|
1
|
Sikiric P, Boban Blagaic A, Strbe S, Beketic Oreskovic L, Oreskovic I, Sikiric S, Staresinic M, Sever M, Kokot A, Jurjevic I, Matek D, Coric L, Krezic I, Tvrdeic A, Luetic K, Batelja Vuletic L, Pavic P, Mestrovic T, Sjekavica I, Skrtic A, Seiwerth S. The Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Pleiotropic Beneficial Activity and Its Possible Relations with Neurotransmitter Activity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:461. [PMID: 38675421 PMCID: PMC11053547 DOI: 10.3390/ph17040461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
We highlight the particular aspects of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 pleiotropic beneficial activity (not destroyed in human gastric juice, native and stable in human gastric juice, as a cytoprotection mediator holds a response specifically related to preventing or recovering damage as such) and its possible relations with neurotransmitter activity. We attempt to resolve the shortage of the pleiotropic beneficial effects of BPC 157, given the general standard neurotransmitter criteria, in classic terms. We substitute the lack of direct conclusive evidence (i.e., production within the neuron or present in it as a precursor molecule, released eliciting a response on the receptor on the target cells on neurons and being removed from the site of action once its signaling role is complete). This can be a network of interconnected evidence, previously envisaged in the implementation of the cytoprotection effects, consistent beneficial particular evidence that BPC 157 therapy counteracts dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, adrenalin/noradrenalin, acetylcholine, and NO-system disturbances. This specifically includes counteraction of those disturbances related to their receptors, both blockade and over-activity, destruction, depletion, tolerance, sensitization, and channel disturbances counteraction. Likewise, BPC 157 activates particular receptors (i.e., VGEF and growth hormone). Furthermore, close BPC 157/NO-system relations with the gasotransmitters crossing the cell membrane and acting directly on molecules inside the cell may envisage particular interactions with receptors on the plasma membrane of their target cells. Finally, there is nerve-muscle relation in various muscle disturbance counteractions, and nerve-nerve relation in various encephalopathies counteraction, which is also exemplified specifically by the BPC 157 therapy application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Predrag Sikiric
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Alenka Boban Blagaic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Sanja Strbe
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Lidija Beketic Oreskovic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Ivana Oreskovic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Suncana Sikiric
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Mario Staresinic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marko Sever
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Antonio Kokot
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, School of Medicine, J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Ivana Jurjevic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Danijel Matek
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Luka Coric
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Ivan Krezic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Ante Tvrdeic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Kresimir Luetic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Lovorka Batelja Vuletic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Predrag Pavic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tomislav Mestrovic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, School of Medicine, J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Ivica Sjekavica
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Center, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Anita Skrtic
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Sven Seiwerth
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.B.B.); (S.S.); (L.B.O.); (I.O.); (S.S.); (M.S.); (M.S.); (A.K.); (I.J.); (D.M.); (L.C.); (I.K.); (A.T.); (K.L.); (L.B.V.); (P.P.); (T.M.); (I.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
|
2
|
Ghrelin: a link between ageing, metabolism and neurodegenerative disorders. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 72 Pt A:72-83. [PMID: 25173805 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Along with the increase in life expectancy over the last century comes the increased risk for development of age-related disorders, including metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. These chronic disorders share two main characteristics: 1) neuronal loss in motor, sensory or cognitive systems, leading to cognitive and motor decline; and 2) a strong correlation between metabolic changes and neurodegeneration. In order to treat them, a better understanding of their complexity is required: it is necessary to interpret the neuronal damage in light of the metabolic changes, and to find the disrupted link between the peripheral organs governing energy metabolism and the CNS. This review is an attempt to present ghrelin as part of molecular regulatory interface between energy metabolism, neuroendocrine and neurodegenerative processes. Ghrelin takes part in lipid and glucose metabolism, in higher brain functions such as sleep-wake state, learning and memory consolidation; it influences mitochondrial respiration and shows neuroprotective effect. All these make ghrelin an attractive target for development of biomarkers or therapeutics for prevention or treatment of disorders, in which cell protection and recruitment of new neurons or synapses are needed.
Collapse
|
|
3
|
Avena NM, Bocarsly ME. Dysregulation of brain reward systems in eating disorders: neurochemical information from animal models of binge eating, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia nervosa. Neuropharmacology 2012; 63:87-96. [PMID: 22138162 PMCID: PMC3366171 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2011] [Revised: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Food intake is mediated, in part, through brain pathways for motivation and reinforcement. Dysregulation of these pathways may underlay some of the behaviors exhibited by patients with eating disorders. Research using animal models of eating disorders has greatly contributed to the detailed study of potential brain mechanisms that many underlie the causes or consequences of aberrant eating behaviors. This review focuses on neurochemical evidence of reward-related brain dysfunctions obtained through animal models of binge eating, bulimia nervosa, or anorexia nervosa. The findings suggest that alterations in dopamine (DA), acetylcholine (ACh) and opioid systems in reward-related brain areas occur in response to binge eating of palatable foods. Moreover, animal models of bulimia nervosa suggest that while bingeing on palatable food releases DA, purging attenuates the release of ACh that might otherwise signal satiety. Animal models of anorexia nervosa suggest that restricted access to food enhances the reinforcing effects of DA when the animal does eat. The activity-based anorexia model suggests alterations in mesolimbic DA and serotonin occur as a result of restricted eating coupled with excessive wheel running. These findings with animal models complement data obtained through neuroimaging and pharmacotherapy studies of clinical populations. Information on the neurochemical consequences of the behaviors associated with these eating disorders will be useful in understanding these complex disorders and may inform future therapeutic approaches, as discussed here. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Central Control of Food Intake'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Avena
- University of Florida, College of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
|
4
|
Zalsman G, Oquendo MA, Greenhill L, Goldberg PH, Kamali M, Martin A, Mann JJ. Neurobiology of depression in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2006; 15:843-68, vii-viii. [PMID: 16952764 DOI: 10.1016/j.chc.2006.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews classical and updated studies of the neurobiology of depressive disorders in children and adolescents. Most studies of childhood and adolescent depression and suicide have followed up the observations and methods used in studies in adults. These studies include neuroendocrine studies, which particularly look at the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the serotonergic system, peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid biologic markers, genetics, gene-environment interactions and sleep studies, and neuroimaging and postmortem studies, although in these areas the number of studies is limited.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gil Zalsman
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
5
|
Fassino S, Lanfranco F, Abbate Daga G, Mondelli V, Destefanis S, Rovera GG, Camanni F, Ghigo E, Arvat E, Gianotti L. Prolonged treatment with glycerophosphocholine, an acetylcholine precursor, does not disclose the potentiating effect of cholinesterase inhibitors on GHRH-induced somatotroph secretion in anorexia nervosa. J Endocrinol Invest 2003; 26:503-7. [PMID: 12952362 DOI: 10.1007/bf03345211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Unlike normal subjects, in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) the GH response to GHRH is refractory to the increasing and inhibitory effect of cholinergic agonists and antagonists, respectively. This cholinergic impairment could reflect malnutrition-induced exhaustion of acetylcholine (Ach) precursors. We studied whether treatment with glycerophosphocholine (GLY), an Ach precursor, could disclose the potentiating effect of pyridostigmine (PD) on the GH response to GHRH in AN. In 6 young women with AN (AW) we studied the GH response to iv GHRH (1.0 microg/kg) alone and combined with oral PD (120 mg) before and after 1 month of oral treatment with GLY (400 mg thrice daily). Eight age-matched normal women (NW) were studied as controls. Before GLY, basal GH levels in AW were higher (p < 0.05) than in NW. The GH response to GHRH in AW was higher (p < 0.05) than in NW. PD failed to modify the GHRH-induced GH rise in AW, while it enhanced it in NW (p < 0.05). One month treatment with GLY in AW did not modify the GH response to GHRH either alone or combined with PD. This study shows the existence of a derangement in the cholinergic control of somatotroph function in AN and indicates that treatment with Ach precursors does not exert any effect on this impairment. This could reflect primary alterations of cholinergic neurons, though the effectiveness of more prolonged treatment and/or higher doses of cholinergic precursors needs to be verified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Fassino
- Division of Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
6
|
van Amelsvoort T, Murphy DGM, Robertson D, Daly E, Whitehead M, Abel K. Effects of long-term estrogen replacement therapy on growth hormone response to pyridostigmine in healthy postmenopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003; 28:101-12. [PMID: 12445839 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(02)00012-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is growing evidence that estrogen may protect against age-related cognitive decline and reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) in healthy, postmenopausal women. The underlying biological basis for this is not known but may include preservation of cholinergic systems. Cholinergic dysfunction has been implicated in the aetiology of age-related memory impairment and AD. We studied the effect of prolonged use of estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) on central cholinergic tone in healthy postmenopausal women. METHOD Growth hormone (GH) responses to oral pyridostigmine (120 mg) were measured over a 3 h period in thirty healthy postmenopausal women, 15 on long-term ERT and 15 ERT naïve. RESULTS GH release following pyridostigmine was significantly larger in ERT treated women than in ERT naïve women. In addition within the ERT treated group there was a significant positive correlation between duration of estrogen treatment and GH response. CONCLUSIONS Long-term ERT can enhance cholinergic function in postmenopausal women and this may be related to duration of estrogen treatment. Modulation of central cholinergic function may be one mechanism by which long-term ERT could preserve cognitive function in healthy, postmenopausal women.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T van Amelsvoort
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
7
|
Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Moi G, Giusti F, Gardini S, Delsignore R, Laviola G, Macchia T, Brambilla F. Effects of (+/-) 3,4-methylene-dioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) on dopamine system function in humans. Behav Brain Res 2002; 134:403-10. [PMID: 12191827 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00052-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Twelve (+/-) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) users, who did not show other drug dependencies or prolonged alcohol abuse (group A), and 12 control subjects (group B) were included in the study. Prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) responses to the dopaminergic agonist bromocriptine (BROM) and psychometric measures were evaluated 3 weeks after MDMA discontinuation. PRL decreased both in A and B subjects after BROM suppression, without any significant difference between the two groups. PRL responses to BROM in MDMA users were in the normal range. In contrast, GH responses to BROM stimulation were found significantly reduced in ecstasy users, in comparison with control subjects (P < 0.001; F = 6.26). MDMA users showed higher scores on the Novelty Seeking (NS) scale at the Three dimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ), on direct aggressiveness subscale at Buss Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), on subscale D (depression) at Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI 2) and on Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) than control subjects. PRL areas under the curves (AUCs) showed a significant inverse correlation with NS scores both in A and B subjects. GH AUCs directly correlated with NS scores in healthy subjects, but not in MDMA users. No other psychometric measure correlated with hormonal responses. GH AUCs were inversely correlated with the measures of MDMA exposure (r = -0.48; P < 0.01). Lower GH response to BROM in A subjects (MDMA users) could reflect reduced D2 receptor sensitivity in the hypothalamus, possibly due to increased intrasynaptic dopamine concentration. Although the hypothesis of dopaminergic changes associated with a premorbid condition cannot be completely excluded, the inverse correlation between DA receptors sensitivity and the extent of ecstasy exposure may suggest a direct pharmacological action of MDMA on brain dopamine function in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto Gerra
- Centro Studi Farmacotossicodipendenze, SerT, AUSL di Parma, Via Spalato 2, 43100 Parma, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
8
|
Gianotti L, Lanfranco F, Ramunni J, Destefanis S, Ghigo E, Arvat E. GH/IGF-I axis in anorexia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord 2002; 7:94-105. [PMID: 17644863 DOI: 10.1007/bf03354435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) may develop multiple endocrine abnormalities, including amenorrhea, hyperactivity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, hypothyroidism and particular changes in the activity of the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) axis. Exaggerated GH secretion and reduced IGF-I levels are usually found in AN, as well as in conditions of malnutrition and malabsorption, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, liver cirrhosis and catabolic states. In AN, GH hypersecretion at least partially reflects malnutrition-induced peripheral GH resistance, which leads to reduced IGF-I synthesis and release; this implies an impairment of the negative IGF-I feedback action on GH secretion. On the other hand, primary alterations in the neural control of GH secretion cannot be ruled out. The neuroendocrine alterations include enhanced somatotroph responsiveness to growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and impaired GH response to most central nervous system-mediated stimuli. Particular resistance to cholinergic manipulation has also been demonstrated, thus suggesting a somewhat specific alteration in the somatostatin (SS)-mediated cholinergic influence on GH secretion. Moreover, paradoxical GH responses to glucose load, thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) have also been reported. The effect of reduced leptin levels on GH hypersecretion in AN is still unclear, but ghrelin (the gastric hormone that is a natural ligand of the GH secretagogue receptor and strongly stimulates somatotroph secretion) is thought to play a major role. Regardless of the supposed central and peripheral alterations, it has to be emphasised that the activity of the GH/IGF-I axis in AN is generally restored by nutritional and stable weight gain. It therefore reflects an impaired nutritional state and cannot be considered a primary hallmark of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Gianotti
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Turin, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
9
|
Støving RK, Andersen M, Flyvbjerg A, Frystyk J, Hangaard J, Vinten J, Koldkjaer OG, Hagen C. Indirect evidence for decreased hypothalamic somatostatinergic tone in anorexia nervosa. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2002; 56:391-6. [PMID: 11940052 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2002.01485.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In animals, somatostatin (SRIH) and growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone (GHRH) increase feeding via a common neural mechanism. Furthermore, SRIH counteracts the suppressive action of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) on food intake. Hypothetically, SRIH could be involved in the central feeding mechanism in anorexia nervosa (AN). Peripheral administration of pyridostigmine (PD) minimizes the release of hypothalamic SRIH. DESIGN To study the influence of hypothalamic somatostatinergic inhibition on the exaggerated somatotroph responsiveness to GHRH in patients with severe AN, two GHRH stimulation tests were performed in random order following pretreatment with placebo or PD 2 mg/kg body weight in 13 patients and in 10 age-matched healthy controls. The test procedure was repeated in the patients after weight gain. RESULTS In controls, PD potentiated the GHRH-stimulated GH rise but this effect was absent in AN patients. The relative potentiating effect of PD was inversely correlated to cortisol excretion levels and positively correlated to leptin serum levels. After weight gain the relative PD effect increased twofold. CONCLUSION The pyridostigmine-GHRH responsive pattern points indirectly to greater SRIH withdrawal and greater GHRH release in anorexia nervosa. Moreover, hypothalamic SRIH activity seems to be inversely related to cortisol levels, indirectly supporting the hypothesis that SRIH and CRH neuronal activity are inversely related in anorexia nervosa. Leptin, which is believed to act on hypothalamic feeding mechanisms, seems to be positively related to SRIH activity. Finally, the present data demonstrate that the potentiating effect of pyridostigmine in anorexia nervosa is related to body mass index and increases upon weight gain, suggesting that the low somatostatinergic tone is not primary but is related to the weight loss.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R K Støving
- Department of Endocrinology and Center for Eating Disorders, Odense University Hospital, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
10
|
Abstract
It was long thought that the prototypical centrally acting antihypertensive drug clonidine lowers sympathetic tone by activating alpha(2)-adrenoceptors in the brain stem. Supported by the development of two new centrally acting drugs, rilmenidine and moxonidine, the imidazoline hypothesis evolved recently. It assumes the existence of a new group of receptors, the imidazoline receptors, and attributes the sympathoinhibition to activation of I(1) imidazoline receptors in the medulla oblongata. This review analyzes the mechanism of action of clonidine-like drugs, with special attention given to the imidazoline hypothesis. Two conclusions are drawn. The first is that the arguments against the imidazoline hypothesis outweigh the observations that support it and that the sympathoinhibitory effects of clonidine-like drugs are best explained by activation of alpha(2)-adrenoceptors. The second conclusion is that this class of drugs lowers sympathetic tone not only by a primary action in cardiovascular regulatory centres in the medulla oblongata. Peripheral presynaptic inhibition of transmitter release from postganglionic sympathetic neurons contributes to the overall sympathoinhibition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bela Szabo
- Institut für Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Albertstrasse 25, D-79104 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
|
11
|
Gianotti L, Pincelli AI, Scacchi M, Rolla M, Bellitti D, Arvat E, Lanfranco F, Torsello A, Ghigo E, Cavagnini F, Müller EE. Effects of recombinant human insulin-like growth factor I administration on spontaneous and growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone-stimulated GH secretion in anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85:2805-9. [PMID: 10946886 DOI: 10.1210/jcem.85.8.6743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Exaggerated GH and reduced insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) levels are common features in anorexia nervosa (AN). A reduction of the negative IGF-I feedback could account, in part, for GH hypersecretion. To ascertain this, we studied the effects of recombinant human (rh)IGF-I on spontaneous and GH-releasing hormone (GHRH)-stimulated GH secretion in nine women with AN [body mass index, 14.1 +/- 0.6 kg/m2] and in weight matched controls (normal weight). Mean basal GH concentrations (mGHc) and GHRH (2.0 microg/kg, iv) stimulation were significantly higher in AN. rhIGF-I administration (20 microg/kg, sc) significantly reduced mGHc in AN (P < 0.01), but not normal weight, and inhibited peak GH response to GHRH in both groups; mGHc and peak GH, however, persisted at a significantly higher level in AN. Insulin, glucose, and IGFBP-1 basal levels were similar in both groups. rhIGF-I inhibited insulin in AN, whereas glucose remained unaffected in both groups. IGFBP-1 increased in both groups (P < 0.05), with significantly higher levels in AN. IGFBP-3 was under basal conditions at a lower level in AN (P < 0.05) and remained unaffected by rhIGF-I. This study demonstrates that a low rhIGF-I dose inhibits, but does not normalize, spontaneous and GHRH-stimulated GH secretion in AN, pointing also to the existence of a defective hypothalamic control of GH release. Moreover, the increased IGFBP-1 levels might curtail the negative IGF-I feedback in AN.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Gianotti
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Turin, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
12
|
Gianotti L, Fassino S, Daga GA, Lanfranco F, De Bacco C, Ramunni J, Arvat E, MacCario M, Ghigo E. Effects of free fatty acids and acipimox, a lipolysis inhibitor, on the somatotroph responsiveness to GHRH in anorexia nervosa. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000; 52:713-20. [PMID: 10848875 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2000.00990.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Anorexia nervosa is characterized by low IGF-1 and high GH and free fatty acid (FFA) levels. As FFA exerts an inhibitory feedback action on GH secretion in physiological conditions, we hypothesized that somatotroph cells could be less sensitive to the negative feedback action of FFA in anorexia nervosa. PATIENTS Fifteen patients with anorexia nervosa (AN, age: mean +/- SEM: 20.8 +/- 1.2 years, BMI: 15.9 +/- 0.3 kg/m2) and 12 normal female controls (NW, age 27.2 +/- 2.1 years, BMI 21.2 +/- 2.2 kg/m2). MEASUREMENTS We studied the effects of lipid-heparin emulsion (Li-He, Intralipid 10% 250 ml + heparin 2500 U iv from -60 to + 90 minutes in seven AN and six NW) or acipimox (ACI, 250 mg p.o. at -60 minutes in eight AN and six NW), a lipolysis inhibitor, on the GH response to GHRH (1 microg/kg iv as a bolus at 0 minutes). RESULTS Basal IGF-1 levels were lower (P < 0.05) while GH levels were higher (P < 0.05) in AN than in NW. On the other hand, basal FFA levels in the two groups were not significantly different. In both groups Li-He increased FFA levels (P < 0.05), which became higher (P < 0. 02) in AN than in NW. Li-He infusion inhibited (P < 0.05) basal GH levels in AN to levels overlapping those in NW. The GH response to GHRH in the whole AN group was higher than in NW (P < 0.03). Li-He inhibited the somatotroph responsiveness to GHRH in AN (P < 0.03) as well as in NW (P < 0.03) and during Li-He the GH response to GHRH in AN became similar to that in NW. Whilst ACI pretreatment enhanced the GH response to GHRH in AN (P < 0.02), it did not significantly increase that in NW. Interestingly, after ACI administration, FFA levels were inhibited in both groups (P < 0.05) persisting higher in AN than in NW (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Though GH hypersecretion in anorexia nervosa occurs in presence of enhanced lipolysis, our present findings indicate that the sensitivity of somatotroph cells to the inhibitory feedback action of free fatty acid is preserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Gianotti
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Turin, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
13
|
Rollo CD, Ko CV, Tyerman JGA, Kajiura LJ. The growth hormone axis and cognition: empirical results and integrated theory derived from giant transgenic mice. CAN J ZOOL 1999. [DOI: 10.1139/z99-153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Sleep is required for the consolidation of memory for complex tasks, and elements of the growth-hormone (GH) axis may regulate sleep. The GH axis also up-regulates protein synthesis, which is required for memory consolidation. Transgenic rat GH mice (TRGHM) express plasma GH at levels 100-300 times normal and sleep 3.4 h longer (30%) than their normal siblings. Consequently, we hypothesized that they might show superior ability to learn a complex task (8-choice radial maze); 47% of the TRGHM learned the task before any normal mice. All 17 TRGHM learned the task, but 33% of the 18 normal mice learned little. TRGHM learned the task significantly faster than normal mice (p < 0.05) and made half as many errors in doing so, even when the normal nonlearners were excluded from the analysis. Whereas normal mice expressed a linear learning curve, TRGHM showed exponentially declining error rates. The contribution of the GH axis to cognition is conspicuously sparse in literature syntheses of knowledge concerning neuroendocrine mechanisms of learning and memory. This paper synthesizes the crucial role of major components of the GH axis in brain functioning into a holistic framework, integrating learning, sleep, free radicals, aging, and neurodegenerative diseases. TRGHM show both enhanced learning in youth and accelerated aging. Thus, they may provide a powerful new probe for use in gaining an understanding of aspects of central nervous system functioning, which is highly relevant to human health.
Collapse
|
|
14
|
Abstract
The secretion of growth hormone (GH) is regulated through a complex neuroendocrine control system, especially by the functional interplay of two hypothalamic hypophysiotropic hormones, GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin (SS), exerting stimulatory and inhibitory influences, respectively, on the somatotrope. The two hypothalamic neurohormones are subject to modulation by a host of neurotransmitters, especially the noradrenergic and cholinergic ones and other hypothalamic neuropeptides, and are the final mediators of metabolic, endocrine, neural, and immune influences for the secretion of GH. Since the identification of the GHRH peptide, recombinant DNA procedures have been used to characterize the corresponding cDNA and to clone GHRH receptor isoforms in rodent and human pituitaries. Parallel to research into the effects of SS and its analogs on endocrine and exocrine secretions, investigations into their mechanism of action have led to the discovery of five separate SS receptor genes encoding a family of G protein-coupled SS receptors, which are widely expressed in the pituitary, brain, and the periphery, and to the synthesis of analogs with subtype specificity. Better understanding of the function of GHRH, SS, and their receptors and, hence, of neural regulation of GH secretion in health and disease has been achieved with the discovery of a new class of fairly specific, orally active, small peptides and their congeners, the GH-releasing peptides, acting on specific, ubiquitous seven-transmembrane domain receptors, whose natural ligands are not yet known.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E E Müller
- Department of Pharmacology, Chemotherapy, and Toxicology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
15
|
Abstract
The release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary is regulated by hypothalamic peptides especially GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin, which in turn are controlled by classic neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline, dopamine, and acetylcholine, as well as negative feedback from GH and insulin-like growth factor-1. There has been extensive investigation of this axis in patients with depression. The most consistently reported abnormality is in noradrenergic-mediated GH release, which probably occurs via GHRH containing neurones. ACh-induced GH release through the somatostatin system, GABA, and also GHRH-stimulated release are reported as abnormal by some researchers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T G Dinan
- Department of Psychiatry, Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
|
16
|
Cooney JM, Lucey JV, O'Keane V, Dinan TG. Specificity of the pyridostigmine/growth hormone challenge in the diagnosis of depression. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42:827-33. [PMID: 9347132 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3223(97)00056-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that has been implicated in the pathophysiology of major depression. This is supported by the enhanced growth hormone (GH) release in response to pyridostigmine (PYD) challenge in depressed subjects relative to healthy comparison subjects. The aim of this study is to examine the specificity of the PYD/GH challenge in the diagnosis of depression. Pyridostigmine 120 mg orally, was administered to a total of 116 physically healthy subjects. Growth hormone responses were studied in 38 patients with (DSM-III-R) major depression, 13 subjects with panic disorder, 9 subjects with schizophrenia, 10 recently detoxified alcoholics, and a comparison group of 46 healthy volunteers. Mean delta GH (the difference between basal and maximal GH following PYD) was significantly greater than comparison subjects in patients with major depression. Responses observed in patients with schizophrenia and alcohol dependence syndrome did not differ from the comparison group. Those patients with panic disorder and a high Hamilton depression score had an enhanced delta GH. The sensitivity of the PYD/GH test was 63% for major depression. These results indicate that the PYD/GH test may help distinguish depression from schizophrenia, alcohol-dependence syndrome, or panic disorder with a low Hamilton depression score.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J M Cooney
- St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
17
|
Abstract
Since its original discovery as the neuroendocrine hormone responsible for inhibiting growth hormone (GH) secretion, our understanding of the functions of somatostatin [or somatotrophin release inhibitory hormone (SRIH)], both in the periphery and the CNS, has grown enormously. With the cloning of five SRIH receptors, much interest has centred recently on the potential use of SRIH analogues in the treatment of clinical conditions ranging from human cancers to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. There is a growing recognition that the physiological functions of GH also need to be extended beyond its role in growth control, e.g. to a role in the maintenance of normal immune, cardiovascular and reproductive functions. Here, Glenda Gillies addresses the importance of somatostatinergic systems in regulating the sexually dimorphic patterns of GH secretion as well as their influence on other endocrine hormones. She also considers the neurotransmitter/neuromodulator actions of SRIH within the hypothalamus, where it is involved in the neural control and integration of many aspects of endocrine function, as well as its potential role in the maturation of the hypothalamus during the critical perinatal period.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Gillies
- Department of Pharmacology, Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
|
18
|
Arvidsson U, Riedl M, Elde R, Meister B. Vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) protein: A novel and unique marker for cholinergic neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. J Comp Neurol 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19970224)378:4<454::aid-cne2>3.0.co;2-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|