Parental Migration Trajectories From Childhood Through Adolescence: Longitudinal Impact on Emotional and Behavioral Problems Among Chinese Adolescents

It is estimated that there are about 23% of all children in China experiencing parental migration and being left behind at hometown. Existing research indicated a significant association between parental migration and children development but overlooked the dynamic changes in family structure caused by parental migration. In this study, data was derived from a nationally representative longitudinal survey-the China Family Panel Studies. The main analyses employed four waves of data (2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018) and included 1401 adolescents aged 10-15 years (Mean:12.35, SD:1.67; 54.2% female). Six typical trajectories of parental migration capturing both migration status at each timepoint and changes in the status across six years were created. Children's depression and internalizing problems and externalizing problems were concerned outcomes. The mediating roles of the caregiver-child interaction and caregiver's depression were examined. Adolescents in the trajectory group described as experiencing transitions between being left behind by both parents and non had a higher risk of depression and internalizing and externalizing problems. Caregivers' depression was a significant mediator between parental migration and adolescent depression.

Associations between paternal versus maternal parenting behaviors and child and adolescent internalizing problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis

There is a large evidence base supporting an important role of parenting behavior in influencing youth mental health; however, this literature often fails to capture the potentially unique and interactive role of mothers and fathers. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the role of maternal and paternal parenting behaviors in relation to child and adolescent internalizing problems. Following PRISMA (2020) guidelines, 88 studies were identified. Of these, 47 studies and upward of 65 parent-behavior and child-outcome combinations were examined. Findings indicated a unique role of maternal overprotection in the prediction of child anxiety symptoms. For other parenting behaviors, largely similar associations were found for maternal and paternal parenting behaviors with child and adolescent anxiety, depressive symptoms and broader internalizing problems. There was preliminary support for the interaction of maternal and paternal parenting being important in predicting youth symptoms. Although findings did not strongly substantiate differences in the effects of maternal and paternal parenting practices, with only one significant difference identified, further research would benefit from stronger representation of fathers, to enable a more rigorous and comprehensive understanding of each parent's role, and their interactive influence on internalizing outcomes of their children.

Systematic review and theoretical comparison of children's outcomes in post-separation living arrangements

The purpose of the systematic review was to synthesize the literature on children's outcomes across different living arrangements (nuclear families, shared physical custody [SPC], lone physical custody [LPC]) by extracting and structuring relevant theoretical hypotheses (selection, instability, fewer resources, and stressful mobility) and comparing the empirical findings against these hypotheses. Following the PRISMA guidelines, the review included 39 studies conducted between January 2010-December 2022 and compared the living arrangements across five domains of children's outcomes: emotional, behavioral, relational, physical, and educational. The results showed that children's outcomes were the best in nuclear families but in 75% of the studies children in SPC arrangements had equal outcomes. Children in LPC tended to report the worst outcomes. When compared with the different theoretical hypotheses, the results were the most consistent with fewer resources hypothesis which suggests that children especially in LPC families have fewer relational and economic resources whereas children in SPC families are better able to maintain resources from both parents.

An exploration of potential pressures to engage in parenting accommodation of PTSD symptoms for military couples

In the context of service member posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, intimate partners may experience pressure to take over parenting roles and run interference between the service member and the children; that is, to engage in partner accommodation focal to parenting. The current study quantitatively assessed potential pressures to engage in parenting accommodation (PPEPA) in a sample of 207 female partners married to male service members with at least one child in the home and the convergence of PPEPA with service member PTSD symptoms, general partner accommodation, couple functioning, parenting, and child functioning. Partners' reports of PPEPA were associated with higher levels of service member PTSD symptoms and partners' general accommodation of PTSD symptoms. When controlling for service member PTSD symptoms and general partner accommodation, partner reports of PPEPA still accounted for unique variance in lower parenting alliance (as reported by both service member and partner), lower levels of service members' reports of closeness with children in the home, higher levels of harsh parenting by both the service member and partner, and greater child behavioral difficulties. Findings support PPEPA as related to partners' accommodative responses to PTSD but demonstrating unique associations with parenting alliance, parenting, and child outcomes. Parenting interventions in the context of PTSD may benefit from conjoint or family approaches that attend to the intersection of PTSD and broader family functioning, including pressures to engage in accommodation focal to the parenting domain.

Psychometric validation of the sibling inventory of behavior in three- to six-year-old Chinese children

With increasing attention on sibling relationship studies in China, one problem that has been neglected is the limited validation of instruments used to assess these relationships. The present study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Sibling Inventory of Behavior to measure Chinese children's sibling relationships using a stratified random sample of 590 parents of three- to six-year-olds in three economic regions. The confirmatory factor analysis obtained an adequate fit, suggesting that the Chinese version of the instrument had a six-factor structure (i.e., Companionship, Empathy, Teaching, Rivalry, Aggression, and Avoidance). It demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency as well as test-retest reliability. Results of discriminant, convergent, and criterion-related validity test also fulfilled psychometric requirements. Furthermore, the residual measurement invariance across regions was discovered. Given the importance, emergence, and tendency of sibling studies in China, having a reliable and valid instrument with robust psychometric properties is essential and impactful.

Influence of hardiness, mother-child interactions, and social support on parenting stress among North Korean refugee mothers: a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

This study investigated the factors that influence parenting stress, including hardiness, parent-child interactions, and social support, to provide basic data for developing a program to reduce parenting stress in North Korean refugee mothers.

METHODS

A descriptive study design was used. Data were collected between September and December 2021, and 123 North Korean refugee mothers participated.

RESULTS

The mean scores were 69.42 out of 135 for hardiness, 48.45 out of 144 for interactions, 47.32 out of 90 for social support, and 51.84 out of 90 for parenting stress. The parental distress score was higher than that of child-related stress. Hardiness was significantly related to North Korean refugee mothers' parenting stress. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the explanatory power for hardiness and the number of supporters was approximately 19% for parenting stress (F=6.84, p<.001). As such, the factors with a relatively strong influence on parenting stress were hardiness (β =-.40, p<.001) and having four or more supporters (β=-.27, p=.027).

CONCLUSION

This study's findings suggest the need to identify ways to increase North Korean refugee mothers' psychological hardiness and encourage them to extend their sources of social support and enhance their style of parenting.

Examining Children's Problem Behaviors and Mothers' Dating for Mothers' Depressive Symptoms Following Divorce

Although divorce is typically stressful for mothers, the formation of post-divorce dating relationships can help to ease this stress. Unfortunately, research has yet to empirically consider children's post-divorce adjustment for mothers' wellbeing leading up to and during mothers' post-divorce dating. This study addresses the following questions: 1) How do children's problem behaviors predict mothers' depressive symptoms following divorce? 2) How do children's problem behaviors predict the quality of mothers' dating relationships and the rapport between children and mothers' dating partners? 3) How do children's problem behaviors, the quality of mothers' dating relationships, child-dating partner rapport, and length of mothers' dating simultaneously impact mothers' depressive symptoms? Data for this study comes from a longitudinal investigation of recently divorced mothers and their children (N = 232). Hierarchical linear models revealed that mothers experienced more depressive symptoms when their children exhibited more internalizing behaviors. Children's internalizing behaviors were negatively associated with the quality of mothers' dating relationships. When examining these variables simultaneously, increases in children's internalizing behaviors and decreases in relationship quality predicted increases in mothers' depressive symptoms. Promoting family-level adjustment appears best for mothers' wellbeing following divorce. Other implications for post-divorce adjustment are discussed.

Reconfiguration of relationships during the process of remarriage after divorce. A qualitative study in Iran

Marriage is highly respected and somehow sacred in eastern societies, including Iran. This qualitative research aimed to explore lived experience of remarried men and women who had experienced divorce in their relationships with their significant others. Seventeen remarried-after-divorce persons whose second marriage lasted over two years participated in the study, conducted using the content analysis method. Under the theme of inter-relationships, four categories were found, including "different spouses, different relations", "reconfiguration of relationships with families", "impacts on child-rearing", and "the importance of unimportant acquaintances". This study showed the complexity of the relationship network when another marriage happens after the first one collapsed. The other finding was that relations after divorce might not disappear completely, and relics of the first ruined shared life may strongly affect the new partnership. The influence of context-oriented issues, particularly in societies where religion and tradition are strong, was the other result. This study showed that remarriage after divorce has positive and negative consequences. Professionals, policymakers and researchers may apply the findings of the research by taking a strengths perspective.

Longitudinal Effects of PostDivorce Interparental Conflict on Children's Mental Health Problems Through Fear of Abandonment: Does Parenting Quality Play a Buffering Role?

In a sample of 559 children (ages 9-18), researchers investigated whether: (a) fear of abandonment mediated the association between postdivorce interparental conflict (IPC) and mental health problems, and (b) parent-child relationship quality moderated the association between IPC and fear of abandonment. Mediation analyses indicated that pretest IPC predicted fear of abandonment 3 months later, which then predicted child- and teacher-reported mental health problems 10 months later. The hypothesized protective effect of a high-quality parent-child relationship was not observed. IPC predicted fear of abandonment for all children, except for those with low- and moderate-quality father-child relationships, for whom IPC was not significantly related to fear of abandonment. Findings highlight the need to optimize child coping programs and improve parenting-after-divorce programs to reduce IPC.

Predictors of sibling victimization and associations with self-perception and relationship attachment in adolescence

Research has shown that sibling victimization may be as detrimental to adolescent outcomes as peer victimization. However, many questions remain unanswered with regard to potential protective parenting factors and consequences sibling victimization among adolescents. This study tested a mediation model of sibling victimization with parental monitoring, a positive parenting factor, as a predictor and parent and peer-adolescent attachment as mediated by adolescent self-perceptions as potential outcomes. A three path mediation from parental monitoring → sibling victimization → adolescent self-perceptions → peer/parent-adolescent attachment was also tested. Structural Equation Modeling revealed that parental monitoring was negatively associated with sibling victimization only for girls. Sibling victimization had negative direct and indirect effects on parent- and peer-adolescent attachment via adolescent self-perceptions of social competence and self-worth. Findings suggest that parental monitoring may be important in the prevention of sibling victimization and self-perceptions may be an important point of intervention adolescents experiencing sibling victimization.

The Pennsylvania Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (PALSPAC) Twin Registry

The Pennsylvania Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children Twin Registry was developed to capture a representative sample of multiple births and their parents in the state of Pennsylvania. The registry has two main efforts. The first began in 2012 through recruitment of adolescents in Pennsylvania schools. The second effort began in January 2019 in partnership with the Pennsylvania Department of Health to capture the birth cohort of twins born from 2007 to 2017. Study recruitment, sample demographics, focus and measures are provided, as well as future directions.

L’émergence de la notion de conflits sévères de séparation au Québec : entre l’évolution de la famille et la réponse de l’État

Cadre de la recherche : Depuis quelques années, le terme high conflict est utilisé pour désigner les familles où les parents séparés demeurent en conflit élevé malgré le passage du temps. Le conflit sévère de séparation est un concept qui a récemment beaucoup progressé puisque l’on observe une augmentation importante du nombre de publications sur le sujet depuis les années 2000. On peut donc se demander ce qui a contribué à l’émergence de ce concept.

Objectif : Analyser les dimensions du contexte social ayant contribué à l’émergence du concept de conflits sévères de séparation.

Méthodologie : Analyse des transformations sociodémographiques survenues au cours des soixante dernières années ainsi que de l’évolution des politiques sociales et des mesures législatives touchant les familles, telles qu’on a pu les observer au Québec et au Canada.

Résultats : Ce concept émerge au moment où les transformations qui, depuis soixante ans, touchent les familles, amènent les parents à mobiliser leurs capacités à négocier et l’État à orienter son intervention auprès des familles en mettant au cœur de sa réponse le besoin des enfants. Au même moment, le développement des connaissances scientifiques met en lumière les répercussions du conflit de séparation sur l’enfant.

Conclusions : Le concept de conflit sévère réfère aux situations où les parents n’arrivent pas à trouver une entente malgré les services reçus et où le conflit a des répercussions sur l’enfant. Il se trouve au cœur d’une question fondamentale : qu’est-ce qui est préférable pour l’enfant ? Préserver le lien avec ses deux parents ou être protégé du conflit de séparation ?

Contribution : Cette démarche peut certainement inspirer les chercheurs occidentaux puisque l’évolution sociodémographique de la famille québécoise trouve écho dans l’ensemble du monde occidental (Roy et al., 2015), malgré des particularités qui lui sont propres (Baillargeon et Detellier, 2004).

Did I Inherit My Moral Compass? Examining Socialization and Evocative Mechanisms for Virtuous Character Development

Virtuous character development in children is correlated with parenting behavior, but the role of genetic influences in this association has not been examined. Using a longitudinal twin/sibling study (N = 720; Time 1 (T1) Mage = 12-14 years, Time 3 (T3) Mage = 25-27 years), the current report examines associations among parental negativity/positivity and offspring responsibility during adolescence, and subsequent young adult conscientiousness. Findings indicate that associations among parental negativity and offspring virtuous character during adolescence and young adulthood are due primarily to heritable influences. In contrast, the association between concurrent parental positivity and adolescent responsibility was due primarily to heritable and shared environmental influences. These findings underscore the contributions of heritable influences to the associations between parenting and virtuous character that have previously been assumed to be only environmentally influenced, emphasizing the complexity of mechanisms involved in the development of virtuous character.

Randomized Effectiveness Trial of the New Beginnings Program for Divorced Families with Children and Adolescents

This study presents findings from a randomized effectiveness trial of the New Beginnings Program (NBP), which has demonstrated efficacy in 2 prior randomized efficacy trials. Family courts in 4 counties facilitated recruitment of divorcing and separating parents, and providers in community agencies delivered the program. Participants were 830 parents of children ages 3-18 who were randomized to receive either the 10-session NBP or an active 2-session comparison condition in which parents learned about the same parenting skills but did not complete home practice of these skills. Parents were ethnically diverse (59.4% non-Hispanic White, 31.4% Hispanic, 9.2% other race or ethnicity). Multiple rater assessments of parenting, interparental conflict, and child mental health problems were conducted at pretest, posttest, and 10-month follow-up. The results indicated positive moderated effects of the NBP as compared with the active control condition to strengthen parenting at posttest and to reduce child mental health problems at posttest and 10 months. Many of these moderated effects showed positive benefits for non-Hispanic White families but not for Hispanic families. The findings indicate support for the effectiveness of the NBP when delivered by community-based agencies but also indicate the need for further adaptations to make the program effective for Hispanic parents.

Intimate partner violence exposure predicts antisocial behavior via pro-violence attitudes among males with elevated levels of cortisol

The present study tested whether attitudes toward violence mediate the association between intimate partner violence exposure and antisocial behavior across adolescence, and whether cortisol level moderates these pathways in an ethnically diverse sample of 190 boys from low-income, urban families. Results suggest that a pathway from intimate partner violence exposure at age 12 to antisocial behavior at age 17 is explained by pro-violence attitudes at age 15. Boys with greater exposure to intimate partner violence endorsed stronger pro-violence attitudes, which predicted increases in antisocial behavior. Further, the pro-violence attitudes to antisocial behavior pathway was stronger among boys with heightened versus dampened cortisol levels. Results suggest that violent attitudes are important for understanding the cognitive underpinnings of antisocial behavior following intimate partner violence exposure, particularly in youth with high cortisol levels. Implications for prevention and intervention are discussed with respect to targeting malleable child behavior linked to later antisocial behavior.

Father-Daughter Bonds: A Comparison of Adolescent Daughters' Relationships With Resident Biological Fathers and Stepfathers

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether the interpersonal dynamics of closeness are different in stepfather-stepdaughter versus father-daughter relationships during adolescence.

BACKGROUND

Establishing a general process model of the relational factors contributing to greater closeness between fathers and daughters is a preliminary step toward examining variations in such processes.

METHOD

The data were from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a nationally representative sample of adolescents. Respondents were female adolescents who were living with either a biological father (n = 1,881) or stepfather (n = 273) and reported on the availability and involvement of their (step)fathers, as well as the communication and closeness in their relationship with him.

RESULTS

Involvement and communication were predictors of closeness in both types of relationships, however, communication was a stronger predictor of closeness between stepfathers and stepdaughters. For adolescent girls living with a stepfather, greater involvement with their stepfathers was associated with greater closeness to their nonresident biological fathers. The length of the relationship between stepfathers and stepdaughters was not associated with levels of closeness.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these findings suggest that stepfather-stepdaughter relationships reflect similar interpersonal dynamics as father-daughter relationships but that establishing and maintaining these relationships through meaningful communication may be particularly important for stepfathers and stepdaughters.

IMPLICATIONS

Practitioners working to help stepfamilies build stronger relationships may want to stress that investing in shared activities and maintaining meaningful communication can be particularly important for establishing and maintaining positive relationships between stepfathers and stepdaughters.

Maternal Affective Expression and Adolescents' Subjective Experience of Positive Affect in Natural Settings

This study investigated the association between maternal affective expression during laboratory-based interaction tasks and adolescents' experience of positive affect (PA) in natural settings. Participants were 80 healthy adolescents and their mothers. Durations of maternal positive (PA) and negative affective (NA) expressions were observed during a conflict resolution task and a positive event planning interaction task. Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) procedures were employed to assess adolescents' momentary and peak experience of PA in daily life. Results indicated that maternal NA, but not maternal PA, was related to adolescents' EMA-reported PA. Adolescents whose mothers expressed more NA experienced less PA in daily environments. Results suggest that adolescents' exposure to maternal negative affective behavior is associated with adolescents' subjective daily well-being.

Post-High School Changes in Tobacco and Cannabis Use in the United States

BACKGROUND

The transition from high school into young adulthood is a critical developmental period with many young people going to college, moving residence, and entering the work force for the first time. The NEXT Generation Health Study (NEXT) is a nationally representative longitudinal study of adolescent health behaviors. Previous NEXT research has found that the post-high school environment is associated with changes in alcohol use.

OBJECTIVES

The current study investigated the impact of school status, residential status, and work status on cannabis and cigarette use among post-high school participants.

RESULTS

Living in a dorm/fraternity/sorority was associated with an increased prevalence in cannabis use while attending a 4-year college was associated with a decreased prevalence in cigarette use.

CONCLUSIONS

Some aspects of the post-high school environment are related to cannabis and cigarette use. Differences in the social circumstances of cigarette and cannabis use and recent campaigns in colleges to reduce smoking may explain some of these trends.

Parenting and Adolescent Self-Regulation Mediate between Family Socioeconomic Status and Adolescent Adjustment

Using two waves of longitudinal data, we utilized the family stress model of economic hardship (Conger & Conger, 2002) to test whether family socioeconomic status is related to adolescent adjustment (substance use and academic achievement) through parental knowledge and adolescent self-regulation (behavioral self-control and delay discounting). Participants included 220 adolescent (55% male, mean age = 13 years at Wave 1, mean age = 15 years at Wave 2) and primary caregiver dyads. Results of Structural Equation Modeling revealed significant three-path mediation effects such that low family socioeconomic status at Wave 1 is associated with low parental knowledge at Wave 1, which in turn was related to low academic performance and high substance use at Wave 2 mediated through low adolescent behavioral self-control at Wave 2. The results illustrate how parental knowledge, influenced by family economic status, may play an important role in the development of adolescent behavioral self-control and adjustment.

The role of older siblings in the sexual and reproductive health of Mexican-origin young women in immigrant families

In the USA, young people of Mexican-origin are more economically disadvantaged and experience higher birth rates than many other Latino groups. In this paper, we examine the influence of older siblings on the sexual and reproductive health of Mexican-origin immigrant women. Qualitative data were drawn from life history interviews with 21 first- and second-generation Mexican-origin women, aged 27-41 years old, resident in the Metro Denver area. Data suggest that older siblings may protect younger sisters from risky sexual behaviours through older siblings' responsibility and care for younger siblings, close and supportive sibling relationships, older siblings' advice about both sexual health and academic success, and sibling modelling. These mechanisms appear particularly protective due to the social and economic hardships immigrant families often face. Implications include fostering healthy sibling relationships and involving older siblings more fully in the sexuality education of younger siblings.

Mother's and father's parental adjustment: Links to externalising behaviour problems in sons and daughters

This study examined links between parents (189 mothers, 153 fathers) adjustment and children's externalising behaviour problems (97 girls; 92 boys) representative of the general population. Structural equation modelling was used to examine models that included “direct” and “indirect” pathways. Externalising behaviour problems in children were strongly related to parental adjustment difficulties. Maternal antisocial behaviour and marital hostility were linked to sons’ and daughters’ externalising behaviour problems via dysfunctional child-rearing practices. Maternal antisocial behaviour, however, was not fully mediated by dysfunctional parenting. For fathers, the pattern related to externalising problems in sons was as those specified for mothers. The pattern did not appear relevant for daughters. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of adjustment patterns with regard to the sex composition of the parent-child dyads.

Forgiveness, Shaming, Shame and Bullying

This study predicts self-initiated bullying from three variables: shaming, forgiveness and shame. Data were collected from 1875 Bangladeshi school children (60% girls; mean grade = 8.28) using the Bengali version of the Life at School Survey. Results demonstrated that reintegrative shaming and forgiveness were related to less bullying. High shame acknowledgment (accepting responsibility, making amends) and low shame displacement into anger or blaming others were also associated with less bullying. Liking school protected children who experienced (a) less reintegrative shaming, and (b) more stigmatising shaming at home. Equally, more reintegrative shaming and less stigmatising shaming protected children against bullying when liking for school was absent. The forgiveness main effect on bullying (22.4% reduction) was much bigger than the main effect of reintegrative shaming (11.3% reduction). These results are consistent with the view that forgiveness is a more powerful restorative practice than reintegrative shaming.

Factors Associated With Perceptions of Family Belonging Among Adolescents

Adolescents' perceptions of family belonging are associated with several well-being indicators, yet we know little about which factors influence these perceptions or how they differ by family structure. The current study uses nationally representative data from Add Health to examine predictors of adolescents' perceptions of family belonging in two-biological-parent families (n = 9686). The results are compared to a recent study using Add Health that examined family belonging in married mother-stepfather families. Findings suggest both similarities and differences across family structure in the factors associated with family belonging.

Psychosocial Adjustment and Sibling Relationships in Siblings of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Risk and Protective Factors

This study compared sibling adjustment and relationships in siblings of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD-Sibs; n = 69) and siblings of children with typical development (TD-Sibs; n = 93). ASD-Sibs and TD-Sibs demonstrated similar emotional/behavioral adjustment. Older male ASD-Sibs were at increased risk for difficulties. Sibling relationships of ASD-Sibs involved less aggression, less involvement, and more avoidance than those of TD-Sibs. Partial support for a diathesis-stress conceptualization of sibling difficulties was found for ASD-Sibs. For TD-Sibs, broader autism phenotype (BAP) was related to psychosocial difficulties regardless of family stressors. For ASD-Sibs, BAP was related to difficulties only when family stressors were present. This suggests that having a sibling with ASD may be a protective factor that attenuates the negative impact of sibling BAP.

Parent-Child Relationships in Stepfather Families and Adolescent Adjustment: A Latent Class Analysis

In the current study the authors drew on Waves I and III from Add Health to examine the closeness of parent-adolescent relationships in married mother-stepfather families (N = 1,934). They used latent class analysis to identify family constellations defined by adolescents' relationships with all of their parents: mothers, stepfathers, and biological nonresident fathers. In particular, the authors (a) identified the most common underlying patterns of adolescent-parent relationships in stepfamilies; (b) determined the background characteristics that predict membership in these groups; and (c) examined how adolescents in these groups fare with respect to depressive symptoms, delinquency, and substance use. The results indicate that adolescents' relationships can be represented with 4 latent classes. Adolescents in these classes differ on measures of adjustment, and many of these differences persist into the early adult years.

'Friendly allies in raising a child': a survey of men and women seeking elective co-parenting arrangements via an online connection website

STUDY QUESTION

What are the characteristics, motivations and expectations of men and women who search for a co-parent online?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Male and female prospective co-parents differed in terms of their motivations, choice of co-parent and expectations of co-parenting, while differences according to sexual orientation were less marked.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Very few studies have addressed the experiences of elective co-parents, i.e. men and women who are not in a relationship with each other creating and raising a child together. No study has examined the motivations and experiences of those who seek co-parents online.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE AND DURATION

An online survey was completed by 102 participants (61 men, 41 women) who were members of Pride Angel, an online connection website that facilitates contact between people looking for someone with whom to have a child. The survey was live for 7 weeks.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

Details of the survey were emailed to all members of Pride Angel. The survey obtained data on participants' demographic characteristics, motivations, choice of co-parent and expectations of co-parenting. Data were analysed to examine differences by gender and by sexual orientation within each gender.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Approximately one-third of men and one half of women seeking co-parenting arrangements were heterosexual. The majority (69, 68%) of participants were single, although significantly more gay and bisexual men (15, 36%) and lesbian and bisexual women (11, 55%) had a partner compared with heterosexual men (4, 20%) and heterosexual women (2, 12%), respectively. Overall, the most important motivation for seeking co-parenting arrangements was in order for both biological parents to be involved in the child's upbringing. Co-parents were looking for someone with a good medical history. Most female co-parents expected the child to live with them, whereas male co-parents either wished the child to reside with the mother or to live equally in both households. A higher proportion of gay and bisexual men than heterosexual men wanted daily contact with the child.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

Although this study presents data from the largest sample of elective co-parents to date, the main limitations were the low response rate and that only members of one website were approached. The findings may not be representative of all potential elective co-parents.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

This study provides important insights into the new phenomenon of elective co-parenting. With the increasing use of assisted reproductive technologies and the diversification of family forms, a growing number of people are seeking co-parenting arrangements to have children. While up until now, elective co-parenting has been principally associated with the gay and lesbian community, this study shows that, with the rise of co-parenting websites, increasing numbers of heterosexual men and women are seeking these types of parenting arrangements. This study generates the first findings on the expectations and motivations of those who seek co-parents online and examines whether these differ according to gender and sexual orientation. Future studies are needed to assess the impact of this new form of parenting on all involved, particularly the children.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This study was supported by the Wellcome Trust (097857/Z/11/Z). Erika Tranfield is the co-founder of the website Pride Angel, the remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Adolescents' Perceptions of Family Belonging in Stepfamilies

Prior research has established that adolescents' perceptions of family belonging are associated with a range of well-being indicators and that adolescents in stepfamilies report lower levels of family belonging than adolescents in two-biological-parent families. Yet, we know little regarding what factors are associated with adolescents' perceptions of family belonging in stepfamilies. Guided by family systems theory, the authors addressed this issue by using nationally representative data (Add Health) to examine the associations between family characteristics and adolescents' perceptions of family belonging in stepfather families (N = 2,085). Results from structural equation models revealed that both the perceived quality of the stepfather-adolescent relationship, and in particular the perceived quality of the mother-adolescent relationship, were the factors most strongly associated with feelings of family belonging.

Coparenting and children's temperament predict firstborns' cooperation in the care of an infant sibling

This study examined how coparenting and firstborn children's temperament predicted children's cooperative behavior in response to maternal requests for assistance in the care of a 1-month-old infant sibling. Children's cooperative responding was observed during a diaper change session for 216 firstborns (ages 13 to 70 months; M = 32). Parents also completed questionnaires assessing coparenting and children's temperament. Results suggested that coparenting quality moderated the association between children's temperament (i.e., soothability) and children's cooperation as revealed in a Temperament × Cooperative Coparenting × Undermining Coparenting interaction. Specifically, low soothability predicted low levels of children's cooperation in families with high undermining and low cooperative coparenting, over and above the effects of child age, gender, and mothers' education. Findings further our understanding of how temperamental characteristics and coparenting quality conjointly predict individual differences in firstborn children's positive adjustment across the transition to siblinghood.

Maternal depression and warmth during childhood predict age 20 neural response to reward

OBJECTIVE

Early parenting experiences likely shape children's brain development, with consequences potentially extending into adulthood. Parents' affective disorders and expressions of positive affect could exert an influence on affect-related circuitry. The current study evaluated how maternal depression and maternal warmth assessed in early childhood and early adolescence were related to boys' reward function during early adulthood.

METHOD

Participants were 120 boys at socioeconomic risk for emotional problems. Mothers' history of depression during the child's lifetime was measured when boys were 42 months old and 10 and 11 years old. Maternal warmth was observed during mother-child interactions at 18 and 24 months and at 10 and 11 years.

RESULTS

Maternal warmth during early childhood was associated with less activation in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) when anticipating and experiencing reward loss. Maternal warmth during early adolescence was associated with less activation in the mPFC when winning rewards and greater activation in the caudate when experiencing loss. The association between maternal warmth during early childhood and early adolescence and reward function in the striatum and mPFC was stronger for boys exposed to maternal depression relative to boys who were not.

CONCLUSIONS

The experience of warmth and affection from mothers may be a protective factor for reward function in boys exposed to maternal depression, possibly by engaging vulnerable neural reward systems through affiliation.

Development of a brief parent-report risk index for children following parental divorce

This article reports on the development of a brief 15-item parent-report risk index (Child Risk Index for Divorced or Separated Families; CRI-DS) to predict problem outcomes of children who have experienced parental divorce. A series of analyses using 3 data sets were conducted that identified and cross-validated a parsimonious set of items representing parent report of child behavior problems and family level risk and protective factors, each of which contributed to the predictive accuracy of the index. The index predicted child behavior outcomes and substance abuse problems up to 6 years later. The index has acceptable levels of sensitivity and specificity as a screening measure to predict problem outcomes up to 1 year later. The use of the index to identify the need for preventive services is discussed, along with limitations of the study.

Trajectories of Mothers' Discipline Strategies and Interparental Conflict: Interrelated Change during Middle Childhood

Using data collected annually when children were in kindergarten through 3^rd grade (N = 478), this study investigated changes in mothers' use of nonharsh, harsh verbal, and physical discipline; changes in interparental conflict; and associations between changes in discipline and interparental conflict. Controlling for potential confounds, physical discipline decreased over the course of middle childhood, whereas harsh verbal and nonharsh discipline remained stable. Increases in interparental conflict were associated with increases in physical discipline; decreases in interparental conflict were associated with decreases in physical discipline. Change in interparental conflict was unrelated to change in harsh verbal or nonharsh discipline, although more frequent interparental conflict was associated with more frequen10t use of all three types of discipline in 1^st grade. Findings extend previous research on how two major forms of communication within families-conflict between parents and parents' attempts to influence their children through discipline-change across middle childhood.

Gene-environment correlation underlying the association between parental negativity and adolescent externalizing problems

Studies of adolescent or parent-based twins suggest that gene-environment correlation (rGE) is an important mechanism underlying parent-adolescent relationships. However, information on how parents' and children's genes and environments influence correlated parent and child behaviors is needed to distinguish types of rGE. The present study used the novel Extended Children of Twins model to distinguish types of rGE underlying associations between negative parenting and adolescent (age 11-22 years) externalizing problems with a Swedish sample of 909 twin parents and their adolescent offspring and a U.S.-based sample of 405 adolescent siblings and their parents. Results suggest that evocative rGE, not passive rGE or direct environmental effects of parenting on adolescent externalizing, explains associations between maternal and paternal negativity and adolescent externalizing problems.

Genes of experience: explaining the heritability of putative environmental variables through their association with behavioural and emotional traits

An increasing body of evidence shows that many ‘environmental’ measures are heritable, indicating genetic involvement in environmental exposure (or gene–environment correlation). In the present study we attempt to clarify why three such ‘environmental’ measures (maternal negativity, paternal negativity and negative life events) are consistently found to be heritable. Through multivariate genetic analysis of a sample of adolescent twins from the UK we show that the heritability of these putative environmental measures can be explained via their association with five behavioural phenotypes: oppositionality, delinquency, physical aggression, depression and anxiety. This is consistent with the notion that being genetically susceptible to certain behavioural difficulties could lead to exposure to certain life events, and this may account for the reported heritability of ‘environmental’ measures. Results are discussed in the context of possible active, evocative and passive gene–environment correlations.

The Genesis 12–19 (G1219) Study: A Twin and Sibling Study of Gene–Environment Interplay and Adolescent Development in the UK

The Genesis 12–19 (G1219) Study is an ongoing longitudinal study of a sample of UK twin pairs, non-twin sibling pairs, and their parents. G1219 was initially designed to examine the role of gene–environment interplay in adolescent depression. However, since then data have continued to be collected from both parents and their offspring into young adulthood. This has allowed for longitudinal analyses of depression and has enabled researchers to investigate multiple phenotypes and to ask questions about intermediate mechanisms. The study has primarily focused on emotional development, particularly depression and anxiety, which have been assessed at multiple levels of analysis (symptoms, cognitions, and relevant environmental experiences). G1219 has also included assessment of a broader range of psychological phenotypes ranging from antisocial behaviors and substance use to sleep difficulties, in addition to multiple aspects of the environment. DNA has also been collected. The first wave of data collection began in the year 1999 and the fifth wave of data collection will be complete before the end of 2012. In this article, we describe the sample, data collection, and measures used. We also summarize some of the key findings to date.

The influence of the absence of fathers and the timing of separation on anxiety and self-esteem of adolescents: a cross-sectional survey

BACKGROUND

Many rural children in China have been experiencing life without fathers since the 1990s, when their fathers left the rural areas for the urban areas to find a job that would allow them to continue to support their family. However, to date, knowledge and understanding of the effects of the absence of fathers and timing of separation on the mental health of adolescents are limited.

METHODS

A total of 2233 students, ranging in age from 11 to 23 years, from five provinces of China, including 1024 adolescents who experienced the absence of their fathers, were recruited for this study. The data were collected using State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, which were self-report questionnaires.

RESULTS

Findings from a structured questionnaire showed that the subjects who experienced life without fathers have increased state-anxiety (t=-5.80, P < 0.001) and lower self-esteem (t= 39.54, P < 0.001) when compared with other subjects, and the above results could be influenced by gender and grade. A limited effect of the timing of separation was found on the mental health of students whose fathers were absent. A significant timing group effect existed for state-anxiety scores [F(3,992) = 2.26, P= 0.05], and post test also revealed that the self-esteem of female scores in the 0-2 timing group was higher than other timing group's [F(3,992) = 4.58, P= 0.004].

CONCLUSION

The influence of the absence of fathers on the anxiety and self-esteem of adolescents seems to be more serious than our expectation, and the influence will be different according to the timing of father absence.

A latent modeling approach to genotype-phenotype relationships: maternal problem behavior clusters, prenatal smoking, and MAOA genotype

This study illustrates the application of a latent modeling approach to genotype-phenotype relationships and gene × environment interactions, using a novel, multidimensional model of adult female problem behavior, including maternal prenatal smoking. The gene of interest is the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene which has been well studied in relation to antisocial behavior. Participants were adult women (N = 192) who were sampled from a prospective pregnancy cohort of non-Hispanic, white individuals recruited from a neighborhood health clinic. Structural equation modeling was used to model a female problem behavior phenotype, which included conduct problems, substance use, impulsive-sensation seeking, interpersonal aggression, and prenatal smoking. All of the female problem behavior dimensions clustered together strongly, with the exception of prenatal smoking. A main effect of MAOA genotype and a MAOA × physical maltreatment interaction were detected with the Conduct Problems factor. Our phenotypic model showed that prenatal smoking is not simply a marker of other maternal problem behaviors. The risk variant in the MAOA main effect and interaction analyses was the high activity MAOA genotype, which is discrepant from consensus findings in male samples. This result contributes to an emerging literature on sex-specific interaction effects for MAOA.

The Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden (CATSS)

The Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden (CATSS) is an ongoing longitudinal twin study targeting all twins born in Sweden since July 1, 1992. Since 2004, parents of twins are interviewed regarding the children's somatic and mental health and social environment in connection with their 9th or 12th birthdays (CATSS-9/12). By January 2010, 8,610 parental interviews concerning 17,220 twins had been completed, with an overall response rate of 80%. At age 15 (CATSS-15) and 18 (CATSS-18), twins and parents complete questionnaires that, in addition to assessments of somatic and mental health, include measures of personality development and psychosocial adaptation. Twin pairs in CATSS-9/12 with one or both twins screening positive for autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, tic disorders, developmental coordination disorder, learning disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and/or eating problems have been followed with in-depth questionnaires on family, social environment and personality, and subsequently by clinical assessments at age 15 together with randomly selected population controls, including 195 clinically assessed twin pairs from the first 2 year cohorts (CATSS-15/DOGSS). This article describes the cohorts and study groups, data collection, and measures used. Prevalences, distributions, heritability estimates, ages at onset, and sex differences of mental health problems in the CATSS-9/12, that were analyzed and found to be overall comparable to those of other clinical and epidemiological studies. The CATSS study has the potential of answering important questions on the etiology of childhood mental health problems and their role in the development of later adjustment problems.

Why do Identical Twins Differ in Personality: Shared Environment Reconsidered

While heritability studies show that most of the variance in adult personality can be attributed to genetic or so-called nonshared environmental influence, this does not mean that shared events lack importance for the development of later personality differences. We studied the relationship between Big Five personality differences in monozygotic (MZ) twins at age 29, and life stressors at age 6 to 15, using prospective data from 26 MZ pairs studied from birth onwards. A positive significant correlation was found between stressors in childhood and early adolescence, and intrapair personality differences in Agreeableness, Openness, Conscientiousness, and five-factor profiles. We note that the effects of shared events are labeled “nonshared” environment when the effect is to make siblings more different. Case examples illustrate the relationship between stress and personality differences, and provide hypotheses for further studies in larger samples.

Can Genetic Factors Explain the Spillover of Warmth and Negativity Across Family Relationships?

Previous studies indicate that the emotional quality of marital relationships is mirrored in parent–child relationships. We explored the degree to which these associations are explained by genetic and environmental factors. Participants were drawn from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden (TOSS), and included 544 female twin pairs (258 monozygotic [MZ], 286 dizygotic [DZ]), and 311 male twin pairs (128 MZ, 183 DZ). The spouses and one adolescent child of each twin also participated in this study. The twins completed self-report measures that assessed their marital quality and their warmth and negativity towards their children. Observational ratings of marital warmth and negativity, and of maternal warmth and negativity were obtained for a subset of female twin pairs (150 MZ, 176 DZ). Selfreported marital satisfaction was associated with self-reported parental warmth and negativity for mothers (rs = .25, -.36) and fathers (rs = .25, -.44). For the observational measures, marital warmth was associated with maternal warmth (r = .42), while marital negativity was associated with maternal negativity (r = .34). On average genetic factors explained nearly half of the covariance between selfreported marital satisfaction and parenting for mothers (48%) and fathers (47%). Genetic factors explained 21% of the covariance between observed marital and maternal warmth, but did not contribute to associations between marital and maternal negativity. These findings indicate that parents' genetically influenced characteristics help shape the emotional climate of the family.

Maternal relationship instability influences on children's emotional and behavioral functioning in low-income families

The present study investigated associations between maternal relationship instability patterns and children's behavioral and emotional functioning in middle childhood in a representative sample of low-income urban families (N = 891). Data from the Three-City Study tracked maternal partnerships through the child's life, assessing total marital and cohabiting relationship transitions and delineating transitions by developmental timing, and by directionality (i.e., entrances into versus exits from partnerships). Analyses linking instability to child behaviors at age 8 found that a greater total number of maternal relationship transitions predicted higher anxious, somatic, and conduct problems, with recent transitions (in the prior 2 years) driving these results. Consideration of partnership formations versus dissolutions indicated that recent entrances into new partnerships, and entrances into cohabitations, were most consistently associated with problematic functioning across numerous aspects of children's emotional and behavioral functioning. Policy implications of these findings are discussed.

The role of aggressive personality and family relationships in explaining family conflict

This study investigated whether genetic and environmental influences on global family conflict are explained by parents' personality, marital quality, and negative parenting. The sample comprised 876 same-sex pairs of twins, their spouses, and one adolescent child per twin from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden. Genetic influences on aggressive personality were correlated with genetic influences on global family conflict. Nonshared environmental influences on marital quality and negative parenting were correlated with nonshared environmental influences on global family conflict. Results suggest that parents' personality and unique experiences within their family relationships are important for understanding genetic and environmental influences on global conflict in the home.

Developmental cascade effects of the New Beginnings Program on adolescent adaptation outcomes

Using data from a 6-year longitudinal follow-up sample of 240 youth who participated in a randomized experimental trial of a preventive intervention for divorced families with children ages 9-12, the current study tested alternative cascading pathways by which the intervention decreased symptoms of internalizing disorders, symptoms of externalizing disorders, substance use, and risky sexual behavior and increased self-esteem and academic performance in mid- to late adolescence (15-19 years old). It was hypothesized that the impact of the program on adolescent adaptation outcomes would be explained by progressive associations between program-induced changes in parenting and youth adaptation outcomes. The results supported a cascading model of program effects in which the program was related to increased mother-child relationship quality that was related to subsequent decreases in child internalizing problems, which then was related to subsequent increases in self-esteem and decreases in symptoms of internalizing disorders in adolescence. The results were also consistent with a model in which the program increased maternal effective discipline that was related to decreased child externalizing problems, which was related to subsequent decreases in symptoms of externalizing disorders, less substance use, and better academic performance in adolescence. There were no significant differences in the model based on level of baseline risk or adolescent gender. These results provide support for a cascading pathways model of child and adolescent development.

Interaction of prenatal exposure to cigarettes and MAOA genotype in pathways to youth antisocial behavior

Genetic susceptibility to antisocial behavior may increase fetal sensitivity to prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke. Testing putative gene x exposure mechanisms requires precise measurement of exposure and outcomes. We tested whether a functional polymorphism in the gene encoding the enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) interacts with exposure to predict pathways to adolescent antisocial behavior. We assessed both clinical and information-processing outcomes. One hundred seventy-six adolescents and their mothers participated in a follow-up of a pregnancy cohort with well-characterized exposure. A sex-specific pattern of gene x exposure interaction was detected. Exposed boys with the low-activity MAOA 5' uVNTR (untranslated region variable number of tandem repeats) genotype were at increased risk for conduct disorder (CD) symptoms. In contrast, exposed girls with the high-activity MAOA uVNTR genotype were at increased risk for both CD symptoms and hostile attribution bias on a face-processing task. There was no evidence of a gene-environment correlation (rGE). Findings suggest that the MAOA uVNTR genotype, prenatal exposure to cigarettes and sex interact to predict antisocial behavior and related information-processing patterns. Future research to replicate and extend these findings should focus on elucidating how gene x exposure interactions may shape behavior through associated changes in brain function.

Within-family differences in internalizing behaviors: the role of children's perspectives of the mother-child relationship

The goal of this exploratory, within-family, longitudinal study was to examine whether children's perspectives of the mother-child relationship explained within-family differences in children's responses to a shared family stressor (maternal depressive symptoms) over time. Children (ages 8 to 15 years; N = 68) residing in 34 families were drawn from a general population study in the UK. Predictor variables were assessed at Time 1 and change in internalizing behavior from Time 1 to Time 2 (2 years later) was examined. As children were nested within families, data were analyzed using multilevel modeling, controlling for previous child behavior. Child perspective of the mother-child relationship, in interaction with maternal depressive symptoms, was found to explain within-family differences in internalizing over time. Children with a negative perspective (compared to mothers' perspectives) were the most vulnerable to the adverse effects of maternal depressive symptoms.

Coercive and prosocial fathering, antisocial personality, and growth in children's postdivorce noncompliance

To better understand quantity and quality of divorced father contact, a weighted county sample of 230 divorced fathers with a child aged 4-11 years was employed to test whether fathers' antisocial personality (ASP) moderated effects of monthly contact with children in predicting children's observed noncompliance. Eighteen-month latent growth models obtained significant individual differences in levels of noncompliance and growth rates. ASP significantly moderated beneficial impact of fathers' monthly contact. Fathers' observed parenting practices significantly predicted noncompliance levels but not growth. Parenting did not account for the effect of Contact x ASP, suggesting both environmental and potentially genetic influences on child adjustment. Findings were robust across boys and girls and age levels. Implications for preventive intervention are discussed.

Single Parenting and Child Behavior Problems in Kindergarten

Two waves of data from a sample of 89 poor and near-poor single black mothers and their preschool children were used to study the influences of parenting stress, physical discipline practices, and nonresident fathers' relations with their children on behavior problems in kindergarten. The results indicate that higher levels of parent stress, more frequent spanking, and less frequent father-child contact at time 1 were associated with increased teacher-reported behavior problems at time 2. In addition, more frequent contact between nonresident biological fathers and their children moderated the negative effect of harsh discipline by mothers on subsequent child behavior problems. Specifically, when contact with the father was low, maternal spanking resulted in elevated levels of behavior problems; with average contact, this negative effect of spanking was muted; and with high contact, spanking was not associated with increased behavior problems in kindergarten. The implications of these findings for future research and policy are discussed.