PAF. A review of its effects, antagonists and possible future clinical implications (Part II)

A review on natural products with cage-like structure

Natural products with diverse structures and significant biological activities are essential sources of drug lead compounds, and play an important role in the research and development of innovative drugs. Cage-like compounds have various structures and are widely distributed in nature, especially caged xanthones isolated from Garcinia genus, paeoniflorin and its derivatives isolated from Paeonia lactiflora Pall, tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its derivatives, and so on. In recent years, the development and utilization of cage-like compounds have been a research hotspot in chemistry, biology and other fields due to their special structures and remarkable biological activities. In this review, we mainly summarized the cage-like compounds with various structures found and isolated from natural drugs since 1956, summarized its broad biological activities, and introduced the progress in the biosynthesis of some compounds, so as to provide a reference for the discovery of more novel compounds, and the development and application of innovative drugs.

1-O-Alkylglycerol Ethers from the Marine Sponge Guitarra abbotti and Their Cytotoxic Activity

The cytotoxicity-bioassay-guided fractionation of the ethanol extract from the marine sponge Guitarra abbotti, whose 1-O-alkyl-sn-glycerol ethers (AGEs) have not been investigated so far, led to the isolation of a complex lipid fraction containing, along with previously known compounds, six new lipids of the AGE type. The composition of the AGE fraction as well as the structures of 6 new and 22 previously known compounds were established using ¹H and ¹³C NMR, GC/MS, and chemical conversion methods. The new AGEs were identified as: 1-O-(Z-docos-15-enyl)-sn-glycerol (1), 1-O-(Z-docos-17-enyl)-sn-glycerol (2), 1-O-(Z-tricos-15-enyl)-sn-glycerol (3), 1-O-(Z-tricos-16-enyl)-sn-glycerol (4), 1-O-(Z-tricos-17-enyl)-sn-glycerol (5), and 1-O-(Z-tetracos-15-enyl)-sn-glycerol (6). The isolated AGEs show weak cytotoxic activity in THP-1, HL-60, HeLa, DLD-1, SNU C4, SK-MEL-28, and MDA-MB-231 human cancer cells. A further cytotoxicity analysis in JB6 P⁺ Cl41 cells bearing mutated MAP kinase genes revealed that ERK2 and JNK1 play a cytoprotective role in the cellular response to the AGE-induced cytotoxic effects.

Interneuron Heterotopia in the Lis1 Mutant Mouse Cortex Underlies a Structural and Functional Schizophrenia-Like Phenotype

LIS1 is one of the principal genes related to Type I lissencephaly, a severe human brain malformation characterized by an abnormal neuronal migration in the cortex during embryonic development. This is clinically associated with epilepsy and cerebral palsy in severe cases, as well as a predisposition to developing mental disorders, in cases with a mild phenotype. Although genetic variations in the LIS1 gene have been associated with the development of schizophrenia, little is known about the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. We have studied how the Lis1 gene might cause deficits associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia using the Lis1/sLis1 murine model, which involves the deletion of the first coding exon of the Lis1 gene. Homozygous mice are not viable, but heterozygous animals present abnormal neuronal morphology, cortical dysplasia, and enhanced cortical excitability. We have observed reduced number of cells expressing GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67) in the hippocampus and the anterior cingulate area, as well as fewer parvalbumin-expressing cells in the anterior cingulate cortex in Lis1/sLis1 mutants compared to control mice. The cFOS protein expression (indicative of neuronal activity) in Lis1/sLis1 mice was higher in the medial prefrontal (mPFC), perirhinal (PERI), entorhinal (ENT), ectorhinal (ECT) cortices, and hippocampus compared to control mice. Our results suggest that deleting the first coding exon of the Lis1 gene might cause cortical anomalies associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Inflammation, not Cholesterol, Is a Cause of Chronic Disease

Since the Seven Countries Study, dietary cholesterol and the levels of serum cholesterol in relation to the development of chronic diseases have been somewhat demonised. However, the principles of the Mediterranean diet and relevant data linked to the examples of people living in the five blue zones demonstrate that the key to longevity and the prevention of chronic disease development is not the reduction of dietary or serum cholesterol but the control of systemic inflammation. In this review, we present all the relevant data that supports the view that it is inflammation induced by several factors, such as platelet-activating factor (PAF), that leads to the onset of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) rather than serum cholesterol. The key to reducing the incidence of CVD is to control the activities of PAF and other inflammatory mediators via diet, exercise, and healthy lifestyle choices. The relevant studies and data supporting these views are discussed in this review.

Developmental dynamics of PAFAH1B subunits during mouse brain development

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) mediates an array of biological processes in the mammalian central nervous system as a bioactive lipid messenger in synaptic function and dysfunction (plasticity, memory, and neurodegeneration). The intracellular enzyme that deacetylates the PAF (PAFAH1B) is composed of a tetramer of two catalytic subunits, ALPHA1 (PAFAH1B3) and ALPHA2 (PAFAH1B2), and a regulatory dimer of LIS1 (PAFAH1B1). We have investigated the mouse PAFAH1B subunit genes during brain development in normal mice and in mice with a hypomorphic allele for Lis1 (Lis1/sLis1; Cahana et al. [2001] Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:6429-6434). We have analyzed quantitatively (by means of real-time polymerase chain reaction) and qualitatively (by in situ hybridization techniques) the amounts and expression patterns of their transcription in developing and postnatal brain, focusing mainly on differences in two laminated encephalic regions, the forebrain (telencephalon) and hindbrain (cerebellum) separately. The results revealed significant differences in cDNA content between these two brain subdivisions but, more importantly, between the LIS1 complex subunits. In addition, we found significant spatial differences in gene expression patterns. Comparison of results obtained with Lis1/sLis1 analysis also revealed significant temporal and spatial differences in Alpha1 and Lis1 expression levels. Thus, small changes in the amount of the Lis1 gene may differentially regulate expression of Alpha1 and Alpha2, depending on the brain region, which suggests different roles for each LIS1 complex subunit during neural differentiation and neural migration.

Synthesis, biochemical evaluation and molecular modeling studies of novel rhodium complexes with nanomolar activity against Platelet Activating Factor

Two square planar Rh(I) organometallic complexes namely [Rh(L(1))(cod)]Cl (cod = cycloocta-1,5-diene, L(1)=2,2'-pyridylquinoxaline (1-Cl), [Rh(L1)(cod)](NO3) (1-NO(3)) and a series of novel octahedral rhodium(III) complexes of the general formulae mer-[Rh(L(1))Cl(3)(MeOH)] (2) and cis-[Rh(L(2))(2)Cl(2)]Cl (L(2)=4 carboxy 2 (2' pyridyl)quinoline (3), L(3)=2,2' bipyridine 4,4' dicarboxylic acid (4) were synthesized and characterized spectroscopically. All the synthesized compounds including the previously prepared cis-[Rh(L(1))(2)Cl(2)]Cl complex (5) were biologically evaluated as potential inhibitors of the Platelet Activation Factor (PAF) and thrombin induced aggregation. In particular compounds 1-Cl and 1-NO(3) were found to be strong inhibitors of PAF with IC(50) values in the range of 16 nM and 15 nM rendering them good candidates for further investigation. Their potency is comparable to that of the widely used PAF receptor antagonists WEB2170, BN52021, and Rupatadine (IC(50) of 20, 30 and 260 nM respectively). Molecular docking calculations suggest that 1-Cl, 1-NO3 and 2 can be accommodated within the ligand-binding site of PAF receptor and block the activity of PAF. On the other hand, the octahedral rhodium(III) complexes 3-5 that cannot fit the ligand-binding domain, could potentially exhibit their activity at the extracellular domain of the receptor.

Platelet-activating factor receptor antagonism targets neuroinflammation in experimental epilepsy

PURPOSE

Temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with the inflammatory process related to the basic mechanisms that lead to seizure susceptibility and brain damage. Platelet-activating factor (PAF), a potent, short-lived phospholipid mediator of inflammation, participates in physiologic signaling in the brain. However, after seizures, PAF accumulates in the brain and activates intracellular signaling related with inflammation-mediated excitotoxicity and hippocampal hyperexcitability. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of PAF antagonism on hippocampal hyperexcitability, seizure susceptibility, and neuroprotection using the kindling paradigm and pilocarpine-induced seizure damage models.

METHODS

The PAF antagonist, LAU-0901 (60 mg/kg, i.p.), or vehicle, was administrated each day of kindling or daily during the 4 weeks after status epilepticus (SE). We analyzed seizure severity, electrical activity, cellular damage, and inflammation in the hippocampi of both treated groups.

KEY FINDINGS

LAU-0901 limits the progression of kindling and attenuates seizure susceptibility 1 week after the kindling procedure. In addition, under the seizure-damage conditions studied here, we observed that LAU-0901 induces hippocampal neuroprotection and limits somatostatin interneuronal cell loss and inflammation.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results indicate that modulation of PAF overactivity attenuates seizure susceptibility, hippocampal hyperexcitability, and neuroinflammation.

PAF exerts a direct apoptotic effect on the rat H9c2 cardiomyocytes in Ca2+-dependent manner

BACKGROUND

Previous studies suggested that platelet-activating factor (PAF) plays an important role in ischemic diseases. Apoptosis has been implicated in myocardial infarction-related cell death. The present study was designed to determine whether PAF could induce apoptosis in cardiac myocytes and the underlying mechanisms by which PAF causes apoptosis.

METHODS

H9c2 cardiac myocytes were used to investigate the effect of PAF on intracellular calcium concentration, cell viability and cell apoptosis. Signaling pathway of caspase-3, cytochrome c and MAPK (ERK, JNK, p38) was determined during the PAF induced apoptosis.

RESULTS

First, our results showed that treatment of H9c2 cardiomyocytes with PAF (0.2 to 20 microM) caused apoptosis in these cells and the apoptotic process was suppressed by either BN52021 (an antagonist of PAF receptor) or BAPTA/AM (an intracellular Ca2+ chelator), suggesting an involvement of PAF and its receptor mediated calcium-dependent signaling. Second, we found that activity of p38-MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) and caspase-3 was elevated in the cells treated with PAF, without altering activity of ERK and JNK, and that PAF-induced enhancement of caspase-3 activity was attenuated by application of either BAPTA/AM or SB203580 (p38 inhibitor). Furthermore, PAF-induced apoptosis and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria was blunted by SB203580, and PAF-induced enhancement of p38 activity was also attenuated by BAPTA/AM.

CONCLUSION

Our data implicate that a PAF and its receptor in triggering apoptosis occurs in cultured H9c2 cardiac myocytes via a calcium-dependent p38 MAPK activated cytochrome c/caspase-3 apoptosis signaling pathway.

Structurally diverse metal coordination compounds, bearing imidodiphosphinate and diphosphinoamine ligands, as potential inhibitors of the platelet activating factor

Metal complexes bearing dichalcogenated imidodiphosphinate [R₂P(E)NP(E)R₂′]⁻ ligands (E = O, S, Se, Te), which act as (E,E) chelates, exhibit a remarkable variety of three-dimensional structures. A series of such complexes, namely, square-planar [Cu{(OPPh₂)(OPPh₂)N-O, O}₂], tetrahedral [Zn{(EPPh₂)(EPPh₂)N-E,E}₂], E = O, S, and octahedral [Ga{(OPPh₂)(OPPh₂)N-O,O}₃], were tested as potential inhibitors of either the platelet activating factor (PAF)- or thrombin-induced aggregation in both washed rabbit platelets and rabbit platelet rich plasma. For comparison, square-planar [Ni{(Ph₂P)₂N-S-CHMePh-P, P}X₂], X = Cl, Br, the corresponding metal salts of all complexes and the (OPPh₂)(OPPh₂)NH ligand were also investigated. Ga(O,O)₃ showed the highest anti-PAF activity but did not inhibit the thrombin-related pathway, whereas Zn(S,S)₂, with also a significant PAF inhibitory effect, exhibited the highest thrombin-related inhibition. Zn(O,O)₂ and Cu(O,O)₂ inhibited moderately both PAF and thrombin, being more effective towards PAF. This work shows that the PAF-inhibitory action depends on the structure of the complexes studied, with the bulkier Ga(O,O)₃ being the most efficient and selective inhibitor.

Characterization of the de novo biosynthetic enzyme of platelet activating factor, DDT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase, of human mesangial cells

Platelet activating factor (PAF), a potent inflammatory mediator, is implicated in several proinflammatory/inflammatory diseases such as glomerulonephritis, glomerulosclerosis, atherosclerosis, cancer, allergy, and diabetes. PAF can be produced by several renal cells under appropriate stimuli and it is thought to be implicated in renal diseases. The aim of this study is the characterization of DTT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase (PAF-CPT) of human mesangial cell (HMC), the main regulatory enzyme of PAF de novo biosynthetic pathway. Microsomal fractions of mesangial cells were isolated and enzymatic activity and kinetic parameters were determined by TLC and in vitro biological test in rabbit washed platelets. The effect of bovine serum albumin (BSA), dithiothreitol (DTT), divalent cations (Mg2+ and Ca2+), EDTA, and various chemicals on the activity of PAF-CPT of HMC was also studied. Moreover, preliminary in vitro tests have been performed with several anti-inflammatory factors such as drugs (simvastatin, IFNa, rupatadine, tinzaparin, and salicylic acid) and bioactive compounds of Mediterranean diet (resveratrol and lipids of olive oil, olive pomace, sea bass "Dicentrarchus labrax," and gilthead sea bream "Sparus aurata"). The results indicated that the above compounds can influence PAF-CPT activity of HMC.

Electrophysiological Analysis of the Effects of Ginkgo Biloba on Visual Processing in Older Healthy Adults

Several studies have tested the efficacy of ginkgo biloba using compromised visual systems and have found improvement in vision. We measured functional changes in the visual system of older, healthy adults to see if ginkgo extract EGb 761 would increase performance in the normal visual system. Two electrophysiological measures were taken during baseline, placebo, and treatment conditions: visual evoked potentials were used to assess changes in low-level functioning of the visual pathways, and P300 recognition responses were measured to assess higher order processing. No significant effect was found in the lower level visual pathways. However, when using regression analysis across age to assess higher order functioning, an improvement was found. The results suggest that the higher order processing stages, which may be influenced by cognition, decline more rapidly than do lower level processing stages in healthy adults as a function of age, and that the use of ginkgo biloba extract may improve the functioning of this system.

Sperm preparation for ART

The onset of clinical assisted reproduction, a quarter of a century ago, required the isolation of motile spermatozoa. As the indication of assisted reproduction shifted from mere gynaecological indications to andrological indications during the years, this urged andrological research to understand the physiology of male germ cell better and develop more sophisticated techniques to separate functional spermatozoa from those that are immotile, have poor morphology or are not capable to fertilize oocytes. Initially, starting from simple washing of spermatozoa, separation techniques, based on different principles like migration, filtration or density gradient centrifugation evolved. The most simple and cheapest is the conventional swim-up procedure. A more sophisticated and most gentle migration method is migration-sedimentation. However, its yield is relatively small and the technique is therefore normally only limited to ejaculates with a high number of motile spermatozoa. Recently, however, the method was also successfully used to isolate spermatozoa for intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Sperm separation methods that yield a higher number of motile spermatozoa are glass wool filtration or density gradient centrifugation with different media. Since Percoll as a density medium was removed from the market in 1996 for clinical use in the human because of its risk of contamination with endotoxins, other media like IxaPrep, Nycodenz, SilSelect, PureSperm or Isolate were developed in order to replace Percoll. Today, an array of different methods is available and the selection depends on the quality of the ejaculates, which also includes production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by spermatozoa and leukocytes. Ejaculates with ROS production should not be separated by means of conventional swim-up, as this can severely damage the spermatozoa. In order to protect the male germ cells from the influence of ROS and to stimulate their motility to increase the yield, a number of substances can be added to the ejaculate or the separation medium. Caffeine, pentoxifylline and 2-deoxyadenosine are substances that were used to stimulate motility. Recent approaches to stimulate spermatozoa include bicarbonate, metal chelators or platelet-activating factor (PAF). While the use of PAF already resulted in pregnancies in intrauterine insemination, the suitability of the other substances for the clinical use still needs to be tested. Finally, the isolation of functional spermatozoa from highly viscous ejaculates is a special challenge and can be performed enzymatically to liquefy the ejaculate. The older method, by which the ejaculate is forcefully aspirated through a narrow-gauge needle, should be abandoned as it can severely damage spermatozoa, thus resulting in immotile sperm.

Isolation and structural elucidation of biologically active phospholipids from Scytonema julianum (cyanobacteria)

The role of platelet-activating factor (PAF) as a mediator appeared in rather primitive organisms like protozoans and was maintained in more evolved organisms. No reports exist for the presence of PAF or PAF analogues - or even compounds that exhibit PAF-like activity - in cyanobacteria, even though they belong to a a group of organisms at a low evolutionary level where the content of alkylacyl forms of ether lipids is expected to be high. In addition, cyanobacteria serve as a rich source of novel bioactive metabolites. In the present study the total lipids of a strain of Scytonema julianum, a filamentous cyanobacterium isolated from a Greek cave, were separated into neutral lipids and phospholipids, the latter being further fractionated by HPLC. Each phospholipid fraction was tested in vitro for its ability to inhibit PAF-, arachidonic acid- and ADP-induced washed-rabbit-platelet aggregation and/or to cause platelet aggregation. Two types of phospholipids causing platelet aggregation were detected and shown to be an acetylsphingomyelin and an acylacetylglycerol phosphoacetylated glycolipid. The existence of the sphingomyelin analogues is very important, since ceramides, cerebrosides and related lipids are intracellular second messengers. The identification of the phosphoglycoglycerolipid demonstrates a new type of lipid in cyanobacteria, namely one that exhibits a biological activity very similar to that of PAF. Its presence reinforces the concept that PAF is a member of a large family of lipid mediators, apparently having different physiological roles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. In addition, Scytonema julianum contains a phosphatidylcholine (C(16:0)/(18:2)), even though bacteria in general seldom contain choline-containing phosphoacylglycerols.

The role of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and platelet-activating factor (PAF) interaction on murine candidosis

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is related to some other factors in addition to being the essential cytokine of the sepsis which results from Candida infections. In our study, we investigated serum TNF-alpha levels, measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and platelet-activating factor (PAF)-like activity, measured by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) of the mice infected with Candida species. The PAF antagonist, ginkgolide BN 52021 was used to evaluate the possible interaction between TNF-alpha and PAF. The average TNF-alpha levels were found to be 396, 489, 699 and 803 pg ml(-1) on the 4th, 5th, 6th and 19th days of Candida albicans infection, respectively (P<0.05). There was no statistically significant difference between the serum TNF-alpha levels of the groups infected with other Candida species, such as C. kefyr, C. krusei and C. tropicalis (P>0.05). Serum TNF-alpha levels were found to be more significantly different in mice with C. albicans infection that were injected with PAF antagonists on the 6th day (23 pg ml(-1)). It was therefore thought that PAF antagonists have an inhibitory effect on TNF-alpha production. No significant difference was found between PAF levels in the three groups: healthy control mice, C. albicans-infected mice and C. albicans-infected mice given PAF antagonists (466 milli-absorbance unit (mAU), 475 mAU and 329 mAU, respectively). It was noticed that the positive interaction between PAF and TNF-alpha was not important after the first 4 days of the infection had passed.

Signal transduction mechanisms and behavioral sensitization to stimulant drugs: an overview of cAMP and PLA2

Behavioral sensitization refers to the progressive increase of behavioral responses to psychomotor stimulants, which provides a model for the intensification of drug craving and relapse alleged to underlie addiction in humans. Mechanisms related to sensitization may also contribute to schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. While the phenomenon has been observed for years, only recently have molecular or intracellular mechanisms associated with behavioral sensitization been studied. An overview of cAMP and PLA2 (intracellular, signal transduction mechanisms) relevant to behavioral sensitization will be presented.

Experimental and emerging therapies for sepsis and septic shock

The underlying principles of sepsis therapy have remained unchanged for decades. These include: prompt institution of antimicrobial agents aimed at the inciting pathogen, source control directed at removal of the infection nidus whenever possible, and support of organ dysfunction. Despite advances in antibiotics, surgical techniques and organ support technology, the morbidity and mortality from sepsis-related diseases have remained substantially unchanged (30 - 50%). Immunomodulation of the inflammatory cascade has been suggested as a crucial but inadequately addressed element in the treatment of sepsis. The list of potential therapeutic targets has been growing as more and more mediators are identified in the pathogenesis of sepsis. To date, numerous anti-inflammatory agents, found to have favourable effects in animal models of septic shock, have been tested in a number of clinical trials on thousands of patients. In this first of a three part series, we go through some of the background and current strategies in sepsis therapy. In this review, we include the two novel therapies that have shown clear survival benefit in large, randomised, placebo-controlled, multi-centre trials, low-dose steroids and recombinant activated protein C. Also included in this review are studies on antithrombin III, platelet-activating factor antagonists, complement modulators, nitric oxide synthase inhibitors and caspase inhibitors (apoptosis inhibitors).

Oxidative response and membrane modification of diabetic platelets challenged with PAF

Alterations in the functional activities of platelets (PLT) in type I diabetes have been widely observed. These changes play a key role in the development of cardiovascular complications in diabetes. Various functional activities of PLT are the result of the interaction of numerous stimuli with PLT plasma membrane. This study was designed to evaluate the oxidative response and membrane modifications of diabetic PLT stimulated by platelet activating factor (PAF). The oxidative response was assessed by employing luminol- and lucigenin-amplified chemiluminescence. Luminol-amplified chemiluminescence is sensitive to the release of hydrogen peroxide whereas lucigenin-amplified chemiluminescence is sensitive to the production of superoxide anion. Membrane fluidity and polarity were studied using fluorescence spectroscopy. Membrane fluidity was investigated by measuring steady-state fluorescence anisotropy of 1-[4-trimethylammonium-phenyl]-6-phenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (TMA-DPH) and membrane polarity was studied by measuring the steady-state fluorescence emission and excitation spectra of 2-dimethylamino[6-lauroyl]-naphthalene (Laurdan). The diabetic group consisted of 20 type I diabetic children with good metabolic control. Our results show a significant decrease in the luminol- and lucigenin-amplified chemiluminescence of PAF stimulated PLT in the diabetic group with respect to controls. These data indicate a decrement in the release of reactive oxygen species by diabetic PLT. We observed a significant increase in steady-state fluorescence anisotropy of diabetic PLT membrane that reflects a decrease in membrane fluidity. Laurdan showed a blue shift of the fluorescence emission and excitation spectra in diabetic PLT with respect to the control group, indicating a decrease in membrane polarity. The addition of PAF to PLT induced a red shift of Laurdan spectra in both groups, indicating an increase in membrane polarity. Our study [table: see text] demonstrates an altered oxidative response to PAF stimulation of diabetic PLT, probably due to altered generation or handling of reactive oxygen species, and alterations in the physico-chemical properties of the plasma membrane which could influence various functional activities of PLT.

Clinical importance of antibodies against platelet activating factor in antiphospholipid syndrome manifestations

BACKGROUND

We assessed whether antibodies against platelet activating factor (PAF) are related to the presence of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) clinical manifestations, in particular thrombosis, in patients with connective tissue diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-PAF, anticardiolipin (aCL), antibeta2 glycoprotein I (antibeta2GPI) and antiphosphatidylcholine (anti-PC) antibodies were determined in 52 patients with APS, 29 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) aCL but without APS, 30 patients with SLE without aCL, and 30 patients with scleroderma. A new enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for determining anti-PAF antibodies in a bovine serum-free fashion.

RESULTS

The ELISA showed high specificity. Homologous inhibition experiments showed 60-70% inhibition. Anti-PAF antibodies were found in 18/52 APS patients, 10/29 SLE/aCL+ patients, 9/30 SLE/aCL- patients and 3/30 scleroderma patients. Anti-PAF antibodies were significantly associated with anti-PC antibodies (odds ratio [OR] 12. 7, P < 0.01), and there was a modest association with immunoglobulin G (IgG) aCL (OR 3.1, P > 0.10), but not with IgM aCL or antibeta2GPI. Three SLE/aCL+ patients and five SLE/aCL- patients had clinical manifestations characteristic of APS. All these patients had anti-PAF antibodies, while none had high titres of aCL or antibeta2GPI antibodies and only one had anti-PC antibodies. Among the combined APS and SLE groups, the presence of anti-PAF antibodies was significantly associated with clinical manifestations which are characteristic of APS (OR 2.6, P = 0.02). The effect was independent of IgG aCL and antibeta2GPI antibodies.

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-PAF antibodies are common in APS and SLE and comprise an independent factor for the development of thrombosis. Several patients experiencing thromboses have anti-PAF antibodies without other antiphospholipid specificities.

Effects of rupatadine, a new dual antagonist of histamine and platelet-activating factor receptors, on human cardiac kv1.5 channels

1. The effects of rupatadine, a new dual antagonist of both histamine H1 and platelet-activating factor receptors, were studied on human cloned hKv1.5 channels expressed in Ltk- cells using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. 2. Rupatadine produced a use- and concentration-dependent block of hKv1.5 channels (KD=2.4+/-0.7 micronM) and slowed the deactivation of the tail currents, thus inducing the 'crossover' phenomenon. 3. Rupatadine-induced block was voltage-dependent increasing in the voltage range for channel opening suggesting an open channel interaction. At potentials positive to +10 mV the blockade decreased with a shallow voltage-dependence. Moreover, rupatadine also modified the voltage-dependence of hKv1.5 channel activation, which exhibited two components, the midpoint of the steeper component averaging -25. 2+/-2.7 mV. 4. When the intracellular K+ concentration ([K+]i) was lowered to 25% the voltage-dependent unblock observed at positive potentials was suppressed and the activation curve in the presence of rupatadine did not exhibit two components even when the midpoint of the activation curve was shifted to more negative potentials (-30. 3+/-1.3 mV). 5. On channels mutated on the residue R485 (R485Y) which is located on the external entryway of the pore the rupatadine-induced block did not decrease at potentials positive to +10 mV. In contrast, on V512M channels rupatadine reproduced all the features of the blockade observed on wild type channels. 6. All these results suggest that rupatadine blocks hKv1.5 channels binding to an external and to an internal binding site but only at concentrations much higher than therapeutic plasma levels in man. Efflux of K+ promotes the unbinding from the external site. Furthermore, rupatadine binds to an internal site and dramatically modifies the voltage-dependence of channel opening.

Combined treatment with endothelin- and PAF-antagonists reduces posttransplant lung ischemia/reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Pathophysiologic changes of posttransplant lung ischemia/reperfusion injury are mediated by redundant cellular and humoral mechanisms. We investigated the protective effect of combined administration of platelet activating factor (PAF) and endothelin (ET) antagonists after prolonged ischemia in a small animal lung transplantation model.

METHODS

Orthotopic left lung transplantation was performed after 20 hours cold ischemia in male Fischer (F344) rats weighing 200-250 g. Group I served as control. In Group II, donors received 1 mg/kg body weight of the endothelin antagonist TAK-044, and recipients 2 mg/kg. Group III was treated with the PAF antagonist TCV-309 (donor: 50 microg/kg; recipient: 100 microg/kg) (Takeda Chemicals Ltd.). Group IV received a combined treatment with both substances at the same dosage. Twenty-four hours after reperfusion, the native contralateral lung was occluded to assess gas exchange of the graft only, and 5 minutes later the thoracic aorta was punctured for arterial blood gas analysis (n = 5). In other animals (n = 5), lung tissue was frozen 24 hours after reperfusion and assessed for myeloperoxidase activity (MPO) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances.

RESULTS

Combined inhibition of PAF and ET-1 at the receptor level resulted in significantly improved graft function as compared to controls (Group I), and to groups treated with either TAK-044 or TCV-309. This was determined by a higher arterial oxygen content (112 +/- 9 mmHg, p = .00061 vs control, 48 +/- 5 mmHg), reduced MPO activity (0.35 +/- 0.02 deltaOD/mg/min, p = .000002 vs control, 1.1 +/- 0.1 deltaOD/mg/min) and reduced lipid peroxidation (59.5 +/- 2.5 pmol/g, p = .011 vs control, 78.5 +/- 4.1 pmol/g). The improvement of arterial oxygen (Group II 77 +/- 10 mmHg, p = .027 vs control; Group III 84 +/- 8 mmHg, p = .0081 vs control) and reduction of MPO activity (Group II 0.85 +/- 0.061 deltaOD/mg/min, p = .017; Group III 0.92 +/- 0.079 deltaOD/mg/min, p = .058) in groups treated with either a PAF antagonist or an ET antagonist was significantly less than in Group IV.

CONCLUSIONS

Combined donor and recipient treatment with an ET antagonist and a PAF antagonist results in superior posttransplant graft function 24 hours after reperfusion, suggesting a synergistic role of ET-1 and PAF in the mediation of reperfusion injury in this model. Single treatment with either of the antagonists revealed only a slight improvement compared to untreated controls.

Therapy for microcirculatory disorders in severe acute pancreatitis: effectiveness of platelet-activating factor receptor blockade vs. endothelin receptor blockade

Many of the complications of severe acute pancreatitis are the result of the amplifying effects of microcirculatory disruption. The factors causing microcirculatory disorders in acute pancreatitis involve vasoactive mediators such as platelet-activating factor (PAF) and endothelin-1 (ET) activated during the inflammatory response to pancreatic injury. To further evaluate the potential therapeutic role of specific receptor antagonists (RA) to these mediators, the present study compares the effect of PAF and ET receptor blockade on microcirculation and organ function in a well-established rodent model of severe acute pancreatitis. Six hours after acute pancreatitis induction, rats were randomized to therapy with ET-RA (50 mg/kg LU-135252), PAF-RA (82 microg/kg WEB-2170), or NaCl 0.9% (volume equivalent). After 18 hours of fluid resuscitation, animals were relaparotomized for intravital microscopic determination of capillary blood flow, leukocyte rolling, and capillary permeability in the pancreas and colon. Other measurements included cardiorespiratory parameters, hematocrit, pleural effusions, ascites, urine production, and survival. Compared to saline treatment both ET-RA and PAF-RA significantly improved capillary blood flow in the pancreas and colon, reduced leukocyte rolling, and stabilized capillary permeability. The beneficial effects of receptor antagonist treatment on microcirculation were associated with decreased fluid loss into the third space, improved renal and respiratory function, and survival. Although both receptor antagonists likewise improved capillary blood flow, ET-RA was significantly more effective in counteracting leukocyte rolling and capillary leakage, thereby further reducing fluid sequestration. The present study confirms the beneficial effects of PAf and ET receptor blockade on microcirculation inside and outside the pancreas, organ function, and survival when given at the early stage of severe pancreatitis. Because ET-RA was more effective in stabilizing capillary permeability and avoiding subsequent fluid loss into the third space, we propose that ET-RA should be tested in a clinical trial (either in comparison or in addition to PAF-RA).

Heterogeneous platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptors and calcium increase in platelets and macrophages

We used the increase in cytosolic Ca2+ levels, [Ca2+]i, as a way to characterize PAF (platelet-activating factor, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) receptors in human platelets and rat and human macrophages. [Ca2+] was measured by means of the fluorescent probe fura-2/acetoxymethylester. PAF recognized heterogeneous receptors in human macrophages only (curve slope <1). The PAF antagonist SCH 37370 (1-acetyl-4(8-chloro-5,6-dihydro-11H-benzo[5.6]cyclohepta[1,2-b]pyridine -11-ylidine)piperidine) abolished [Ca2+]i elevation in human platelets, while in rat and human macrophages the maximal inhibition was 76% and 85%, respectively. On the contrary, the antagonist WEB 2086 (3-[4-(2-chlorophenyl)-9-methyl-6Hthieno[3,2-f] [1,2,4]triazolo-[4,3-a] [1,4]-diazepin-2-yl]-1-(4-morpholiny)-1-propanon, apafant) totally inhibited the effect of PAF in both platelets and macrophages. The WEB 2086 concentration-response curves had a slope <1 in the three cell types, indicating interaction with heterogeneous receptors. Accordingly, 3H-WEB 2086 bound to two different classes of sites. Both phases of [Ca2+]i elevation (influx or release) were equally affected by the antagonists. These data support the notions that: 1) PAF receptors are heterogeneous; 2) the two antagonists have a different selectivity toward the receptor subtypes: WEB 2086 recognizes two different receptors both in platelets and in macrophages, while SCH 37370 does not discriminate between receptor subtypes in platelets, and only interacts with one subtype in macrophages; and 3) both SCH 37370 and WEB 2086 display different potencies in rat and human macrophages.

Confirmatory platelet-activating factor receptor antagonist trial in patients with severe gram-negative bacterial sepsis: a phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. BN 52021 Sepsis Investigator Group

OBJECTIVE

To determine the efficacy and safety of using natural platelet-activating factor receptor antagonist (PAFra), BN 52021, to treat patients with severe Gram-negative bacterial sepsis.

DESIGN

A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trial.

SETTING

Fifty-nine academic medical center intensive care units in Europe.

PATIENTS

Six hundred nine patients with severe sepsis, suspected to be related to Gram-negative bacterial infection, who received PAFra or placebo.

INTERVENTIONS

Patients were randomized to receive either a dose of PAFra (120 mg iv) every 12 hrs over a 4-day period or placebo over a 4-day period.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The patients were well matched at study entry for severity of illness and for risk factors known to influence the outcome of sepsis. Among all randomized patients, the 28-day, all-cause mortality rate was 49% (152/308) in the placebo group, and 47% (140/300) in the PAFra group (p=.50). When analyzed on the basis of the previously defined target population, the 28-day, all-cause mortality rate was 50% (115/232) in the placebo group and 44% (94/212) in the PAFra group, yielding a 12% reduction in mortality rate (p=.29). In patients with documented infection involving other organisms, there was no difference between treated and placebo groups. When the outcomes of organ dysfunctions were examined in the overall population and in the documented Gram-negative bacterial infection population, the number of patients who resolved hepatic dysfunction tended to be higher in the treated group than in the placebo group (p=.06). The number of adverse events reported were not different between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A 4-day administration of the studied PAFra (BN 52021) failed to demonstrate a statistically significant reduction in the mortality rate of patients with severe sepsis suspected to be related to Gram-negative bacterial infection. If PAFra treatment has any therapeutic activity in severe Gram-negative bacterial sepsis, the incremental benefits are small and will be difficult to demonstrate in a patient population as defined by this clinical trial.

Effects of platelet-activating factor on intracellular Ca2+ concentration and contractility in isolated cardiomyocytes

We investigated the effects of platelet-activating factor (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) on intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) and cell length in isolated and field-stimulated rat cardiomyocytes. [Ca2+]i and cell length of field-stimulated cells were determined simultaneously by confocal laser scan microscopy by using the fluorescent Ca2+ dye Fluo-3. PAF (10(-12)-10(-8) M) inhibited systolic [Ca2+]i increase in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Maximal effects were observed after an incubation time of 6-8 min, resulting in a 17% (10(-12) M), 41% (10(-10) M), and 52% (10(-8) M PAF) inhibition of systolic [Ca2+]i increase. A time- and concentration-dependent decrease in simultaneously measured cell shortening also was demonstrated. Cell shortening was inhibited by 10% (10(-12) M), 32% (10(-10) M), and 50% (10(-8) M) after an incubation time of 8 min. The effects of PAF could be antagonized by the PAF-receptor antagonist WEB 2170. These data demonstrate that PAF receptor-dependently induces a negative inotropic effect, which is correlated with a decrease in systolic [Ca2+]i and is most likely not due to a decrease in myofilament sensitivity.

Modulation of platelet-activating-factor production by incorporation of naturally occurring 1-O-alkylglycerols in phospholipids of human leukemic monocyte-like THP-1 cells

1-O-Alkylglycerols (alkyl-Gro), naturally occurring compounds abundant in shark liver oil, protect patients from radiotherapy side-effects. However, the protection mechanism is not well understood. It might be mediated by alkyl-Gro incorporation into pools of platelet-activating factor (PAF) precursor and subsequent modification of PAF biosynthesis. Using a 3H-labelled or unlabelled natural alkyl-Gro mixture, in which prominent alkyl chains were C18:1(9) (54-65%), C16:1(7) (5-15.5%), and C16:0 (5-10%), we investigated the incorporation of alkyl-Gro into phospholipids of human leukemic monocyte-like THP-1 cells. Incubation of cells for 24 h with [3H]alkyl-Gro (10 microM) resulted in their incorporation into 1-O-alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (1097+/-25.1 pmol/2x10(6) cells) and into 1-alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (640.4+/-12.5 pmol/2x10(6) cells) with a total yield of 6.5%. Such incorporation induced production of 1-O-[3H]alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine ([3H]PAF), which was increased after stimulation by the calcium ionophore A23187. HPLC analysis of the [3H]PAF molecular species indicated that the three major [3H]alkyl-Gro were used for [3H]PAF synthesis in ratios similar to that of the mixture. Total production of biologically active PAF, as measured by the platelet-aggregation bioassay, was also increased by alkyl-Gro incorporation in resting (+20%) and in A23187-stimulated (+59%) THP-1 cells. HPLC analysis of the [3H]PAF produced in the presence of [3H]acetate, confirmed that levels of PAF, but not of its 1-acyl analog, were increased by alkyl-Gro incorporation in resting and stimulated cells. However, the rise in [3H]acetyl-PAF, which resulted mainly from C16:0 PAF, was reduced by about 50% in the presence of the PAF-receptor antagonist SR 27417, providing evidence that stimulation of total PAF synthesis was caused by the increase in the precursor pool and autocrine amplification of PAF-induced PAF production. Thus, the supplementation of THP-1 cells in culture with naturally occurring alkyl-Gro led to the incorporation of alkyl-Gro into ether-containing phospholipids, which were subsequently used for PAF synthesis. Furthermore, alkyl-Gro incorporation resulted in a significant rise in PAF production by THP-1 cells under resting and stimulated conditions. These results may be of importance for modulating PAF production in several pathophysiological conditions, such as peroxysome deficiencies, that are associated with a lack of ether lipid synthesis.

A platelet activating factor antagonist attenuates the effects of testicular ischemia

PURPOSE

Platelet activating factor, a biochemical marker and lipid mediator of ischemic injury, has been demonstrated in several organ systems. The objective of this study was to investigate the possible role of platelet activating factor in testicular ischemic injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five groups of 6 male Sprague-Dawley rats were studied, including group 1-nonoperated controls, group 2-sham operated controls, group 3-those that underwent administration of 10 micrograms./kg. exogenous platelet activating factor into the left testicular artery, group 4-those that underwent 4 hours of testicular ischemia and group 5-those that received pretreatment with 0.4 mg./kg. of the platelet activating factor antagonist CV-6209 intravenously before 4 hours of testicular ischemia. Ipsilateral and contralateral testes were examined histologically and seminiferous tubular diameters were measured.

RESULTS

Exogenous platelet activating factor administration in group 3 and 4 hours of ischemia in group 4 resulted in a similar extent of histological degeneration of the experimental testicle. Pretreatment with CV-6209 in group 5 resulted in a marked decrease in hemorrhagic discoloration, vascular congestion and histological changes noted with ischemia in group 4.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that platelet activating factor has a biochemical role in tissue injury associated with testicular ischemia. Also, administration of a platelet activating factor antagonist before the ischemic event decreases seminiferous tubule degeneration.

A pharmacophore for high affinity PAF antagonists. II. Hydrophobicity study using the molecular lipophilicity potential

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a powerful phospholipid-derived autacoid involved in many physiopathological mechanisms. Many PAF antagonists have been synthesized and evaluated as therapeutic candidates. In a previous report, we have described an electronic pharmacophore of PAF antagonists using the molecular electrostatic potential. In the present study, a molecular lipophilicity potential is used to compare the hydrophobic properties of 49 "heterocyclic sp2 nitrogen' highly potent PAF antagonists, belonging to six structurally different series (nine hetrazepines, five pyrrolo[1,2-c]thiazoles, 14 carboxamides, nine dihydropyridines, nine pyridinyl-thiazolidines and three imidazo[4,5-c]pyridines). Their common features consist of three hydrophilic (HYD2, HY14(3)B and HYD3) and two lipophilic zones (LIP3 and LIP4), defining the lipophilic pharmacophore of the antagonists. This pharmacophore is also characterized by several zone-to-zone distances: HYD3-HYD2 = 1.3 +/- 1.0 A, HY3B-HYD2 = 7.8 +/- 1.1, HYD3-HY3B = 5.1 +/- 1.1 A, LIP4-LIP3 = 5.4 +/- 1.1 A, LIP3-HYD2 = 11.3 +/- 1.6 A, LIP3-HY3B = 5.9 +/- 1.0 A, LIP3-HYD3 = 4.3 +/- 0.9 A, LIP4-HYD2 = 14.7 +/- 1.6 A, LIP4-HY3B = 8.1 +/- 1.2 A and LIP4-HYD3 = 3.9 +/- 1.1 A. These results represent a new step in the determination of a global pharmacophore for PAF antagonists.

Preventive effects of two PAF-antagonists, PMS 536 and PMS 549, on cyclosporin-induced LLC-PK1 oxidative injury

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of platelet activating factor (PAF) antagonists, PMS 536 and PMS 549, on LLC-PK1 toxicity induced by Cyclosporin A (CsA). The LLC-PK1 cell line was used as an in vitro model. CsA cytotoxicity was determined in relation with ATP content. Alkaline phosphatase and N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase activities, which are directly correlated with tubular cell damage, were used as markers for renal injury. CsA alone provoked in the LLC-PK1 cell line a marked decrease in cell viability (55%) and membrane integrity (56%), and a significant increase in AP and NAG activities and in oxidized glutathione level. The ATP decrease and the ADP increase, resulting in a decline of the ATP/ADP ratio, is indicative of an anoxic energy charge. Co-treatment with CsA plus PMS 536 or PMS 549 resulted in a minor decrease in cell viability and in significant membrane integrity recovery. Moreover, the ATP depletion and the increase in ATP metabolites, hypoxanthine and uric acid induced by CsA were strongly prevented by PAF antagonists. In contrast, GSSG level remained high as in CsA-treated cells, but GSH level was in the range of controls. Our results suggest that both PAF antagonists attenuate CsA oxidative injury and prevent energy metabolism disturbances probably by maintaining cell integrity. The lipophilicity of both molecules may be responsible for membrane stabilization and may confer the protective effects observed in energy metabolism. The results obtained with PMS 536 and PMS 549 are indicative of interactions between PAF and CsA in renal injury and suggest the therapeutic potential of these PAF-antagonists against CsA-induced nephrotoxicity.

The third intracellular domain of the platelet-activating factor receptor is a critical determinant in receptor coupling to phosphoinositide phospholipase C-activating G proteins. Studies using intracellular domain minigenes and receptor chimeras

Platelet activating factor (PAF) is a potent phospholipid mediator which elicits a diverse array of biological actions by interacting with G protein-coupled PAF receptors (PAFR). Binding of PAF to PAFRs leads to activation of G protein(s) that stimulate phosphoinositide phospholipase C and subsequent intracellular signaling responses. To identify the potential role of intracellular domains of the rat PAFR (rPAFR) in signaling, we examined effects of transfecting minigenes encompassing rPAFR intracellular domains 1 (1i), 2 (2i), and 3 (3i) on inositol phosphate (IP) production mediated by the co-transfected rPAFR cDNA. Although transfection of the rPAFR1i and rPAFR2i minigenes had no effects on PAF-stimulated signaling, transfection of the rPAFR3i minigene inhibited PAF-stimulated IP production by approximately 50% compared to controls. The rPAFR3i domain did not inhibit IP production mediated by the multifunctional rat pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide receptor (rPACAPR), demonstrating the specificity of the competition by the rPAFR3i domain. In further experiments, the rPAFR3i domain was engineered onto the homologous domain of a monofunctional transmembrane variant of the rPACAPR (rPACAPR2) that activates only adenylyl cyclase. The rPACAPR2/rPAFR3i chimera responded to PACAP with increases in IP production which were attenuated nearly completely in cells cotransfected with the rPAFR3i domain. In contrast, PACAP had no effects on IP production in a receptor chimera expressing a mutated form of the rPAFR3i domain (rPACAPR2/rPAFR3imut). These results demonstrate the ability of the rPAFR3i domain to confer a phospholipase C-signaling phenotype to a receptor deficient in this activity and show that this activity is specific for the engineered rPAFR3i domain. These results suggest that the third intracellular loop of the rPAFR is a primary determinant in its coupling to phosphoinositide phospholipase C-activating G proteins, providing the first insight into the molecular basis of interaction of PAFRs with signal-transducing G proteins.

Modipafant, a new PAF antagonist: pharmacokinetics and disposition in rat, dog and man

1. The pharmacokinetics and disposition of modipafant, a dihydropyridine PAF antagonist, were studied in rat and dog following intravenous and oral administration of the drug or its radiolabelled analogue. In addition, the pharmacokinetics were studied in man following single administration of escalating oral doses of the drug. Modipafant is a lipophilic weak base with log D(octanol) 7.4 and pKa of 4.3 and 5.3 respectively. 2. Following intravenous administration of [14C]-modipafant to rat, radioactivity is rapidly distributed throughout the body, except for the brain. A significant amount of radioactivity (probably modipafant) is rapidly distributed to the alimentary tract, particularly in the stomach. This is believed to be due to 'ion trapping' of modipafant in the acidic environment of the upper GI tract. The re-circulated modipafant may be subject to reabsorption and/or faecal excretion. 3. Following intravenous administration to rats, systemic clearance is five times greater in the male than female. The magnitude of this difference is in keeping with the clearance of other dihydropyridines such as nilvadipine. In dog, the clearance values are similar for both sexes, as expected. In this latter species, the systemic clearance decreases 6-fold with increasing dose size, indicative of saturation of a pathway of metabolism. 4. Following oral administration over a dose range of 1-12 mg/kg, modipafant is incompletely (27-67%) bioavailable in rat and dog. In the male dog, systemic exposure to drug (AUC/infinity) increased non-linearly with dose. Following oral administration to man, absorption was rapid with a mean value for Tmax of 1 h, and Cmax's ranging non-linearly from 90 to 2100 ng/ml following dosing at 12.5 to 150 mg respectively. 5. The elimination of modipafant is characterized by short half-life (mean values for t1/2 range from 1 to 3 h). However, the nature of the receptor kinetics of modipafant (slow offset) means that the drug shows a long duration of action in spite of short pharmacokinetics at pharmacologically relevant doses. 6. Following oral and intravenous administration of 14C-modipafant to rat and dog, the majority of radioactivity (mean 92%) is recovered in the faeces. The excretion of modipafant in rat and dog is characterized by metabolism, mostly to pyridine metabolites, accounting for between 38 and 75% of total clearance, the rest being cleared as unchanged drug.

Effects of UR-12633, a new antagonist of platelet-activating factor, in rodent models of endotoxic shock

1. The effects of the selective and potent novel platelet-activating factor (PAF) antagonist, UR-12633 (1-(3,3-diphenylpropionyl)-4-(3-pyridylcyanomethyl)piperidin e) on several markers of endotoxic shock syndrome were evaluated in rats and mice. 2. UR-12633, administered 60 min after E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS), reversed the LPS-induced sustained hypotension in rats at doses of 0.01 to 1 mg kg-1, i.v. The reference compound WEB-2086 (1 mg kg-1) also reversed the LPS-induced hypotension. UR-12633 (1 mg kg-1), administered 10 min before LPS, almost fully inhibited sustained hypotension. The immediate hypotension (within 1 min) caused by LPS was not prevented by either UR-12633 or WEB-2086. 3. Pretreatment with 10 mg kg-1, i.v. of either UR-12633 or WEB-2086 inhibited the increase in disseminated intravascular coagulation markers, such as activated partial thromboplastin time (55 and 74% inhibition, respectively), and prothrombin time (22 and 72% inhibition) and prevented the decrease in plasma fibrinogen content (100 and 29% inhibition). 4. Increases in acid phosphatase (ACP) plasma activity, a marker of lysosomal activation, and in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), a marker of tissue damage, were inhibited by pretreatment with 10 mg kg-1, i.v. of either UR-12633 or WEB-2086 (100% and 69% inhibition, ACP; 62 and 48% inhibition, LDH). Hyperglycaemia (71 and 46%) and hyperlactacidaemia (92 and 56%) were also inhibited. 5. UR-12633, but not WEB-2086, inhibited the LPS-induced increase in vascular permeability in rats, as shown by prevention of haemoconcentration and, to a lesser degree, the increase in Evans blue dye extravasation. 6. In a series of nine reference compounds and UR-12633, we found a high correlation (P < 0.001) between PAF antagonist activity, measured as the inhibition of PAF-induced rabbit platelet aggregation or PAF-induced mortality in mice and the inhibition of LPS-induced mortality. 7. In spite of the multifactorial nature of endotoxic shock, in which many mediators may be involved, the new potent PAF antagonist, UR-12633, proved effective in protecting against changes in most shock markers. These data strongly suggest a key role for PAF in the pathogenesis of endotoxic shock in rodents.

A pharmacophore for high affinity PAF antagonists. I. Electronic model using molecular electrostatic potential

PAF is a powerful phospholipid-derived autacoid involved in many physio-pathological mechanisms. Many PAF antagonists have been synthesized and assayed for therapeutic purposes. In this study, molecular electrostatic potential is used to compare the electronic properties of 48 'heterocyclic sp2 nitrogen' highly potent PAF antagonists, belonging to six series (nine hetrazepines, five pyrrolo[1,2-c]thiazoles, 14 carboxamides, nine dihydropyridines, nine pyridinylthiazolidines and two imidazo[4,5-c]pyridines). Their common features consist of three main electronegative zones (A, B1 and B2) describing the electronic pharmacophore of these ligands. The high affinity of these PAF antagonists seems to be related to this electronegative system A-B(x), which is characterized by three distances A-B1 (9.3 +/- 1.0 A), A-B2 (13.4 +/- 0.7 A) and B1-B2 (4.9 +/- 0.9 A). Moreover, B1 and B2 may surround a common anchorage point in the binding site of the receptor.

Determination of the anti-platelet-activating factor BN-50727 and metabolites in human urine by high-performance liquid chromatography using solid-phase extraction

A sensitive and selective HPLC solid-phase extraction procedure was developed for the determination of platelet-activating factor antagonist BN-50727 and its metabolites in human urine. The procedure consisted in a double solid-phase extraction of the urine samples on cyanopropyl and silica cartridges, followed by an automated solid-phase extraction of the drug and metabolites on CBA cartridges and posterior elution on-line to the chromatographic system for its separation. The method allowed quantitation in the concentration range 10-2400 ng/ml urine for both BN-50727 and the main metabolite, the O-demethylated BN-50727 product. The limit of quantitation for both compounds was 10 ng/ml. The inter-assay precision of the method, expressed as relative standard deviation, ranged from 1.9 to 4.5% for BN-50727 and from 2.5 to 9.0% for the metabolite. The accuracy, expressed as relative error, ranged from -2.4 to 4.2% and from 0.2 to 6.2%, respectively. This paper describes the validation of the analytical methodology for the determination of BN-50727 in human urine and also for its metabolites. The method has been used to follow the time course of BN-50727 and its metabolites in human urine after single-dose administration.

Determination of the anti-platelet-activating factor BN-50727 and its metabolites in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography-solid-phase extraction

A sensitive and selective HPLC-solid-phase extraction procedure was developed for the determination of platelet-activating factor antagonist BN-50727 and its metabolites in human plasma. The procedure consisted of an automated solid-phase extraction of the drug and metabolites on disposable propylcarboxylic acid cartridges, followed by on-line chromatographic separation. The method was linear from 3.75 to 2400 ng/ml and the limit of quantitation for BN-50727 in plasma samples was 3.75 ng/ml. The within-run precision of the method, expressed as relative standard deviation, ranged from 2.1 to 8.1%. The accuracy, expressed as relative error, ranged from -3.5 to 4.0%. For the main metabolite, the O-demethylated BN-50727 product, the method was linear from 7.5 to 2400 ng/ml and the limit of quantitation in plasma was 7.5 ng/ml. The within-run precision ranged from 2.1 to 11.0% and the accuracy from -5.3 to 1.1%. This paper describes the validation of the analytical methodology for the determination of BN-50727 in human plasma and also of its metabolites. The method has been used to follow the time course of BN-50727 and its metabolites in human plasma after administration of single and multiple doses.

Sea urchins--a new model for PAF research in embryology

This study reports on the effect of PAF on sperm motility, fertilization and early embryo development in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius. PAF proved to be the amplifier of sperm motility and fertilizing capability at 10(-8)-10(-9) M and was toxic at higher concentrations. BN 52201 did not counteract the PAF action. The advantages of using sea urchins for PAF research in embryology are discussed.

Interactions of constitutive nitric oxide with PAF and thromboxane on rat intestinal vascular integrity in acute endotoxaemia

1. The involvement of endogenous platelet activating factor (PAF) and thromboxane A2 in the acute microvascular damage in the ileum and colon induced by the nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) following endotoxin administration was investigated in the rat over a 1 h period. 2. Administration of L-NAME (1-10 mg kg-1, s.c.) concurrently with E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 3 mg kg-1, i.v.) dose-dependently increased vascular permeability in the ileum and colon, as determined by the leakage of radiolabelled albumin, and caused macroscopic mucosal damage in the ileum determined 1 h later. Neither LPS administration nor L-NAME (5 mg kg-1) alone affected resting vascular permeability. 3. Infusion of phenylephrine (10 micrograms kg-1 min-1, i.v. for 1 h) caused an elevation in blood pressure similar to that found following L-NAME administration (5 mg kg-1, i.v. or s.c.), but did not increase intestinal vascular permeability, when administered with LPS (3 mg kg-1, i.v.). 4. The increased vascular permeability in the ileum and colon and macroscopic damage in the ileum, induced by L-NAME (5 mg kg-1, s.c.) and LPS (3 mg kg-1, i.v.) was dose-dependently inhibited following s.c. pretreatment (15 min before challenge) with the thromboxane synthase inhibitors, OKY 1581 (5-25 mg kg-1) or 1-benzyl-imidazole (1-50 mg kg-1), or with the thromboxane receptor antagonist, BM 13177 (0.2-2 mg kg-1). 5. Pretreatment with the cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor, indomethacin (2-5 mg kg-', s.c., 15 min before challenge) reduced the microvascular injury in the ileum and colon and macroscopic lesions in the ileum,observed after the concurrent administration of L-NAME and LPS.6. Pretreatment (15 min) with the PAF-receptor antagonists, WEB 2086 (0.5-1 mg kg-', s.c.) or BN52021 (2.5-10 mg kg-', s.c.) likewise attenuated this intestinal vascular injury.7. Combined administration of low doses of l-benzyl-imidazole (1 mg kg-') with WEB 2086(0.5 mg kg-')15 min before L-NAME and LPS challenge, abolished this vascular damage and macroscopic injury.8. These results suggest that PAF and thromboxane A2 are released acutely following challenge with a low dose of endotoxin. However, these mediators do not appear to injure the intestinal micro vascular bed unless NO synthase is concurrently inhibited. Such findings support the protective role of constitutively-formed NO, counteracting the injurious vascular actions of cytotoxic mediators released under pathological conditions.

Ether lipids in biomembranes

Plasmalogens (1-O-1'-alkenyl-2-acylglycerophospholipids) and to a lesser extent the 1-O-alkyl analogs are ubiquitous and in some cases major constituents of mammalian cellular membranes and of anaerobic bacteria. In archaebacteria polar lipids of the cell envelope are either diphytanylglycerolipids or bipolar macrocyclic tetraether lipids capable of forming covalently linked 'bilayers'. Information on the possible role of ether lipids as membrane constituents has been obtained from studies on the biophysical properties of model membranes consisting of these lipids. In addition, effects of modified ether lipid content on properties of biological membranes have been investigated using microorganisms or mammalian cells which carry genetic defects in ether lipid biosynthesis. Differential utilization of ether glycerophospholipids by specific phospholipases might play a role in the generation of lipid mediators that are involved in signal transduction. A possible function of plasmalogens as antioxidants has been demonstrated with cultured cells and might play a role in serum lipoproteins. Synthetic ether lipid analogs exert cytostatic effects, most likely by interfering with membrane structure and by specific interaction with components of signal transmission pathways, such as phospholipase C and protein kinase C.

Quantitative measurement of BN50727 in human plasma and urine by combined liquid chromatography/negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry using a particle beam interface

A new sensitive assay has been developed for the quantitative measurement of BN50727 at the picomole level in human plasma and urine. The drug and the internal standard (BN50788) were measured by combined liquid chromatography/negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry with methane as the reagent gas. A simple solid-liquid extraction procedure was used to isolate BN50727 from the complex biological matrices. The mass spectrometer was tuned to monitor the intense and stable ion at m/z 333 which was generated in the ion source by a dissociative capture process. This assay was performed with 1 ml of plasma or 0.1 ml of urine and the quantification limit of the method was statistically calculated as 1 ng ml-1. The very low relative standard deviations and mean percentages of error calculated during the different within-day or between-day repeatability assays have clearly demonstrated the ruggedness of the technique for the routine determination of BN50727 in biological fluids. Some preliminary results on the pharmacokinetics of the drug are presented to illustrate the applicability of this powerful liquid chromatographic/mass spectrometric method.