parathyroid disorders due to SARS-CoV-2 infection particularly parathyroid malfunction in COVID-19 cases, and post-COVID-19 conditions. Further, it presents the expression level of various molecules such as ACE2, TMPRSS2, furin, NRP1, and NRP2 in the parathyroid cells that facilitate the SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cell, and discusses the possible mechanism of parathyroid gland infection. Besides, it explores parathyroid malfunction in COVID-19 vaccine-administered cases. It also explains the possible long-COVID-19 effect on parathyroid and post-COVID-19 management of parathyroid. A complete understanding of the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2-triggered pathogenesis in parathyroid dysfunctions may curtail treatment options and aid in the management of SARS-CoV-2-infected cases.

Menstrual disturbances following COVID-19 vaccination: A probable puzzle about the role of endocrine and immune pathways

Menstruation is a monthly shedding of the uterine wall, presented by menstrual bleeding in women of reproductive age. Menstruation is regulated by fluctuation of estrogen and progesterone, as well as other endocrine and immune pathways. Many women experienced menstrual disturbances after vaccination against the novel coronavirus in the last two years. Vaccine-induced menstrual disturbances have led to discomfort and concern among reproductive-age women, such that some decided not to receive the subsequent doses of the vaccine. Although many vaccinated women report these menstrual disturbances, the mechanism is still poorly understood. This review article discusses the endocrine and immune changes following COVID-19 vaccination and the possible mechanisms of vaccine-related menstrual disturbances.

COVID-19 and autoimmune diseases: is there a connection?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes current evidence on the potential link between severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and autoimmunity.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several viral infections are potential triggers of reactive and autoimmune diseases by inducing type II and type IV hypersensitivity reactions. Recent evidence demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection is not an exception, triggering the production of tissue-specific autoantibodies during the acute phase of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and leading to autoimmune diseases development as long-term complication. The significant immune dysregulation with cytokine storm and organ damage observed in patients with severe to critical COVID-19 is considered the main mechanism explaining the high levels of autoantibodies, which are also implicated in disease severity and the need for an intensive care assessment. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is an immune-mediated disease where the recent viral infection leads to systemic inflammation, as already observed in other reactive and autoimmune diseases.

SUMMARY

Autoimmunity may be a complication of SAR-CoV-2 infection. Understanding the pathogenesis of autoimmune manifestations in COVID-19 might help prevent the incidence or exacerbation of autoimmune disorders and design better and more efficient treatment strategies in children and adult populations.

Clinical presentation and prognosis of COVID-19 in older adults with hypothyroidism: data from the GeroCovid observational study

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of hypothyroidism among older patients hospitalized for COVID-19 and its association with mortality is unclear. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of hypothyroidism in older COVID-19 inpatients and verify if this comorbidity is associated with a specific pattern of onset symptoms and a worse prognosis.

METHODS

COVID-19 inpatients aged ≥ 60 years, participating in the GeroCovid acute wards cohort, were included. The history of hypothyroidism was derived from medical records and the use of thyroid hormones. Sociodemographic data, comorbidities, symptoms/signs at the disease onset and inflammatory markers at ward admission were compared between people with vs without history of hypothyroidism. The association between hypothyroidism and in-hospital mortality was tested through Cox regression.

RESULTS

Of the 1245 patients included, 8.5% had a history of hypothyroidism. These patients were more likely to present arterial hypertension and obesity compared with those without an history of hypothyroidism. Concerning COVID-19 clinical presentation, patients with hypothyroidism had less frequently low oxygen saturation and anorexia but reported muscle pain and loss of smell more commonly than those without hypothyroidism. Among the inflammatory markers, patients with hypothyroidism had higher lymphocytes values. At Cox regression, hypothyroidism was associated with reduced in-hospital mortality only in the univariable model (HR = 0.66, 95% CI 0.45-0.96, p = 0.03); conversely, no significant result were observed after adjusting for potential confounders (HR = 0.69, 95% CI 0.47-1.03, p = 0.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Hypothyroidism does not seem to substantially influence the prognosis of COVID-19 in older people, although it may be associated with peculiar clinical and biochemical features at the disease onset.

Molecular Mechanisms in Autoimmune Thyroid Disease

The most common cause of acquired thyroid dysfunction is autoimmune thyroid disease, which is an organ-specific autoimmune disease with two presentation phenotypes: hyperthyroidism (Graves-Basedow disease) and hypothyroidism (Hashimoto's thyroiditis). Hashimoto's thyroiditis is distinguished by the presence of autoantibodies against thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin. Meanwhile, autoantibodies against the TSH receptor have been found in Graves-Basedow disease. Numerous susceptibility genes, as well as epigenetic and environmental factors, contribute to the pathogenesis of both diseases. This review summarizes the most common genetic, epigenetic, and environmental mechanisms involved in autoimmune thyroid disease.

Thyroglobulin levels in COVID-19-positive patients: Correlations with thyroid function tests, inflammatory markers, and glucocorticoid use

COVID-19 often results in generalized inflammation and affects various organs and systems. Endocrine research focused on the possible sequelae of COVID-19, with special interest given to the thyroid gland. Clinical problems such as thyroid function in non-thyroidal illness (NTI), autoimmune thyroiditis, and COVID-19-related subacute thyroiditis (SAT) quickly gained wide coverage. Thyrotoxicosis of various origins leads to the release of peripheral thyroid hormones and thyroglobulin (TG), the main glycoprotein contained within the thyroid follicular lumen. In our study, we evaluated TG levels in COVID-19-positive patients and investigated the possible relationships between TG, thyroid function tests (TFTs), and inflammatory markers. Our approach included separate subanalyses of patients who received and those who did not receive glucocorticoids (GCs). In the entire population studied, the concentration of TG tended to decrease with time (p<0.001; p1,2 = 0.025, p1,3 = 0.001, p2,3 = 0.003), and this pattern was especially clear among patients treated with GCs (p<0.001; p1,2=<0.001; p1,3=<0.001; p 2,3=<0.001). The concentration of TG differed significantly between patients treated and those not treated with GC at the second and third time points of observation (p=0.033 and p=0.001, consecutively). TG concentration did not differ between the patients with normal and abnormal TFTs. The correlations between TG, TFTs, and inflammatory markers were very limited. 19 patients had elevated TG levels, but a TFT pattern suggestive of thyrotoxicosis was not common in this group. There were no statistically significant differences between patients who met and those who did not meet the predefined combined primary endpoint.

The Influence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on the Thyroid Gland

It is important to acknowledge the impact that COVID-19 has on the thyroid gland and how the thyroid gland status before and during infection affects SARS-CoV-2 severity. To this day those dependencies are not fully understood. It is known that the virus uses angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 as the receptor for cellular entry and it can lead to multiple organ failures due to a cytokine storm. Levels of proinflammatory molecules (such as cytokines and chemokines) which are commonly elevated during infection were significantly higher in observed SARS-CoV-2-positive patients. In terms of hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and autoimmune thyroid diseases, there is no proof that those dysfunctions have a direct impact on the more severe courses of COVID-19. Regarding hyper- and hypothyroidism there was no consequential dependency between the frequency of SARS-CoV-2 infection morbidity and more severe post-infectious complications. When it comes to autoimmune thyroid diseases, more evaluation has to be performed due to the unclear relation with the level of antibodies commonly checked in those illnesses and its binding with the mentioned before virus. Nonetheless, based on analyzed works we found that COVID-19 can trigger the immune system and cause its hyperactivity, sometimes leading to the new onset of autoimmune disorders. We also noticed more acute SARS-CoV-2 courses in patients with mainly reduced free triiodothyronine serum levels, which in the future, might be used as a mortality indicating factor regarding SARS-CoV-2-positive patients. Considering subacute thyroiditis (SAT), no statistically important data proving its direct correlation with COVID-19 infection has been found. Nevertheless, taking into account the fact that SAT is triggered by respiratory tract viral infections, it might be that SARS-CoV-2 can cause it too. There are many heterogenous figures in the symptoms, annual morbidity distribution, and frequency of new cases, so this topic requires further evaluation.

Thyrotoxicosis after COVID-19 Infection with a Delay in Graves' Disease Antibody Positivity

Background and Objective. Mounting evidence implicates COVID-19 as a cause of thyroid dysfunction, including thyrotoxicosis due to both thyroiditis and Graves' disease (GD). In this report, we present a case of thyrotoxicosis following COVID-19 infection that was ultimately found to represent GD with significantly delayed diagnostic serum antibody positivity. Case Report. A 65-year-old woman with a history of uncomplicated COVID-19 infection one month prior, presented to the Emergency Department with exertional dyspnea and palpitations, and was found to be in atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response (AF with RVR). Labs showed subclinical hyperthyroidism and the patient was started on a beta-blocker and methimazole. One month later, thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) resulted negative and thyroid function tests had normalized. The clinical picture suggested thyroiditis, and methimazole was stopped. One month later, the patient again presented in AF with RVR, with labs showing overt biochemical thyrotoxicosis. Antibodies were re-tested, and the thyrotropin receptor antibody (TRAb) and TSI resulted positive, confirming GD. Discussion. Most notable in this case is the feature of delayed GD antibody positivity: the diagnostic immunoassay for GD resulted negative one and two months after infection, but was ultimately positive three months after infection. To the authors' knowledge, this represents the longest delayed antibody positivity reported to date, amongst cases of new-onset GD following COVID. Conclusion. The clinical course of GD following COVID-19 infection is highly variable. This case underscores the need for vigilance in monitoring for delayed GD antibody positivity due to the important therapeutic implications of distinguishing thyroiditis from GD.

A prospective follow-up of thyroid volume and thyroiditis features on ultrasonography among survivors of predominantly mild to moderate COVID-19

Background

We previously showed that higher SARS-CoV-2 viral load correlated with smaller thyroid volumes among COVID-19 survivors at 2 months after acute COVID-19. Our current follow-up study evaluated the evolution of thyroid volumes and thyroiditis features within the same group of patients 6 months later.

Methods

Adult COVID-19 survivors who underwent thyroid ultrasonography 2 months after infection (USG1) were recruited for follow-up USG 6 months later (USG2). The primary outcome was the change in thyroid volume. We also reassessed thyroiditis features on USG, thyroid function and anti-thyroid antibodies.

Results

Fifty-four patients were recruited (mean age 48.1 years; 63% men). The mean thyroid volume increased from USG1 to USG2 (11.9 ± 4.8 to 14.5 ± 6.2 mL, p < 0.001). Thirty-two patients (59.3%) had significant increase in thyroid volume by ≥15%, and they had a median increase of +33.3% (IQR: +20.0% to +45.0%). Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that only higher baseline SARS-CoV-2 viral load independently correlated with significant thyroid volume increase on USG2 (p = 0.022). Among the seven patients with thyroiditis features on USG1, six (85.7%) had the features resolved on USG2. None had new thyroiditis features on USG2. All abnormal thyroid function during acute COVID-19 resolved upon USG1 and USG2.

Conclusion

Most COVID-19 survivors had an increase in thyroid volume from early convalescent phase to later convalescent phase. This increase correlated with high initial SARS-CoV-2 viral load. Together with the resolution of thyroiditis features, these may suggest a transient direct atrophic effect of SARS-CoV-2 on the thyroid gland with subsequent recovery of thyroid volume and thyroiditis features.

Clinical assessment of children with long COVID syndrome

BACKGROUND

There is a need for further understanding pediatric long COVID syndrome (LCS) to be able to create specific case definitions and guidelines for providing good clinical care.

METHODS

Medical records of all LCS patients who presented at our designated LC clinic were collected. We carried out descriptive analyses summarizing the history, clinical presentation, and findings of children, while doing a diagnosis of exclusion with multi-disciplinary medical examinations (physical, laboratory, and radiological examinations, specialist consultations, etc.) without a control group.

RESULTS

Most children reported at least minor impairment to their quality of life, of which 17 (23%) had moderate or severe difficulties. Findings that could be directly connected to the linked complaint category were observed in an average of 18%, respiratory symptoms with objective alterations being the most frequent (37%). Despite our detecting mostly non-specific conditions, in a smaller number we identified well-described causes such as autoimmune thyroiditis (7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of children stated an impairment in their quality of life, while symptom-related conditions were detected only in a minority. Controlled studies are needed to separate the effect of the pandemic era from the infection itself. Evidence-based pediatric guidelines could aid to rationalize the list of recommended examinations.

IMPACT

Long COVID syndrome is a complex entity with a great impact on children's everyday lives. Still, there is no clear guidance for pediatric clinical management. Systematic, detailed studies with medical assessment findings could aid the process of creating evidence-based guidelines. We present validated systematic information collected during in-person medical assessments with detailed medical findings and quality of life changes. While making a diagnosis of exclusion, we could confirm symptom-related conditions only in a minority of children; however, the majority reported at least minor impairment to their quality of life.

Influence of COVID-19 vaccines on endocrine system

The COVID-19 pandemic has posed a significant health threat globally. Timely and appropriate vaccination is a key step to reduce the morbidity and mortality from COVID-19. The clinical course of COVID-19 infection and the effects of COVID-19 vaccination are influenced by patients' health situations and involve a systemic physiological reaction. Just like an "endocrine phenotype" of COVID-19 infection, endocrine dysfunction after COVID-19 vaccination also acquired clinical concerns. In the present review, we briefly introduce the commonly available vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, summarize the influence of COVID-19 vaccines on the endocrine system, and explore the underlying pathogenic mechanisms.

Thyroid dysfunction following vaccination with COVID-19 vaccines: a basic review of the preliminary evidence

PURPOSE

The safety and efficacy of the several types of COVID-19 vaccines, including mRNA-based, viral vector-based, and inactivated vaccines, have been approved by WHO. The vaccines can confer protection against severe SARS-CoV-2 infection through induction of the anti-spike protein neutralizing antibodies. However, SARS-CoV-2 vaccines have been associated with very rare complications, such as thyroid disorders. This review was conducted to highlight main features of thyroid abnormalities following COVID-19 vaccination.

METHODS

A comprehensive search within electronic databases was performed to collect reports of thyroid disorders after vaccination with COVID-19 vaccines.

RESULTS

Among 83 reported cases including in this review, the most cases of thyroid abnormalities were observed after vaccination with mRNA-based vaccines (68.7%), followed by viral vector vaccines (15.7%) and 14.5% cases following inactivated vaccines. Subacute thyroiditis (SAT) was the most common COVID-19 vaccination-related thyroid disease, accounting for 60.2% of all cases, followed by Graves' disease (GD) with 25.3%. Moreover, some cases with focal painful thyroiditis (3.6%), silent thyroiditis (3.6%), concurrent GD and SAT (2.4%), thyroid eye disease (1.2%), overt hypothyroidism (1.2%), atypical subacute thyroiditis (1.2%), and painless thyroiditis with TPP (1.2%) were also reported. Overall, in 58.0% of SAT cases and in 61.9% of GD cases, the onset of the symptoms occurred following the first vaccine dose with a median of 10.0 days (ranged: 3-21 days) and 10.0 days (ranged: 1-60 days) after vaccination, respectively. Moreover, 40.0% of SAT patients and 38.1% of GD patients developed the symptoms after the second dose with a median of 10.5 days (ranged: 0.5-37 days) and 14.0 days (ranged: 2-35 days) after vaccination, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Fortunately, almost all cases with COVID-19 vaccination-associated thyroid dysfunctions had a favorable outcome following therapy. The benefits of COVID-19 vaccinations in terms of terminating the pandemic and/or reducing mortality rates can exceed any risk of infrequent complications such as a transient thyroid malfunction.

Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Thyroid Surgery in a University Hospital in South Korea

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed healthcare systems around the world. Medical personnel concentrated on infectious disease management and treatments for non-emergency diseases and scheduled surgeries were delayed. We aimed to investigate the change in the severity of thyroid cancer before and after the outbreak of COVID-19 in Korea. We collected three years of data (2019, 2020, and 2021) on patients who received thyroid surgery in a university hospital in South Korea and grouped them as "Before COVID-19", "After COVID-19 1-year" and "After COVID-19 2-years". The total number of annual outpatients declined significantly after the outbreak of COVID-19 in both new (1303, 939, and 1098 patients) and follow-up patients (5584, 4609, and 4739 patients). Clinical characteristics, including age, sex, BMI, preoperative cytology results, surgical extent, and final pathologic diagnosis, were not significantly changed after the outbreak of COVID-19. However, the number of days from the first visit to surgery was significantly increased (38.3 ± 32.2, 58.3 ± 105.2, 47.8 ± 124.7 days, p = 0.027). Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) patients showed increased proportions of extrathyroidal extension, lymphatic invasion, vascular invasion, and cervical lymph node metastasis. Increased tumor size was observed in patients with follicular tumor (3.5 ± 2.2, 4.0 ± 1.9, 4.3 ± 2.3 cm, p = 0.019). After the COVID-19 outbreak, poor prognostic factors for thyroid cancer increased, and an increase in the size of follicular tumors was observed. Due to our study being confined to a single tertiary institution in Incheon city, Korea, nationwide studies that include primary clinics should be required to identify the actual impact of COVID-19 on thyroid disease treatment.

Case report: subacute thyroiditis after receiving SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, maybe not only adjuvants

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) induced the new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are designed to control the transmission of the disease. However, post-vaccination subacute thyroiditis (SAT) also appears with increase vaccination rate. Three cases of SAT after SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are described in this study. We have reported the patients' clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and thyroid imaging. Tests for COVID-19 were all negative, and the patients did not report thyroid-related diseases, autoimmune diseases, or preceding upper respiratory system infections in their medical history. Three female patients showed neck pain on physical examination. The laboratory test results and imaging findings were consistent with the diagnostic criteria of SAT. The patients were carried out a standardized treatment according to their symptoms, and we closely followed up their response to the treatment. Clinicians must be aware of the possibility of SAT after receiving the vaccines and make timely therapy.

Assessment of serum dipeptidyl peptidase-IV levels in autoimmune thyroid disease

OBJECTIVE

Decreased serum dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (sDPPIV) levels have been reported in patients with autoimmune diseases. However, few studies have analyzed the association between sDPPIV levels and autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). This study aimed to evaluate the association between sDPPIV levels and three types of AITD: Graves' disease (GD), Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO), and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT).

METHODS

Patients newly diagnosed with GD (n = 65), GO (n = 22), and HT (n = 27) and healthy individuals (n = 30) were recruited. Clinical characteristics and thyroid function data were collected. sDPPIV was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.

RESULTS

Compared with controls (786.3 ± 46.95), patients with GD and GO had significantly lower sDPPIV levels (662.2 ± 38.81 and 438.4 ± 31.78). Additionally, sDPPIV levels were negatively associated with antithyroid peroxidase antibody (r = -0.20) and antithyroglobulin antibody (r = -0.19), but there was no significant relationship between thyroid hormone and sDPPIV levels. GO cases were divided by proptosis with and without muscle thickening; sDPPIV levels were lower in the muscle thickening group than those in the without muscle thickening group. Logistic regression analysis showed that sDPPIV was negatively correlated with GO and GD.

CONCLUSIONS

sDPPIV concentrations were abnormal in patients with GD and GO, and reduced sDPPIV expression may be involved in the progression of GO and GD.

Is post-COVID syndrome an autoimmune disease?

INTRODUCTION

: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) causes a long-term and persistent condition with clinical features similar to previous virulent outbreaks and other epidemics. Currently, post-COVID syndrome (PCS) is recognized as a new entity in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Though its pathogenesis is not completely understood, persistent inflammation from acute illness and the development of autoimmunity play a critical role in its development. As the pandemic develops, the increasing latent and overt autoimmunity cases indicate that PCS is at the intersection of autoimmunity.

AREAS COVERED

The mechanisms involved in the emergence of PCS, their similarities with post-viral and post-care syndromes, its inclusion in the spectrum of autoimmunity and possible targets for its treatment.

EXPERT OPINION

An autoimmune phenomenon plays a major role in most causative theories explaining PCS. Due to the wide scope of symptoms and pathophysiology associated with PCS, there is a need for both PCS definition and classification criteria (including severity scores). Longitudinal and controlled studies are necessary to better understand this new entity, and to confirm that PCS is the chronic phase of COVID-19 as well as to find what additional factors participate into its development. With the high prevalence of COVID-19 cases worldwide, together with the current evidence on latent autoimmunity in PCS, we may observe an increase of autoimmune diseases (ADs) in the coming years. Vaccination's effect on the development of PCS and ADs will also receive attention in the future. Health and social care services need to develop a new framework to deal with PCS.

Postacute Sequelae of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection

Postacute sequelae of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) or long coronavirus disease (COVID) is an emerging syndrome characterized by multiple persisting or newly emergent symptoms following the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection. For affected patients, these prolonged symptoms can have a relapsing and remitting course and may be associated with disability and frequent health care utilization. Although many symptom-driven treatments are available, management remains challenging and often requires a multidisciplinary approach. This article summarizes the emerging consensus on definitions, epidemiology, and pathophysiology of long COVID and discusses what is understood about prevention, evaluation, and treatment of this syndrome.

New-Onset Primary Adrenal Insufficiency and Autoimmune Hypothyroidism in a Pediatric Patient Presenting with MIS-C

INTRODUCTION

There is emerging speculation that the inflammatory state associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection may trigger autoimmune conditions, but no causal link is established. There are reports of autoimmune thyroiditis and adrenal insufficiency in adults post-COVID-19. We describe the first pediatric report of adrenal insufficiency and autoimmune hypothyroidism after COVID-19.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 14-year-old previously healthy girl, with vitiligo, presented in shock following 1 week of fever, lethargy, diarrhea, and vomiting. Three weeks prior, she had congestion and fatigue and known familial exposure for COVID-19. Labs were remarkable for sodium 129 mmol/L, K 4.3 mmol/L, creatinine 2.9 mg/dL, hemoglobin 8.3 g/dL, and positive COVID-19 PCR and SARS-CoV-2 IgG. She was resuscitated with normal saline and required pressor support. EKG showed abnormal repolarization presumed secondary to myocarditis. She met the criteria for multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), received intravenous immune globulin and IL-1R antagonist and was admitted for intensive care. Persistent hypotension despite improved inflammatory markers and undetectable cortisol led to initiation of hydrocortisone. She was then able to rapidly wean off pressors and hydrocortisone within 48 h. Thereafter, tests undertaken for persistent bradycardia confirmed autoimmune hypothyroidism with TSH 131 μU/mL, free T4 0.85 ng/dL, and positive thyroid autoantibodies. Basal and stimulated cortisol were <1 μg/dL on a standard 250 μg cosyntropin stimulation test, with baseline ACTH >1,250 pg/mL confirming primary adrenal insufficiency. Treatment was initiated with hydrocortisone, levothyroxine, and fludrocortisone. Adrenal sonogram did not reveal any hemorrhage and anti-adrenal antibody titers were positive. The family retrospectively reported oligomenorrhea, increased salt craving in the months prior, and a family history of autoimmune thyroiditis. The cytokine panel was notably different from other cases of MIS-C.

CONCLUSION

This is the first pediatric report, to our knowledge, of primary adrenal insufficiency and hypothyroidism following COVID-19, leading to a unique presentation of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2. The initial presentation was attributed to MIS-C, but the subsequent clinical course suggests the possibility of adrenal crisis. It remains unknown if COVID-19 had a causal relationship in triggering the autoimmune adrenal insufficiency and hypothyroidism.

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is the common clinical condition of thyroid hormone deficiency and, if left untreated, can lead to serious adverse health effects on multiple organ systems, with the cardiovascular system as the most robustly studied target. Overt primary hypothyroidism is defined as elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentration in combination with free thyroxine (fT₄) concentration below the reference range. Subclinical hypothyroidism, commonly considered an early sign of thyroid failure, is defined by elevated TSH concentrations but fT₄ concentrations within the reference range. Hypothyroidism is classified as primary, central or peripheral based on pathology in the thyroid, the pituitary or hypothalamus, or peripheral tissue, respectively. Acquired primary hypothyroidism is the most prevalent form and can be caused by severe iodine deficiency but is more frequently caused by chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in iodine-replete areas. The onset of hypothyroidism is insidious in most cases and symptoms may present relatively late in the disease process. There is a large variation in clinical presentation and the presence of hypothyroid symptoms, especially in pregnancy and in children. Levothyroxine (LT4) is the mainstay of treatment and is one of the most commonly prescribed drugs worldwide. After normalization of TSH and fT₄ concentrations, a considerable proportion of patients treated with LT4 continue to have persistent complaints, compromising quality of life. Further research is needed regarding the appropriateness of currently applied reference ranges and treatment thresholds, particularly in pregnancy, and the potential benefit of LT4/liothyronine combination therapy for thyroid-related symptom relief, patient satisfaction and long-term adverse effects.

Relapsed and newly diagnosed Graves’ disease due to immunization against COVID-19: A case series and review of the literature

In addition to genetic factors, environmental factors such as viruses are thought to be triggers in the development of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) such as Graves' disease (GD). In this context, AITD cases that may be associated with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection or immunization have begun to be reported in increasing numbers. Although it is not clear by which pathogenetic mechanisms immunization against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) triggers the development of AITD, both the potential effect of the adjuvants in the vaccines and the cross-reactivity that can be generated by the molecular similarity of viral particles with mammalian proteins seem to be possible mechanisms. In this article, 7 GD patients consisting of relapsed and newly diagnosed cases following the COVID-19 vaccination were presented. Of these 7 cases, 5 (71.4%) were female, and the median age of the patients was 47 years (range, 31–53). One of the patients was associated with the inactivated COVID-19 vaccine, while the others were associated with the mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. The median post-vaccination symptom onset was 7 days (range, 4–30). Three of the patients had a history of GD and one had a history of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Rapidly developing Graves' ophthalmopathy was detected in one patient. These cases are cautionary that GD and its extrathyroidal manifestations may develop in a short period after COVID-19 vaccination. When considered together with the literature review, the history of AITD in approximately half of the patients suggests that more attention should be paid to these patients in the post-vaccination period. Nevertheless, multicenter, prospective studies are needed to better understand this possible causal relationship.

Post-COVID-19 Condition: Where Are We Now?

COVID-19 is currently considered a systemic infection involving multiple systems and causing chronic complications. Compared to other post-viral fatigue syndromes, these complications are wider and more intense. The most frequent symptoms are profound fatigue, dyspnea, sleep difficulties, anxiety or depression, reduced lung capacity, memory/cognitive impairment, and hyposmia/anosmia. Risk factors for this condition are severity of illness, more than five symptoms in the first week of the disease, female sex, older age, the presence of comorbidities, and a weak anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody response. Different lines of research have attempted to explain these protracted symptoms; chronic persistent inflammation, autonomic nervous system disruption, hypometabolism, and autoimmunity may play a role. Due to thyroid high ACE expression, the key molecular complex SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect the host cells, thyroid may be a target for the coronavirus infection. Thyroid dysfunction after SARS-CoV-2 infection may be a combination of numerous mechanisms, and its role in long-COVID manifestations is not yet established. The proposed mechanisms are a direct effect of SARS-CoV-2 on target cells, an indirect effect of systemic inflammatory immune response, and a dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis leading to decreased serum TSH. Only a few studies have reported the thyroid gland status in the post-COVID-19 condition. The presence of post-COVID symptoms deserves recognition of COVID-19 as a cause of post-viral fatigue syndrome. It is important to recognize the affected individuals at an early stage so we can offer them the most adequate treatments, helping them thrive through the uncertainty of their condition.

Detection of Sars-Cov-2 antigens in thyroid gland showing histopathological features of subacute thyroiditis

The clinical and laboratory findings of subacute thyroiditis have been repeatedly reported as being associated with acute Sars-Cov-2 infection and post-COVID-19 syndrome. The exact mechanisms and histopathological correlations underlying thyroid involvement remained unresolved, but current insights suggest either direct viral damage, systemic inflammatory reaction, or an autoimmune response as possible noxious effectors. Here we present findings of immunohistochemical/immunofluorescence detection of Sars-Cov-2 viral proteins (spike/S and nucleocapside proteins) in relation to histoarchitectonic changes of autoptic thyroid tissue obtained from patient who deceased from COVID-19.

Endocrine system after 2 years of COVID-19 vaccines: A narrative review of the literature

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to describe the current knowledge on the potential endocrine adverse effects post-COVID-19 vaccines.

METHODS

A PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus research was performed. Case reports, case series, original studies, and reviews written in English and published online up to 31 July 2022 were selected and reviewed. The final reference list was defined based on the relevance of each paper to the scope of this review.

RESULTS

The available data showed that endocrine side effects are generally rare and with favorable outcome, being thyroid disorders the most common. Conversely, data on type 1 diabetes mellitus are rare; adrenal and pituitary events are even anecdotal. Finally, the available clinical studies suggest no impact on female reproductive system and on male and couple fertility.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these data show that, after 2 years of COVID-19 vaccines, the endocrine system is not heavily threatened.

Thyroid Function, Inflammatory Response, and Glucocorticoids in COVID-19

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic calls for extensive research on various medical topics. Since the beginning of the pandemic, multiple studies investigated the impact of SARS CoV-2 on thyroid function. However, crucial data, such as trend progression over time or influence of commonly used drugs, might still be missing. We checked the thyroid function in 174 patients with PCR-confirmed COVID-19. Our research covered three separate time points of hospitalization (days 1, 4, and 10). We did not exclude patients treated with glucocorticoids but, instead, compared them with patients not treated with steroids. We correlated the results of thyroid function tests with markers of systemic inflammation. We checked if abnormal thyroid function can predict unfavorable outcomes defined as combined primary endpoint and/or secondary endpoints; the combined primary endpoint was the occurrence of death, mechanical ventilation, non-invasive ventilation, vasopressor infusion, or prolonged hospital stay, and the secondary endpoint was any of the listed events. In general, 80.46% of evaluated patients displayed abnormalities in thyroid function tests over at least one time point throughout the observation. We noticed a high prevalence of features typical for thyroid dysfunction in non-thyroidal illness (NTI). Free triiodothyronine (fT3) concentration was significantly lower in the group requiring glucocorticoids. Patients displaying abnormal thyroid function were statistically more likely to meet the predefined combined primary endpoint. We found that fT3 measured at admission could be perceived as an independent predictor of endpoint completion for all analyzed groups. Thyroid involvement is common in COVID-19. Our study supports the idea of thyroid function abnormalities being important clinical tools and allowing early recognition of possible detrimental outcomes of the disease.