Inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate dynamics and intracellular calcium oscillations in pancreatic beta-cells

Model of Calcium Dynamics Regulating [Formula: see text], ATP and Insulin Production in a Pancreatic [Formula: see text]-Cell

The calcium signals regulate the production and secretion of many signaling molecules like inositol trisphosphate ([Formula: see text]) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in various cells including pancreatic [Formula: see text]-cells. The calcium signaling mechanisms regulating [Formula: see text], ATP and insulin responsible for various functions of [Formula: see text]-cells are still not well understood. Any disturbance in these mechanisms can alter the functions of [Formula: see text]-cells leading to diabetes and metabolic disorders. Therefore, a mathematical model is proposed by incorporating the reaction-diffusion equation for calcium dynamics and a system of first-order differential equations for [Formula: see text], ATP-production and insulin secretion with initial and boundary conditions. The model incorporates the temporal dependence of [Formula: see text]-production and degradation, ATP production and insulin secretion on calcium dynamics in a [Formula: see text]-cell. The piecewise linear finite element method has been used for the spatial dimension and the Crank-Nicolson scheme for the temporal dimension to obtain numerical results. The effect of changes in source influxes and buffers on calcium dynamics and production of [Formula: see text], ATP and insulin levels in a [Formula: see text]-cell has been analyzed. It is concluded that the dysfunction of source influx and buffers can cause significant variations in calcium levels and dysregulation of [Formula: see text], ATP and insulin production, which can lead to various metabolic disorders, diabetes, obesity, etc. The proposed model provides crucial information about the changes in mechanisms of calcium dynamics causing proportionate disturbances in [Formula: see text], ATP and insulin levels in pancreatic cells, which can be helpful for devising protocols for diagnosis and treatment of various metabolic diseases.

THADA inhibition in mice protects against type 2 diabetes mellitus by improving pancreatic β-cell function and preserving β-cell mass

Impaired insulin secretion is a hallmark in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). THADA has been identified as a candidate gene for T2DM, but its role in glucose homeostasis remains elusive. Here we report that THADA is strongly activated in human and mouse islets of T2DM. Both global and β-cell-specific Thada-knockout mice exhibit improved glycemic control owing to enhanced β-cell function and decreased β-cell apoptosis. THADA reduces endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ stores in β-cells by inhibiting Ca²⁺ re-uptake via SERCA2 and inducing Ca²⁺ leakage through RyR2. Upon persistent ER stress, THADA interacts with and activates the pro-apoptotic complex comprising DR5, FADD and caspase-8, thus aggravating ER stress-induced apoptosis. Importantly, THADA deficiency protects mice from high-fat high-sucrose diet- and streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia by restoring insulin secretion and preserving β-cell mass. Moreover, treatment with alnustone inhibits THADA's function, resulting in ameliorated hyperglycemia in obese mice. Collectively, our results support pursuit of THADA as a potential target for developing T2DM therapies.

Cavβ3 Regulates Ca2+ Signaling and Insulin Expression in Pancreatic β-Cells in a Cell-Autonomous Manner

Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ (Cav) channels consist of a pore-forming Cavα1 subunit and auxiliary Cavα2-δ and Cavβ subunits. In fibroblasts, Cavβ3, independent of its role as a Cav subunit, reduces the sensitivity to low concentrations of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃). Similarly, Cavβ3 could affect cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca^{2 +}]) in pancreatic β-cells. In this study, we deleted the Cavβ3-encoding gene Cacnb3 in insulin-secreting rat β-(Ins-1) cells using CRISPR/Cas9. These cells were used as controls to investigate the role of Cavβ3 on Ca²⁺ signaling, glucose-induced insulin secretion (GIIS), Cav channel activity, and gene expression in wild-type cells in which Cavβ3 and the IP₃ receptor were coimmunoprecipitated. Transcript and protein profiling revealed significantly increased levels of insulin transcription factor Mafa, CaMKIV, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type-1, and nitric oxide synthase-1 in Cavβ3-knockout cells. In the absence of Cavβ3, Cav currents were not altered. In contrast, CREB activity, the amount of MAFA protein and GIIS, the extent of IP₃-dependent Ca²⁺ release and the frequency of Ca²⁺ oscillations were increased. These processes were decreased by the Cavβ3 protein in a concentration-dependent manner. Our study shows that Cavβ3 interacts with the IP₃ receptor in isolated β-cells, controls IP₃-dependent Ca²⁺-signaling independently of Cav channel functions, and thereby regulates insulin expression and its glucose-dependent release in a cell-autonomous manner.

Dual Mode of Action of Acetylcholine on Cytosolic Calcium Oscillations in Pancreatic Beta and Acinar Cells In Situ

Cholinergic innervation in the pancreas controls both the release of digestive enzymes to support the intestinal digestion and absorption, as well as insulin release to promote nutrient use in the cells of the body. The effects of muscarinic receptor stimulation are described in detail for endocrine beta cells and exocrine acinar cells separately. Here we describe morphological and functional criteria to separate these two cell types in situ in tissue slices and simultaneously measure their response to ACh stimulation on cytosolic Ca2+ oscillations [Ca2+]c in stimulatory glucose conditions. Our results show that both cell types respond to glucose directly in the concentration range compatible with the glucose transporters they express. The physiological ACh concentration increases the frequency of glucose stimulated [Ca2+]c oscillations in both cell types and synchronizes [Ca2+]c oscillations in acinar cells. The supraphysiological ACh concentration further increases the oscillation frequency on the level of individual beta cells, inhibits the synchronization between these cells, and abolishes oscillatory activity in acinar cells. We discuss possible mechanisms leading to the observed phenomena.

Exploring G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling in Primary Pancreatic Islets

Background

Targeting G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in pancreatic cells is feasible to modulate glucose-induced insulin secretion. Because pancreatic islets consist of several cell types and GPCRs can couple to more than one G-protein family, results obtained in pancreatic cell lines do not always match the response in primary cells or intact islets. Therefore, we set out to establish a protocol to analyze second messenger activation in mouse pancreatic islets.

Results

Activation of Gq/11-coupled receptor expressed in primary β cells increased the second messenger IP1 in an accumulation assay. Applying a Gq/11 protein inhibitor completely abolished this signal. Activation of the V1 vasopressin and ghrelin receptors, predominantly expressed in the less abundant alpha and delta cells, was not sufficient to induce a significant IP1 increase in this assay. However, fura-2-based fluorescence imaging showed calcium signals upon application of arginine vasopressin or ghrelin within intact pancreatic islets. Using the here established protocol we were also able to determine changes in intracellular cAMP levels induced by receptors coupling to Gs and Gi/o proteins.

Conclusions

Detection of the second messengers IP1, cAMP, and calcium, can be used to reliably analyze GPCR activation in intact islets.

Calcium Signaling in ß-cell Physiology and Pathology: A Revisit

Pancreatic beta (β) cell dysfunction results in compromised insulin release and, thus, failed regulation of blood glucose levels. This forms the backbone of the development of diabetes mellitus (DM), a disease that affects a significant portion of the global adult population. Physiological calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling has been found to be vital for the proper insulin-releasing function of β-cells. Calcium dysregulation events can have a dramatic effect on the proper functioning of the pancreatic β-cells. The current review discusses the role of calcium signaling in health and disease in pancreatic β-cells and provides an in-depth look into the potential role of alterations in β-cell Ca²⁺ homeostasis and signaling in the development of diabetes and highlights recent work that introduced the current theories on the connection between calcium and the onset of diabetes.

TALK-1 channels control β cell endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ homeostasis

Ca2+ handling by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) serves critical roles in controlling pancreatic β cell function and becomes perturbed during the pathogenesis of diabetes. ER Ca2+ homeostasis is determined by ion movements across the ER membrane, including K+ flux through K+ channels. We demonstrated that K+ flux through ER-localized TALK-1 channels facilitated Ca2+ release from the ER in mouse and human β cells. We found that β cells from mice lacking TALK-1 exhibited reduced basal cytosolic Ca2+ and increased ER Ca2+ concentrations, suggesting reduced ER Ca2+ leak. These changes in Ca2+ homeostasis were presumably due to TALK-1-mediated ER K+ flux, because we recorded K+ currents mediated by functional TALK-1 channels on the nuclear membrane, which is continuous with the ER. Moreover, overexpression of K+-impermeable TALK-1 channels in HEK293 cells did not reduce ER Ca2+ stores. Reduced ER Ca2+ content in β cells is associated with ER stress and islet dysfunction in diabetes, and islets from TALK-1-deficient mice fed a high-fat diet showed reduced signs of ER stress, suggesting that TALK-1 activity exacerbated ER stress. Our data establish TALK-1 channels as key regulators of β cell ER Ca2+ and suggest that TALK-1 may be a therapeutic target to reduce ER Ca2+ handling defects in β cells during the pathogenesis of diabetes.

The Pancreatic β-Cell: A Bioenergetic Perspective

The pancreatic β-cell secretes insulin in response to elevated plasma glucose. This review applies an external bioenergetic critique to the central processes of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, including glycolytic and mitochondrial metabolism, the cytosolic adenine nucleotide pool, and its interaction with plasma membrane ion channels. The control mechanisms responsible for the unique responsiveness of the cell to glucose availability are discussed from bioenergetic and metabolic control standpoints. The concept of coupling factor facilitation of secretion is critiqued, and an attempt is made to unravel the bioenergetic basis of the oscillatory mechanisms controlling secretion. The need to consider the physiological constraints operating in the intact cell is emphasized throughout. The aim is to provide a coherent pathway through an extensive, complex, and sometimes bewildering literature, particularly for those unfamiliar with the field.

Autocrine Signaling Underlies Fast Repetitive Plasma Membrane Translocation of Conventional and Novel Protein Kinase C Isoforms in β Cells

PKC signaling has been implicated in the regulation of many cell functions, including metabolism, cell death, proliferation, and secretion. Activation of conventional and novel PKC isoforms is associated with their Ca²⁺- and/or diacylglycerol (DAG)-dependent translocation to the plasma membrane. In β cells, exocytosis of insulin granules evokes brief (<10 s) local DAG elevations (“spiking”) at the plasma membrane because of autocrine activation of P2Y₁ purinoceptors by ATP co-released with insulin. Using total internal reflection microscopy, fluorescent protein-tagged PKCs, and signaling biosensors, we investigated whether DAG spiking causes membrane recruitment of PKCs and whether different classes of PKCs show characteristic responses. Glucose stimulation of MIN6 cells triggered DAG spiking with concomitant repetitive translocation of the novel isoforms PKCδ, PKCϵ, and PKCη. The conventional PKCα, PKCβI, and PKCβII isoforms showed a more complex pattern with both rapid and slow translocation. K⁺ depolarization-induced PKCϵ translocation entirely mirrored DAG spiking, whereas PKCβI translocation showed a sustained component, reflecting the subplasma membrane Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_pm), with additional effect during DAG spikes. Interference with DAG spiking by purinoceptor inhibition prevented intermittent translocation of PKCs and reduced insulin secretion but did not affect [Ca²⁺]_pm elevation or sustained PKCβI translocation. The muscarinic agonist carbachol induced pronounced transient PKCβI translocation and sustained recruitment of PKCϵ. When rise of [Ca²⁺]_pm was prevented, the carbachol-induced DAG and PKCϵ responses were somewhat reduced, but PKCβI translocation was completely abolished. We conclude that exocytosis-induced DAG spikes efficiently recruit both conventional and novel PKCs to the β cell plasma membrane. PKC signaling is thus implicated in autocrine regulation of β cell function.

Pancreatic Beta Cell G-Protein Coupled Receptors and Second Messenger Interactions: A Systems Biology Computational Analysis

Insulin secretory in pancreatic beta-cells responses to nutrient stimuli and hormonal modulators include multiple messengers and signaling pathways with complex interdependencies. Here we present a computational model that incorporates recent data on glucose metabolism, plasma membrane potential, G-protein-coupled-receptors (GPCR), cytoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum calcium dynamics, cAMP and phospholipase C pathways that regulate interactions between second messengers in pancreatic beta-cells. The values of key model parameters were inferred from published experimental data. The model gives a reasonable fit to important aspects of experimentally measured metabolic and second messenger concentrations and provides a framework for analyzing the role of metabolic, hormones and neurotransmitters changes on insulin secretion. Our analysis of the dynamic data provides support for the hypothesis that activation of Ca²⁺-dependent adenylyl cyclases play a critical role in modulating the effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and catecholamines. The regulatory properties of adenylyl cyclase isoforms determine fluctuations in cytoplasmic cAMP concentration and reveal a synergistic action of glucose, GLP-1 and GIP on insulin secretion. On the other hand, the regulatory properties of phospholipase C isoforms determine the interaction of glucose, acetylcholine and free fatty acids (FFA) (that act through the FFA receptors) on insulin secretion. We found that a combination of GPCR agonists activating different messenger pathways can stimulate insulin secretion more effectively than a combination of GPCR agonists for a single pathway. This analysis also suggests that the activators of GLP-1, GIP and FFA receptors may have a relatively low risk of hypoglycemia in fasting conditions whereas an activator of muscarinic receptors can increase this risk. This computational analysis demonstrates that study of second messenger pathway interactions will improve understanding of critical regulatory sites, how different GPCRs interact and pharmacological targets for modulating insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes.

Nitric oxide mediates stretch-induced Ca2+ oscillation in smooth muscle

The stretching of smooth muscle tissue modulates contraction via augmentation of Ca2+ transients, but the mechanism underlying stretch-induced Ca2+ transients is still unknown. We found that mechanical stretching and maintenance of mouse urinary bladder smooth muscle strips and single myocytes at the initial length of 30% and 18%, respectively, resulted in Ca2+ oscillations. Experiments indicated that mechanical stretching remarkably increases the production of nitric oxide (NO) as well as the amplitude and duration of muscle contraction. Stretch-induced Ca2+ oscillations and contractility increases were completely abolished by NO inhibitor L-NAME or eNOS gene inactivation. Moreover, exposure of eNOS knockout myocytes to exogenous NO donor induced Ca2+ oscillations. The stretch-induced Ca2+ oscillations were greatly inhibited by selective IP3R inhibitor xestospongin C and partially inhibited by ryanodine. Moreover, the stretch-induced Ca2+ oscillations were also suppressed by LY294002, but not by the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) inhibitor ODQ. These results suggest that myocytes stretching and maintenance at a certain length resulted in Ca2+ oscillations that is NO dependent and sGC/cGMP independent and results from the activation of PI(3)K in smooth muscle.

Loss of Liver Kinase B1 (LKB1) in Beta Cells Enhances Glucose-stimulated Insulin Secretion Despite Profound Mitochondrial Defects

The tumor suppressor liver kinase B1 (LKB1) is an important regulator of pancreatic β cell biology. LKB1-dependent phosphorylation of distinct AMPK (adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase) family members determines proper β cell polarity and restricts β cell size, total β cell mass, and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). However, the full spectrum of LKB1 effects and the mechanisms involved in the secretory phenotype remain incompletely understood. We report here that in the absence of LKB1 in β cells, GSIS is dramatically and persistently improved. The enhancement is seen both in vivo and in vitro and cannot be explained by altered cell polarity, increased β cell number, or increased insulin content. Increased secretion does require membrane depolarization and calcium influx but appears to rely mostly on a distal step in the secretion pathway. Surprisingly, enhanced GSIS is seen despite profound defects in mitochondrial structure and function in LKB1-deficient β cells, expected to greatly diminish insulin secretion via the classic triggering pathway. Thus LKB1 is essential for mitochondrial homeostasis in β cells and in parallel is a powerful negative regulator of insulin secretion. This study shows that β cells can be manipulated to enhance GSIS to supra-normal levels even in the face of defective mitochondria and without deterioration over months.

Defects in β-cell Ca2+ dynamics in age-induced diabetes

Little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying age-dependent deterioration in β-cell function. We now demonstrate that age-dependent impairment in insulin release, and thereby glucose homeostasis, is associated with subtle changes in Ca(2+) dynamics in mouse β-cells. We show that these changes are likely to be accounted for by impaired mitochondrial function and to involve phospholipase C/inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-mediated Ca(2+) mobilization from intracellular stores as well as decreased β-cell Ca(2+) influx over the plasma membrane. We use three mouse models, namely, a premature aging phenotype, a mature aging phenotype, and an aging-resistant phenotype. Premature aging is studied in a genetically modified mouse model with an age-dependent accumulation of mitochondrial DNA mutations. Mature aging is studied in the C57BL/6 mouse, whereas the 129 mouse represents a model that is more resistant to age-induced deterioration. Our data suggest that aging is associated with a progressive decline in β-cell mitochondrial function that negatively impacts on the fine tuning of Ca(2+) dynamics. This is conceptually important since it emphasizes that even relatively modest changes in β-cell signal transduction over time lead to compromised insulin release and a diabetic phenotype.

Mathematical models of electrical activity of the pancreatic β-cell: a physiological review

Mathematical modeling of the electrical activity of the pancreatic β-cell has been extremely important for understanding the cellular mechanisms involved in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Several models have been proposed over the last 30 y, growing in complexity as experimental evidence of the cellular mechanisms involved has become available. Almost all the models have been developed based on experimental data from rodents. However, given the many important differences between species, models of human β-cells have recently been developed. This review summarizes how modeling of β-cells has evolved, highlighting the proposed physiological mechanisms underlying β-cell electrical activity.

Characterization of mice expressing Ins1 gene promoter driven CreERT recombinase for conditional gene deletion in pancreatic β-cells

Gene manipulation using Cre-loxP recombination has proven to be an important approach for studying the impact of gene expression on pancreatic β-cell biology. We report the generation of a transgenic mouse line that enables a highly specific system for conditional gene manipulation within β-cells and achieve tissue specific and temporally regulated deletion of the Ctnnb1 (β-catenin) gene in pancreatic β-cells. cDNA encoding Cre recombinase fused to modified estrogen receptor (CreERT) under control of mouse insulin 1 gene promoter (Ins1) was used to construct the mouse line Tg(Ins1-Cre/ERT)1Lphi, also termed MIP1-CreERT. In a cross of MIP1-CreERT with a ROSA26/LacZ reporter strain, tamoxifen [Tmx] - dependent β-galactosidase expression occurred within pancreatic β-cells but not in other organ systems. Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests and glucose-stimulated changes in β-cell cytoplasmic calcium concentration were not adversely affected in adult MIP1-CreERT. A mouse line with floxed Ctnnb1 gene (Ctnnb1f/f) was crossed with the MIP1-CreERT line to generate a mouse model for inducible β-cell specific deletion of β-catenin gene (Ctnnb1f/f:MIP1-CreERT). Ctnnb1f/f:MIP1-CreERT mice and Ctnnb1f/f littermate controls, were injected with Tmx as adults to knock down β-catenin production in the majority of pancreatic β-cells. These mice showed normal glucose tolerance, islet cyto-architecture and insulin secretion. A novel protein fraction of 50Kd, immunoreactive with anti-β-catenin was observed in islet extracts from Ctnnb1f/f:MIP1-CreERT[Tmx] mice but not MIP1-CreERT-negative Ctnnb1f/f[Tmx] controls, indicating possible presence of a cryptic protein product of recombined Ctnnb1 gene. The MIP1-CreERT mouse line is a powerful tool for conditional manipulation of gene expression in β-cells.

Molecular mechanisms of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-stimulated increase in cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration and ERK1/2 activation in the MIN6 pancreatic β-cell line

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) activation of pancreatic β-cells elevates intracellular Ca(2+) and potentiates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. In addition, it activates a number of signaling molecules, including ERK1/2, whose activation has been shown to play an important role in regulating pancreatic β-cell function and mass. The aim of this work was to determine how mAChR activation elevates intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]( i )) and activates ERK1/2 in the pancreatic β-cell line MIN6. We demonstrate that agonist-stimulated ERK1/2 activation is dependent on the activation of phospholipase C and an elevation in [Ca(2+)]( i ), but is independent of the activation of diacylglycerol-dependent protein kinase C isoenzymes. Using a pharmacological approach, we provide evidence that agonist-induced increases in [Ca(2+)]( i ) and ERK activity require (1) IP(3) receptor-mediated mobilization of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum, (2) influx of extracellular Ca(2+) through store-operated channels, (3) closure of K(ATP) channels, and (4) Ca(2+) entry via L-type voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels. Moreover, this Ca(2+)-dependent activation of ERK is mediated via both Ras-dependent and Ras-independent mechanisms. In summary, this study provides important insights into the multifactorial signaling mechanisms linking mAChR activation to increases in [Ca(2+)]( i ) and ERK activity.

Serum deprivation induces glucose response and intercellular coupling in human pancreatic adenocarcinoma PANC-1 cells

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate whether the previously described differentiating islet-like aggregates of human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells (PANC-1) develop glucose response and exhibit intercellular communication.

METHODS

Fura 2-loaded PANC-1 cells in serum-free medium were assayed for changes in cytosolic free calcium ([Ca]i) induced by depolarization, tolbutamide inhibition of K(ATP) channels, or glucose. Dye transfer, assayed by confocal microscopy or by FACS, was used to detect intercellular communication. Changes in messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of genes of interest were assessed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Proliferation was assayed by the MTT method.

RESULTS

Serum-deprived PANC-1 cell aggregates developed [Ca]i response to KCl, tolbutamide, or glucose. These responses were accompanied by 5-fold increase in glucokinase mRNA level and, to a lesser extent, of mRNAs for K(ATP) and L-type calcium channels, as well as increase in mRNA levels of glucagon and somatostatin. Trypsin, a proteinase-activated receptor 2 agonist previously shown to enhance aggregation, modestly improved [Ca]i response to glucose. Glucose-induced coordinated [Ca]i oscillations and dye transfer demonstrated the emergence of intercellular communication.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that PANC-1 cells, a pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line, can be induced to express a differentiated phenotype in which cells exhibit response to glucose and form a functional syncytium similar to those observed in pancreatic islets.

Mechanisms of control of the free Ca2+ concentration in the endoplasmic reticulum of mouse pancreatic β-cells: interplay with cell metabolism and [Ca2+]c and role of SERCA2b and SERCA3

OBJECTIVE

Sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase 2b (SERCA2b) and SERCA3 pump Ca(2+) in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells. We studied their role in the control of the free ER Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](ER)) and the role of SERCA3 in the control of insulin secretion and ER stress.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

β-Cell [Ca(2+)](ER) of SERCA3(+/+) and SERCA3(-/-) mice was monitored with an adenovirus encoding the low Ca(2+)-affinity sensor D4 addressed to the ER (D4ER) under the control of the insulin promoter. Free cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](c)) and [Ca(2+)](ER) were simultaneously recorded. Insulin secretion and mRNA levels of ER stress genes were studied.

RESULTS

Glucose elicited synchronized [Ca(2+)](ER) and [Ca(2+)](c) oscillations. [Ca(2+)](ER) oscillations were smaller in SERCA3(-/-) than in SERCA3(+/+) β-cells. Stimulating cell metabolism with various [glucose] in the presence of diazoxide induced a similar dose-dependent [Ca(2+)](ER) rise in SERCA3(+/+) and SERCA3(-/-) β-cells. In a Ca(2+)-free medium, glucose moderately raised [Ca(2+)](ER) from a highly buffered cytosolic Ca(2+) pool. Increasing [Ca(2+)](c) with high [K] elicited a [Ca(2+)](ER) rise that was larger but more transient in SERCA3(+/+) than SERCA3(-/-) β-cells because of the activation of a Ca(2+) release from the ER in SERCA3(+/+) β-cells. Glucose-induced insulin release was larger in SERCA3(-/-) than SERCA3(+/+) islets. SERCA3 ablation did not induce ER stress.

CONCLUSIONS

[Ca(2+)](c) and [Ca(2+)](ER) oscillate in phase in response to glucose. Upon [Ca(2+)](c) increase, Ca(2+) is taken up by SERCA2b and SERCA3. Strong Ca(2+) influx triggers a Ca(2+) release from the ER that depends on SERCA3. SERCA3 deficiency neither impairs Ca(2+) uptake by the ER upon cell metabolism acceleration and insulin release nor induces ER stress.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor subtype-specific regulation of calcium oscillations

Oscillatory fluctuations in the cytosolic concentration of free calcium ions (Ca²⁺) are considered a ubiquitous mechanism for controlling multiple cellular processes. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) receptors (IP₃R) are intracellular Ca²⁺ release channels that mediate Ca²⁺ release from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ stores. The three IP₃R subtypes described so far exhibit differential structural, biophysical, and biochemical properties. Subtype specific regulation of IP₃R by the endogenous modulators IP₃, Ca²⁺, protein kinases and associated proteins have been thoroughly examined. In this article we will review the contribution of each IP₃R subtype in shaping cytosolic Ca²⁺ oscillations.

Phospholipase C-η1 is activated by intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization and enhances GPCRs/PLC/Ca(2+) signaling

Phospholipase C-η1 (PLC-η1) is the most recently identified PLC isotype and is primarily expressed in nerve tissue. However, its functional role is unclear. In the present study, we report for the first time that PLC-η1 acts as a signal amplifier in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated PLC and Ca(2+) signaling. Short-hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown of endogenous PLC-η1 reduced lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-, bradykinin (BK)-, and PACAP-induced PLC activity in mouse neuroblastoma Neuro2A (N2A) cells, indicating that PLC-η1 participates in GPCR-mediated PLC activation. Interestingly, ionomycin-induced PLC activity was significantly decreased by PLC-η1, but not PLC-η2, knockdown. In addition, we found that intracellular Ca(2+) source is enough for PLC-η1 activation. Furthermore, the IP(3) receptor inhibitor, 2-APB, inhibited LPA-induced PLC activity in control N2A cells, whereas this effect was not observed in PLC-η1 knockdown N2A cells, suggesting a pivotal role of intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization in PLC-η1 activation. Finally, we found that LPA-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and expression of the downstream target gene, krox-24, were significantly decreased by PLC-η1 knockdown, and these knockdown effects were abolished by 2-APB. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that PLC-η1 is activated via intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization from the ER, and therefore amplifies GPCR-mediated signaling.

Glucose-induced ERM protein activation and translocation regulates insulin secretion

A key step in regulating insulin secretion is insulin granule trafficking to the plasma membrane. Using live-cell time-lapse confocal microscopy, we observed a dynamic association of insulin granules with filamentous actin and PIP2-enriched structures. We found that the scaffolding protein family ERM, comprising ezrin, radixin, and moesin, are expressed in β-cells and target both F-actin and PIP2. Furthermore, ERM proteins are activated via phosphorylation in a glucose- and calcium-dependent manner. This activation leads to a translocation of the ERM proteins to sites on the cell periphery enriched in insulin granules, the exocyst complex docking protein Exo70, and lipid rafts. ERM scaffolding proteins also participate in insulin granule trafficking and docking to the plasma membrane. Overexpression of a truncated dominant-negative ezrin construct that lacks the ERM F-actin binding domain leads to a reduction in insulin granules near the plasma membrane and impaired secretion. Conversely, overexpression of a constitutively active ezrin results in more granules near the cell periphery and an enhancement of insulin secretion. Diabetic mouse islets contain less active ERM, suggestive of a novel mechanism whereby impairment of insulin granule trafficking to the membrane through a complex containing F-actin, PIP2, Exo70, and ERM proteins contributes to defective insulin secretion.

Physiological roles of the TRPM4 channel extracted from background currents

Calcium-activated nonselective cationic currents have been known for 30 years, but their physiological implications have remained unresolved until the recent cloning of the TRPM4 ion channel. Since then, TRPM4 has been identified as a key modulator of numerous calcium-dependent mechanisms such as the immune response, insulin secretion, cerebral artery constriction, respiratory rhythm, and cardiac conduction.

Bursting and calcium oscillations in pancreatic beta-cells: specific pacemakers for specific mechanisms

Oscillatory phenomenon in electrical activity and cytoplasmic calcium concentration in response to glucose are intimately connected to multiple key aspects of pancreatic β-cell physiology. However, there is no single model for oscillatory mechanisms in these cells. We set out to identify possible pacemaker candidates for burst activity and cytoplasmic Ca(2+) oscillations in these cells by analyzing published hypotheses, their corresponding mathematical models, and relevant experimental data. We found that although no single pacemaker can account for the variety of oscillatory phenomena in β-cells, at least several separate mechanisms can underlie specific kinds of oscillations. According to our analysis, slowly activating Ca(2+)-sensitive K(+) channels can be responsible for very fast Ca(2+) oscillations; changes in the ATP/ADP ratio and in the endoplasmic reticulum calcium concentration can be pacemakers for both fast bursts and cytoplasmic calcium oscillations, and cyclical cytoplasmic Na(+) changes may underlie patterning of slow calcium oscillations. However, these mechanisms still lack direct confirmation, and their potential interactions raises new issues. Further studies supported by improved mathematical models are necessary to understand oscillatory phenomena in β-cell physiology.

Evidence that low-grade systemic inflammation can induce islet dysfunction as measured by impaired calcium handling

In obesity and the early stages of type 2 diabetes (T2D), proinflammatory cytokines are mildly elevated in the systemic circulation. This low-grade systemic inflammation exposes pancreatic islets to these circulating cytokines at much lower levels than seen within the islet during insulitis. These low-dose effects have not been well described. We examined mouse islets treated overnight with a low-dose cytokine combination commonly associated with inflammation (TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, and IFN-gamma). We then examined islet function primarily using intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)), a key component of insulin secretion and cytokine signaling. Cytokine-treated islets demonstrated several features that suggested dysfunction including excess [Ca(2+)](i) in low physiological glucose (3mM), reduced responses to glucose stimulation, and disrupted [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations. Interestingly, islets taken from young db/db mice showed similar disruptions in [Ca(2+)](i) dynamics as cytokine-treated islets. Additional studies of control islets showed that the cytokine-induced elevation in basal [Ca(2+)](i) was due to both greater calcium influx through L-type-calcium-channels and reduced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium storage. Many of these cytokine-induced disruptions could be reproduced by SERCA blockade. Our data suggest that chronic low-grade inflammation produces circulating cytokine levels that are sufficient to induce beta-cell dysfunction and may play a contributing role in beta-cell failure in early T2D.

Distinct plasma-membrane PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P2 dynamics in secretagogue-stimulated beta-cells

Phosphoinositides regulate numerous processes in various subcellular compartments. Whereas many stimuli trigger changes in the plasma-membrane PtdIns(4,5)P(2) concentration, little is known about its precursor, PtdIns(4)P, in particular whether there are stimulus-induced alterations independent of those of PtdIns(4,5)P(2). We investigated plasma-membrane PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P(2) dynamics in insulin-secreting MIN6 cells using fluorescent translocation biosensors and total internal reflection microscopy. Loss of PtdIns(4,5)P(2) induced by phospholipase C (PLC)-activating receptor agonists or stimulatory glucose concentrations was paralleled by increased PtdIns(4)P levels. In addition, glucose-stimulated cells regularly showed anti-synchronous oscillations of the two lipids. Whereas glucose-induced PtdIns(4)P elevation required voltage-gated Ca(2+) entry and was mimicked by membrane-depolarizing stimuli, the receptor-induced response was Ca(2+) independent, but sensitive to protein kinase C (PKC) inhibition and mimicked by phorbol ester stimulation. We conclude that glucose and PLC-activating receptor stimuli trigger Ca(2+)- and PKC-dependent changes in the plasma-membrane PtdIns(4)P concentration that are independent of the effects on PtdIns(4,5)P(2). These findings indicate that enhanced formation of PtdIns(4)P, apart from ensuring efficient replenishment of the PtdIns(4,5)P(2) pool, might serve an independent signalling function by regulating the association of PtdIns(4)P-binding proteins with the plasma membrane.

Facilitation of ß-cell K(ATP) channel sulfonylurea sensitivity by a cAMP analog selective for the cAMP-regulated guanine nucleotide exchange factor Epac

Clinical studies demonstrate that combined administration of sulfonylureas with exenatide can induce hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetic subjects. Whereas sulfonylureas inhibit ß-cell K(ATP) channels by binding to the sulfonylurea receptor-1 (SUR1), exenatide binds to the GLP-1 receptor, stimulates ß-cell cAMP production and activates both PKA and Epac. In this study, we hypothesized that the adverse in vivo interaction of sulfonylureas and exenatide to produce hypoglycemia might be explained by Epac-mediated facilitation of K(ATP) channel sulfonylurea sensitivity. We now report that the inhibitory action of a sulfonylurea (tolbutamide) at K(ATP) channels was facilitated by 2’-O-Me-cAMP, a selective activator of Epac. Thus, under conditions of excised patch recording, the dose-response relationship describing the inhibitory action of tolbutamide at human ß-cell or rat INS-1 cell K(ATP) channels was left-shifted in the presence of 2’-O-Me-cAMP, and this effect was abolished in INS-1 cells expressing a dominant-negative Epac2. Using an acetoxymethyl ester prodrug of an Epac-selective cAMP analog (8-pCP T-2’-O-Me-cAMP-AM), the synergistic interaction of an Epac activator and tolbutamide to depolarize INS-1 cells and to raise [Ca²(+)](i) was also measured. This effect of 8-pCP T-2’-O-Me-cAMP-AM correlated with its ability to stimulate phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate hydrolysis that might contribute to the changes in K(ATP) channel sulfonylurea-sensitivity reported here. On the basis of such findings, we propose that the adverse interaction of sulfonylureas and exenatide to induce hypoglycemia involves at least in part, a functional interaction of these two compounds to close K(ATP) channels, to depolarize ß-cells and to promote insulin secretion.

Glucocorticoids in vivo induce both insulin hypersecretion and enhanced glucose sensitivity of stimulus-secretion coupling in isolated rat islets

Although glucocorticoids are widely used as antiinflammatory agents in clinical therapies, they may cause serious side effects that include insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. To study the potential functional adaptations of the islet of Langerhans to in vivo glucocorticoid treatment, adult Wistar rats received dexamethasone (DEX) for 5 consecutive days, whereas controls (CTL) received only saline. The analysis of insulin release in freshly isolated islets showed an enhanced secretion in response to glucose in DEX-treated rats. The study of Ca(2+) signals by fluorescence microscopy also demonstrated a higher response to glucose in islets from DEX-treated animals. However, no differences in Ca(2+) signals were found between both groups with tolbutamide or KCl, indicating that the alterations were probably related to metabolism. Thus, mitochondrial function was explored by monitoring oxidation of nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate autofluorescence and mitochondrial membrane potential. Both parameters revealed a higher response to glucose in islets from DEX-treated rats. The mRNA and protein content of glucose transporter-2, glucokinase, and pyruvate kinase was similar in both groups, indicating that changes in these proteins were probably not involved in the increased mitochondrial function. Additionally, we explored the status of Ca(2+)-dependent signaling kinases. Unlike calmodulin kinase II, we found an augmented phosphorylation level of protein kinase C alpha as well as an increased response of the phospholipase C/inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate pathway in DEX-treated rats. Finally, an increased number of docked secretory granules were observed in the beta-cells of DEX animals using transmission electron microscopy. Thus, these results demonstrate that islets from glucocorticoid-treated rats develop several adaptations that lead to an enhanced stimulus-secretion coupling and secretory capacity.

Cholesterol regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion through phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

Membrane cholesterol modulates the ability of glucose to stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta-cells. The molecular mechanism by which this occurs is not understood. Here, we show that in cultured beta-cells, cholesterol acts through phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) to regulate actin dynamics, plasma membrane potential, and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Cholesterol-overloaded beta-cells exhibited decreased PIP(2) hydrolysis, with diminished glucose-induced actin reorganization, membrane depolarization, and insulin secretion. The converse findings were observed in cholesterol-depleted cells. These results support a model in which cholesterol depletion is coupled through PIP(2) to enhance both plasma membrane Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space, as well as inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate-stimulated Ca2+ efflux from intracellular stores. The inability to increase cytosolic Ca2+ may be the main underlying factor to account for impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in cholesterol-overloaded beta-cells.

Inositol 1,4,5- trisphosphate receptor function in Drosophila insulin producing cells

The Inositol 1,4,5- trisphosphate receptor (InsP₃R) is an intracellular ligand gated channel that releases calcium from intracellular stores in response to extracellular signals. To identify and understand physiological processes and behavior that depends on the InsP₃ signaling pathway at a systemic level, we are studying Drosophila mutants for the InsP₃R (itpr) gene. Here, we show that growth defects precede larval lethality and both are a consequence of the inability to feed normally. Moreover, restoring InsP₃R function in insulin producing cells (IPCs) in the larval brain rescues the feeding deficit, growth and lethality in the itpr mutants to a significant extent. We have previously demonstrated a critical requirement for InsP₃R activity in neuronal cells, specifically in aminergic interneurons, for larval viability. Processes from the IPCs and aminergic domain are closely apposed in the third instar larval brain with no visible cellular overlap. Ubiquitous depletion of itpr by dsRNA results in feeding deficits leading to larval lethality similar to the itpr mutant phenotype. However, when itpr is depleted specifically in IPCs or aminergic neurons, the larvae are viable. These data support a model where InsP₃R activity in non-overlapping neuronal domains independently rescues larval itpr phenotypes by non-cell autonomous mechanisms.

Regulation of insulin secretion: a matter of phase control and amplitude modulation

The consensus model of stimulus-secretion coupling in beta cells attributes glucose-induced insulin secretion to a sequence of events involving acceleration of metabolism, closure of ATP-sensitive K(+) channels, depolarisation, influx of Ca(2+) and a rise in cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](c)). This triggering pathway is essential, but would not be very efficient if glucose did not also activate a metabolic amplifying pathway that does not raise [Ca(2+)](c) further but augments the action of triggering Ca(2+) on exocytosis. This review discusses how both pathways interact to achieve temporal control and amplitude modulation of biphasic insulin secretion. First-phase insulin secretion is triggered by the rise in [Ca(2+)](c) that occurs synchronously in all beta cells of every islet in response to a sudden increase in the glucose concentration. Its time course and duration are shaped by those of the Ca(2+) signal, and its amplitude is modulated by the magnitude of the [Ca(2+)](c) rise and, substantially, by amplifying mechanisms. During the second phase, synchronous [Ca(2+)](c) oscillations in all beta cells of an individual islet induce pulsatile insulin secretion, but these features of the signal and response are dampened in groups of intrinsically asynchronous islets. Glucose has hardly any influence on the amplitude of [Ca(2+)](c) oscillations and mainly controls the time course of triggering signal. Amplitude modulation of insulin secretion pulses largely depends on the amplifying pathway. There are more similarities than differences between the two phases of glucose-induced insulin secretion. Both are subject to the same dual, hierarchical control over time and amplitude by triggering and amplifying pathways, suggesting that the second phase is a sequence of iterations of the first phase.

TRPM4 impacts on Ca2+ signals during agonist-induced insulin secretion in pancreatic beta-cells

TRPM4 is a Ca(2+)-activated non-selective cation (CAN) channel that functions in cell depolarization, which is important for Ca(2+) influx and insulin secretion in pancreatic beta-cells. We investigated TRPM4 expression and function in the beta-cell lines HIT-T15 (hamster), RINm5F (rat), beta-TC3 (mouse), MIN-6 (mouse) and the alpha-cell line INR1G9 (hamster). By RT-PCR, we identified TRPM4 transcripts in alpha- and beta-cells. Patch-clamp recordings with increasing Ca(2+) concentrations resulted in a dose-dependent activation of TRPM4 with the greatest depolarizing currents recorded from hamster-derived cells. Further, Ca(2+) imaging experiments revealed that inhibition of TRPM4 by a dominant-negative effect significantly decreased the magnitude of the Ca(2+) signals generated by agonist stimulation compared to control cells. The decrease in the [Ca(2+)](i) resulted in reduced insulin secretion. Our data suggest that depolarizing currents generated by TRPM4 are an important component in the control of intracellular Ca(2+) signals necessary for insulin secretion and perhaps glucagon from alpha-cells.

Evidence of diminished glucose stimulation and endoplasmic reticulum function in nonoscillatory pancreatic islets

Pulsatility is a fundamental feature of pancreatic islets and a hallmark of hormone secretion. Isolated pancreatic islets endogenously generate rhythms in secretion, metabolic activity, and intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)) that are important to normal physiological function. Few studies have directly compared oscillatory and nonoscillatory islets to identify possible differences in function. We investigated the hypothesis that the loss of these oscillations is a leading indicator of islet dysfunction by comparing oscillatory and nonoscillatory mouse islets for multiple parameters of function. Nonoscillatory islets displayed elevated basal [Ca(2+)](i) and diminished [Ca(2+)](i) response and insulin secretory response to 3-28 mm glucose stimulation compared with oscillatory islets, suggesting diminished glucose sensitivity. We investigated several possible mechanisms to explain these differences. No differences were observed in mitochondrial membrane potential, estimated ATP-sensitive potassium channel and L-type calcium channel activity, or cell death rates. Nonoscillatory islets, however, showed a reduced response to the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum calcium ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin, suggesting a disruption in calcium homeostasis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) compared with oscillatory islets. The diminished ER calcium homeostasis among nonoscillatory islets was also consistent with the higher cytosolic calcium levels observed in 3 mm glucose. Inducing mild damage with low-dose proinflammatory cytokines reduced islet oscillatory capacity and produced similar effects on glucose-stimulated [Ca(2+)](i), basal [Ca(2+)](i), and thapsigargin response observed among untreated nonoscillatory islets. Our data suggest the loss of oscillatory capacity may be an early indicator of diminished islet glucose sensitivity and ER dysfunction, suggesting targets to improve islet assessment.

Oscillatory control of insulin secretion

Pancreatic beta-cells possess an inherent ability to generate oscillatory signals that trigger insulin release. Coordination of the secretory activity among beta-cells results in pulsatile insulin secretion from the pancreas, which is considered important for the action of the hormone in the target tissues. This review focuses on the mechanisms underlying oscillatory control of insulin secretion at the level of the individual beta-cell. Recent studies have demonstrated that oscillations of the cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration are synchronized with oscillations in beta-cell metabolism, intracellular cAMP concentration, phospholipase C activity and plasma membrane phosphoinositide lipid concentrations. There are complex interdependencies between the different messengers and signalling pathways that contribute to amplitude regulation and shaping of the insulin secretory response to nutrient stimuli and neurohormonal modulators. Several of these pathways may be important pharmacological targets for improving pulsatile insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes.

Reversible translocation of EYFP-tagged STIM1 is coupled to calcium influx in insulin secreting beta-cells

Calcium (Ca(2+)) signaling regulates insulin secretion in pancreatic beta-cells. STIM1 has been proposed to function as an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) sensor regulating store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE). Here we studied the translocation of EYFP-STIM1 in response to ER calcium depletion in mouse insulinoma MIN6 cells by fluorescent microscopy. While in resting cells EYFP-STIM1 is co-localized with an ER marker, in thapsigargin (Tg)-stimulated cells it occupied highly defined areas of the peri-PM space in punctae adjacent to, but not entirely coincident with the ER. Co-staining with fluorescent phalloidin revealed that EYFP-STIM1 punctae was located in actin-poor areas. Use of the SOCE blocker in MIN6 cells, 2-aminoethoxy diphenylborate (2-APB), prevented store depletion-dependent translocation of EYFP-STIM1 to the PM in a concentration-dependent (3.75-100muM) and reversible manner. TIRF microscopy revealed that 2-APB treatment led to the reversible disappearance of peri-PM EYFP-STIM1 punctae, while the ER structure in this compartment remained grossly unaffected. We conclude from this data that in these cells EYFP-STIM1 is delivered to a peri-PM location from the ER upon store depletion and this trafficking is reversibly blocked by 2-APB.

Cannabinoids inhibit insulin secretion and cytosolic Ca2+ oscillation in islet beta-cells via CB1 receptors

Obesity is the main risk factor for the development of metabolic syndrome. Endogenous cannabinoids act on the cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor, a GPCR, and stimulate appetite via central and peripheral actions, while blockade of CB1 receptor reduces body weight in humans. In this study, we aimed to explore a role of the peripheral endocannabinoid system in insulin secretion, which could be important in the metabolic effects of the cannabinoid-CB1 system. We found that mRNA for CB1 receptor, but not CB2 receptor, was expressed in mouse pancreatic islets using RT-PCR. Immunohistochemical study revealed that CB1 receptor was expressed in beta-cells. Furthermore, anandamide and a CB1 agonist, arachidonylcyclopropylamide (ACPA), inhibited glucose-induced insulin secretion from mouse pancreatic islets. Both anandamide and ACPA inhibited glucose-induced cytosolic Ca(2+) oscillation in mouse pancreatic beta-cells. These results demonstrate a novel peripheral action of cannabinoids to inhibit insulin secretion via CB1 receptors.

Phantom bursting is highly sensitive to noise and unlikely to account for slow bursting in beta-cells: considerations in favor of metabolically driven oscillations

Pancreatic beta-cells show bursting electrical activity with a wide range of burst periods ranging from a few seconds, often seen in isolated cells, over tens of seconds (medium bursting), usually observed in intact islets, to several minutes. The phantom burster model [Bertram, R., Previte, J., Sherman, A., Kinard, T.A., Satin, L.S., 2000. The phantom burster model for pancreatic beta-cells. Biophys. J. 79, 2880-2892] provided a framework, which covered this span, and gave an explanation of how to obtain medium bursting combining two processes operating on different time scales. However, single cells are subjected to stochastic fluctuations in plasma membrane currents, which are likely to disturb the bursting mechanism and transform medium bursters into spikers or very fast bursters. We present a polynomial, minimal, phantom burster model and show that noise modifies the plateau fraction and lowers the burst period dramatically in phantom bursters. It is therefore unlikely that slow bursting in single cells is driven by the slow phantom bursting mechanism, but could instead be driven by oscillations in glycolysis, which we show are stable to random ion channel fluctuations. Moreover, so-called compound bursting can be converted to apparent slow bursting by noise, which could explain why compound bursting and mixed Ca(2+) oscillations are seen mainly in intact islets.

Modulation of the pancreatic islet beta-cell-delayed rectifier potassium channel Kv2.1 by the polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonate

Glucose stimulates both insulin secretion and hydrolysis of arachidonic acid (AA) esterified in membrane phospholipids of pancreatic islet beta-cells, and these processes are amplified by muscarinic agonists. Here we demonstrate that nonesterified AA regulates the biophysical activity of the pancreatic islet beta-cell-delayed rectifier channel, Kv2.1. Recordings of Kv2.1 currents from INS-1 insulinoma cells incubated with AA (5 mum) and subjected to graded degrees of depolarization exhibit a significantly shorter time-to-peak current interval than do control cells. AA causes a rapid decay and reduced peak conductance of delayed rectifier currents from INS-1 cells and from primary beta-cells isolated from mouse, rat, and human pancreatic islets. Stimulating mouse islets with AA results in a significant increase in the frequency of glucose-induced [Ca(2+)] oscillations, which is an expected effect of Kv2.1 channel blockade. Stimulation with concentrations of glucose and carbachol that accelerate hydrolysis of endogenous AA from islet phosphoplipids also results in accelerated Kv2.1 inactivation and a shorter time-to-peak current interval. Group VIA phospholipase A(2) (iPLA(2)beta) hydrolyzes beta-cell membrane phospholipids to release nonesterified fatty acids, including AA, and inhibiting iPLA(2)beta prevents the muscarinic agonist-induced accelerated Kv2.1 inactivation. Furthermore, glucose and carbachol do not significantly affect Kv2.1 inactivation in beta-cells from iPLA(2)beta(-/-) mice. Stably transfected INS-1 cells that overexpress iPLA(2)beta hydrolyze phospholipids more rapidly than control INS-1 cells and also exhibit an increase in the inactivation rate of the delayed rectifier currents. These results suggest that Kv2.1 currents could be dynamically modulated in the pancreatic islet beta-cell by phospholipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids to yield non-esterified fatty acids, such as AA, that facilitate Ca(2+) entry and insulin secretion.

Rapid turnover of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate in insulin-secreting cells mediated by Ca2+ and the ATP-to-ADP ratio

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) is important for a variety of cellular processes as a precursor for second messengers and by regulating ion channels, the cytoskeleton, and vesicle traffic in many types of cells, including insulin-secreting beta-cells. Here, we applied evanescent wave microscopy and the PIP(2)-binding pleckstrin homology domain from phospholipase C (PLC)-delta fused to the green fluorescent protein to characterize the regulation of plasma membrane PIP(2) in individual insulin-secreting MIN6 beta-cells. Elevation of the glucose concentration from 3 to 11 mmol/l evoked antisynchronous oscillations of [PIP(2)] and cytoplasmic Ca(2+)concentration, consistent with PLC being periodically activated by the voltage-dependent Ca(2+) influx. The effect of adenine nucleotides on [PIP(2)] was studied in cells permeabilized with alpha-toxin. ATP dose- dependently stimulated PIP(2) synthesis with half-maximal effect at 300 mumol/l. Omission of the nucleotide resulted in rapid loss of PIP(2) with t(1/2) < 40 s. ADP also stimulated PIP(2) formation, but this effect reflected local ATP formation and was prevented by the adenylate kinase inhibitor diadenosine-pentaphosphate. The ATP-induced PIP(2) synthesis was counteracted by the ADP analog adenosine-5'-O-2-thiodiphosphate. We conclude that plasma membrane PIP(2) is dynamically regulated by intracellular Ca(2+) and the ATP-to-ADP ratio in insulin-secreting cells. The rapid turnover allows maintenance of PIP(2) levels while generating second messengers of critical importance for insulin secretion.

Calcium Dynamics: Spatio‐Temporal Organization from the Subcellular to the Organ Level

Many essential physiological processes are controlled by calcium. To ensure reliability and specificity, calcium signals are highly organized in time and space in the form of oscillations and waves. Interesting findings have been obtained at various scales, ranging from the stochastic opening of a single calcium channel to the intercellular calcium wave spreading through an entire organ. A detailed understanding of calcium dynamics thus requires a link between observations at different scales. It appears that some regulations such as calcium-induced calcium release or PLC activation by calcium, as well as the weak diffusibility of calcium ions play a role at all levels of organization in most cell types. To comprehend how calcium waves spread from one cell to another, specific gap-junctional coupling and paracrine signaling must also be taken into account. On the basis of a pluridisciplinar approach ranging from physics to physiology, a unified description of calcium dynamics is emerging, which could help understanding how such a small ion can mediate so many vital functions in living systems.