Prevalence of enteric zoonotic organisms in cats

Toxocara cati Infection in Cats (Felis catus): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Introduction: Toxocariasis is an infection caused in canines, felines, humans, and other vertebrates by species of the genus Toxocara, such as T. canis and T. cati. The embryonated eggs of these parasites are the primary means of acquiring the infection for both definitive hosts, dogs and cats, respectively, and for intermediates, such as humans and other vertebrates. When deposited on park soils, environmental contamination becomes a risk to environmental, human, and animal health. Objective: To determine the global prevalence of Toxocara cati in cats (Felis catus). Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out in six databases (Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, SciELO and Google Scholar) to evaluate the global prevalence of Toxocara cati in cats, defined by coproparasitological, histological, and molecular techniques. A meta-analysis was performed using a random effects model to calculate pooled prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). A two-tailed 5% alpha level was used for hypothesis testing. Results: Two hundred and eighty-nine studies were included. The global pooled prevalence of Toxocara cati in cats using coproparasitological methods was 17.0% (95.0% CI: 16.2-17.8%). In the subgroup analysis according to country, Nepal had the highest prevalence of T. cati infection (94.4%; 95% CI 89.7-99.2%). The pooled prevalence of T. cati infection by PCR in four studies was 4.9% (95.0% CI: 1.9-7.9%). Conclusions: This systematic review underscores the need for preventive action against toxocariasis due to its widespread prevalence. The interplay between animal and human health should be emphasised, necessitating measures like deworming cats, hygiene practices, and public education to mitigate risks. Safeguarding feline health can also reduce human transmission, benefiting both species.

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC ENTEROPATHOGEN PRESENCE IN CAPTIVE CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS) FED VARIOUS DIETS USING FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION

Chronic enteropathies pose an important difficulty in the captive management of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) because of suspected multifactorial pathogenesis and the complex nature of enteric microbiota dynamics. Enterobacteriaceae, Campylobacter spp., Clostridium perfringens, Helicobacter spp., and Salmonella spp. are enteropathogens of interest because of their zoonotic potential and suspected contribution to enteropathies. This study aimed to determine the presence of these enteropathogens of interest in fecal samples from cheetahs (N = 48) fed different diets from three different institutions and to investigate the associations between diet, fecal score, and specific enteropathogen presence. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes were used to visualize and quantify putative enteropathogens in each sample concurrent with selective culturing for Salmonella and Clostridium perfringens. From FISH counts, carcass-fed animals had greater numbers of Enterobacteriaceae compared with animals fed low-fat dog food, although this trend was not statistically significant (P = 0.088). Furthermore, no significant associations were found between fecal score and bacterial load. Abundance of Campylobacter spp., Clostridium perfringens, or Helicobacter spp. as measured by FISH were not correlated with diet or fecal score. On the basis of these data, in agreement with published literature, it is concluded that these microbes may be commensals in the cheetah gastrointestinal tract and do not appear to be a primary cause of abnormal fecal scores.

Retrospective Survey of Dog and Cat Endoparasites in Ireland: Antigen Detection

Endoparasites of dogs and cats, play an important role in both veterinary medicine and public health. Untreated and stray dogs and cats, in particular, play an important role in contaminating the environment with important zoonotic parasites. Thus, the aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of intestinal parasites in stray dogs and cats using highly sensitive and specific copro-antigen tests. Archive faecal samples from previous surveys conducted between 2016−2019 from dogs (n = 789) and cats (n = 241) were included in this study. The IDEXX Fecal Dx™ antigen panel was used for the detection of Toxocara, hookworms, Trichuris and the SNAP™ Giardia antigen assay was used for the detection of Giardia infection. Giardia duodenalis was the most common parasite (26%, n = 205) detected in the dogs, followed by ascarids (17.6%, n = 139) and hookworms (5.3%, n = 42). Trichuris vulpis was only detected in 1 dog. Ascarids (23.2%, n = 56) was the most common parasite detected in the cats, followed by Giardia (12.9%, n = 31) and hookworms (n = 7, 2.9%). No whipworms were detected in cats. Overall, there was little difference in the positivity between sexes in both dogs and cats. However, in terms of age, adolescent dogs (<3 years) and kittens (<1 year) had the highest parasite prevalence overall, with G. duodenalis and ascarids being the most prevalent. This study shows a high prevalence of parasite infection in untreated and stray dogs and cats in the greater Dublin area in Ireland. Since they live in synanthropic conditions and can roam over vast distances they can contaminate public areas and pose a risk to both humans and owned pets that utilise these spaces. It is therefore important to raise public awareness and increase the knowledge on zoonotic parasites.

Prevalence, co-infection and seasonality of fecal enteropathogens from diarrheic cats in the Republic of Korea (2016-2019): a retrospective study

Background

Diarrhea is one of the most common clinical symptoms in cats and can be caused by infectious pathogens and investigation of the prevalence, co-infection and seasonality of enteropathogens are not well-established in diarrheic cats.

Results

Fecal samples of 1620 diarrheic cats were collected and enteropathogens were detected using real-time PCR. We retrospectively investigated the clinical features, total/seasonal prevalence, and infection patterns of enteropathogens. The positive infection rate was 82.59%. Bacterial, viral, and protozoal infections accounted for 49.3, 37.57, and 13.13% of cases, respectively. Feline enteric coronavirus (FECV) was the most common pathogen (29.37%), followed by Clostridium (C.) perfringens, Campylobacter (C.) coli, feline parvovirus, and Tritrichomonas foetus. The seasonality of enteropathogens was observed with peaks as follows: bacterial infections peaked in October, viral infections peaked in November, and protozoal infections peaked in August. Viral and protozoal infections showed differences in prevalence according to patient age. In the infection patterns, the ratios of single infections, mixed infections, and co-infections were 35.72, 9.87, and 54.41%, respectively. FECV was predominant in single infections. The most common patterns of multiple infections were C. perfringens and C. coli in mixed infections and C. perfringens and FECV in co-infections.

Conclusions

Infection patterns differed according to the enteropathogen species, seasonality, and age distribution in cats. The results of this study might be helpful to understand in clinical characteristics of feline infectious diarrhea. In addition, continued monitoring of feline enteropathogens is required.

Giardia duodenalis in colony stray cats from Italy

Giardia duodenalis is the most common intestinal protozoan in humans and animals worldwide, including eight morphologically identical assemblages, infecting pets, livestock, wildlife and human beings. Assemblages A and B are those with the higher zoonotic potential, and they have been detected in several mammals other than humans; the others (C to H) show a higher host specificity. Cats can harbour both the specific Assemblage F and the zoonotic ones A and B. Several studies have been carried out on G. duodenalis genotypes in cats; however, the role of this species in the epidemiology of giardiasis is still poorly understood. In this scenario, the present study carried out the detection and genetic characterization at sub‐assemblage level of G. duodenalis from colony stray cats in central Italy. In the period 2018–2019, 133 cat faecal samples were analysed for the presence of G. duodenalis cysts by a direct immunofluorescence assay. Positive samples were subsequently subjected to molecular analyses for assemblage/sub‐assemblage identification. Forty‐seven samples (35.3%) were positive for G. duodenalis cysts by immunofluorescence. G. duodenalis DNA was amplified at SSU‐rDNA locus from 39 isolates: 37 were positive for zoonotic Assemblage A and 2 showed a mixed infection (A + B). Positive results for the β‐giardin gene were achieved for 25 isolates. Sequence analysis revealed 16 isolates belonging to Sub‐assemblage AII and 8 to Sub‐assemblage AIII. One isolate resulted as ambiguous AI/AIII. Large sequence variability at the sub‐assemblage level was detected, with several double peaks and mutations, making complex a proper isolate allocation. When compared with previous studies, the 35.3% prevalence of G. duodenalis in cats reported in the present article was surprisingly high. Moreover, all positive cats resulted to be infected with zoonotic assemblages/sub‐assemblages, thus indicating stray cats as a possible source of human giardiasis and highlighting the sanitary relevance of cat colonies in the study area.

The global prevalence and risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection among cats during 1988-2021: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Cryptosporidiosis is an important zoonosis caused by Cryptosporidium. This disease causes a global public health problem. The cat is considered to be one of the potential hosts for transmitting Cryptosporidium to humans. In this study, a global meta-analysis for Cryptosporidium infection in cats was performed. The articles related to Cryptosporidium infection in cats were systematically searched in databases China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang data, VIP Chinese Journal Database, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Finally, 92 articles published from 1988 to 2021, which met the criteria of systematic review and meta-analysis, were collected. During the selected period, the overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium among cats was identified to be 6.0%. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium detected by microscopy, coproantigens, and molecular biology methods were 4.2%, 8.2%, and 5.0%, respectively. Among 9 species/genotypes (C. felis, C. parvum, C. muris, Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV, C. baileyi, C. ryanae, C. hominis, Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype III and most closely related to Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype III), the prevalence of C. parvum (4.2%) was significantly higher than that of other species/genotypes. Among five continents, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Africa (30.5%) was significantly higher than in other continents. We also analyzed the effects of different geographical factors (longitude, latitude, altitude, mean temperature, precipitation, and humidity) on Cryptosporidium infection among cats. The results showed that cryptosporidiosis was common in cats all over the world. This systematic review and meta-analysis has systematically introduced the global epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in cats and correlated risk factors. Health authorities, doctors, veterinarians and cat owners' awareness of the prevalence, risk factors and complications of Cryptosporidium are important for the development of effective prevention strategies for cryptosporidiosis.

A RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF THE CLINICAL UTILITY OF FECAL BACTERIAL ENTERIC PATHOGEN CULTURES IN MAMMALS WITHIN A ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTION AND THE USE OF FECAL CYTOLOGY FOR OPTIMIZATION OF DIAGNOSTIC TESTING

To determine the diagnostic value of fecal bacterial enteric pathogen cultures (FBEPC) as part of routine preventive medicine protocols in terrestrial mammals housed in a zoological collection, this study investigated the clinical utility of FBEPC results in context of subsequent clinical actions and how its use was rationalized after adjunct use of fecal cytology as a first-line diagnostic tool. Retrospective results (n = 692) that included a routine FBEPC panel of a commercial diagnostic laboratory, including Aeromonas, Salmonella, Campylobacter, Plesiomonas, Shigella, Yersinia, and Edwardsiella, of 417 mammals were organized into preventive (P; n = 485), diagnostic (D; n = 177), or recheck (R; n = 30) samples; for P and D samples, findings were assigned a "clinical significance factor" of 1 to 5 according to culture results and subsequent clinical actions. A score of 3 or higher indicated positive growth of potentially pathogenic bacterial organisms, of which there were 50 FBEPC (P n = 27, D n = 20, R n = 3). The difference in mean clinical significance factor for P versus D samples was significant. Aeromonas spp. were most frequently isolated (n = 32), followed by Salmonella spp. (n = 8) and Plesiomonas shigelloides (n = 8), then Campylobacter spp. (n = 5). There was no growth of Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella spp., or Edwardsiella spp. In the absence of clinical evidence of gastrointestinal disease, treatment was initiated in only two cases with isolated Campylobacter spp. Implementation of fecal cytology as an initial step in fecal evaluation resulted in a prompt, substantial reduction in number of ordered FBEPC (mean n = 12/month before and n = 5/month after implementation). The findings in this study suggest that FBEPC for these bacterial species has limited value as a screening tool in preventive medicine protocols for the mammalian orders best represented in this study. The use of fecal cytology led to a more targeted and cost-effective use of FBEPC. Fecal cytology as an initial step in preventative and diagnostic testing protocols is recommended.

Retrospective analysis of feline intestinal parasites: trends in testing positivity by age, USA geographical region and reason for veterinary visit

Background

The goals of this retrospective study were to estimate parasite positivity in samples from cats using zinc sulfate fecal flotation by centrifugation (“centrifugation”) and coproantigen and examine trends with age, geographical region and reason for visit to veterinarian. Common methods of parasite detection, such as centrifugal flotation, passive flotation, or direct smear, may underrepresent the true prevalence of intestinal parasites in cats. Coproantigen testing detects more positive samples than traditional methods alone.

Methods

Feline fecal test results from the continental USA containing results for fecal exams performed using centrifugation paired with coproantigen results for ascarid, hookworm, whipworm and Giardia were obtained from the database of a national commercial reference laboratory comprised of multiple regional sites.

Results

Parasite positivity was highest in samples from young cats and decreased with cat age. The western region of the USA had lower total parasite positivity than other regions for all parasites except Giardia. Cats receiving fecal tests during veterinary wellness visits had only slightly lower parasite positivity than samples from cats during sick clinical visits.

Conclusions

This study showed a larger population of cats are at increased risk of parasitism than commonly believed and coproantigen testing produces more positive test results for the four parasites that antigen can detect than centrifugation of feline fecal samples.

Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in domestic dogs and cats in the United States, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean: A review

Toxocara prevalence ranges from 0 to >87% and 0 to >60% in dogs and cats, respectively, within the United States, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean. Higher prevalence occurs in animals less than 1 year of age. Overall, prevalence is higher in cats compared to dogs. The lowest prevalence occurs in the US owned dog population. Specific populations in this industrialized nation, in animal shelters or resource-limited locations, have prevalences similar to those seen in populations from other regions reviewed here. Conversely, subpopulations in Central America and the Caribbean have very low prevalence. Apparent contributors to prevalence, excluding animal age and climate, are socio-economic factors, attitudes towards pet management and animal population density. The lack of data from some regions pose a challenge in assessing trends; however, with the exception of the US owned dog population, there is no strong indication of any decrease in prevalence from historical levels.

Retrospective survey of parasitism identified in feces of client-owned cats in North America from 2007 through 2018

Ownership of domestic cats in North America has been on the increase; however, there are only a few surveys conducted on the prevalence of parasitism in client-owned cats over years. Our study objective was to evaluate parasite prevalence through statistical analysis of fecal examination results for client-owned cats on samples submitted to the veterinary parasitology diagnostic laboratory of Oklahoma State University over a 12-year period. All results of centrifugal flotation, saline direct smear, sedimentation, and Baermann examinations on fecal samples submitted to the Boren Veterinary Medical Hospital and Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory of Oklahoma State University from 2007 through 2018 were included. The impacts of sex, age, and seasonality on the prevalence of infection were also analyzed. A total of 2586 client-owned cat cases were included for this study. Parasites, eggs, oocysts, larvae, or cysts were not detected in the majority of cases (75.5%; 1,953/2586). Approximately 18.8% (485/2586) of client-owned cats were infected by one parasite, and 5.7% (148/2586) of cats were infected by multiple parasites. The most common parasite stage observed was Cystoisospora oocysts (9.4%; 243/2586), followed by Toxocara cati eggs (7.8%; 202/2586), Giardia cysts (4.0%; 104/2586), Alaria eggs (3.5%; 91/2586), Ancylostoma eggs (1.2%; 32/2586), taeniid proglottids/eggs (1.2%; 30/2586), Dipylidium caninum proglottids/egg packets (1.1 %; 29/2586), and Eucoleus aerophilus eggs (0.7%; 18/2586). Less commonly, Physalopetra eggs (0.19%; 5/2586), Toxascaris leonina eggs (0.19%; 5/2586), Tritrichomonas blagburni trophozoites (0.15%; 4/2586), Ollulanus tricuspis larvae/adults (0.12%; 3/2586), Platynosomum fastosum eggs (0.12%; 3/2586), Aelurostrongylus abstrusus larvae (0.08%; 2/2323), Sarcocystis sporocysts (0.08%; 2/2586), Spirometra eggs (0.08%; 2/2586), Mesocestoides proglottids/eggs (0.08%; 2/2586), Trichuris felis eggs (0.08%; 2/2586), Cryptosporidium oocysts (0.04%; 1/2586), and Toxoplasma-like small coccidian oocysts (0.04%; 1/2586) were detected. Additionally, fecal examinations revealed some ectoparasites: Demodex mites (0.9%; 24/2586), Cheyletiella mites (0.15%; 4/2586), and Otodectes cynotis mites (0.04%; 1/2586). There was no statistical significance between different sex groups (p = 0.3316). Age affected the prevalence of Cystoisospora, T. cati, Giardia, and Alaria infections with prevalence decreasing as age increased (p < 0.0001). Statistical analyses also revealed significant differences by months; the higher prevalence of infection occurred from summer through fall (p = 0.0004). Overall, as the number of submittals increased, the prevalence of infection increased over the last 12 years (p < 0.0001). This study supports continuing the current practice of routine broad-spectrum anthelmintic and ectoparasitic treatments for client-owned cats as well as annual/biannual fecal examination.

2019 AAFP Feline Zoonoses Guidelines

AIM

The overarching purpose of the 2019 AAFP Feline Zoonoses Guidelines (hereafter referred to as the 'Guidelines') is to provide accurate information about feline zoonotic diseases to owners, physicians and veterinarians to allow logical decisions to be made concerning cat ownership.

SCOPE AND ACCESSIBILITY

The Panelists are physicians and veterinarians who worked closely together in an attempt to make these Guidelines a document that can be used to support the International One Health movement. This version of the Guidelines builds upon the first feline zoonosis panel report, published in 2003 ( catvets.com/guidelines ), and provides an updated reference list and recommendations. Each of the recommendations received full support from every Panelist. Primary recommendations are highlighted in a series of 'Panelists' advice' boxes.

Survival estimates and outcome predictors for shelter cats with feline panleukopenia virus infection

OBJECTIVE To determine survival estimates and outcome predictors for shelter cats with feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) infection. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. ANIMALS 177 shelter cats with FPV infection. PROCEDURES Medical records of cats treated for FPV infection from 2011 through 2013 were reviewed to collect information pertaining to signalment; history; results of physical examination, CBC, serum biochemical analysis, and blood gas analysis; and treatments (antimicrobials, antiparasitics, antivirals, antiemetics, analgesics, crystalloid or colloid solutions, and blood products). Survival time and outcome predictors were determined by means of Kaplan-Meier estimation, logistic regression, and mixed-model ANOVA. RESULTS Median survival time after hospital admission was 3 days; 20.3% (36/177) of cats survived to discharge from the hospital. Risk of nonsurvival was greater in cats with (vs without) signs of lethargy, rectal temperature < 37.9°C (I00.2°F), or low body weight at hospital admission. Lower (vs higher) leukocyte count on days 3,4, and 7 of hospitalization, but not at admission, was associated with nonsurvival. Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, antiparasitics, and maropitant but not interferon-ω were associated with survival, whereas glucose infusion was associated with nonsurvival. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that FPV infection carried a poor prognosis for shelter cats. Several variables measured at admission or during hospitalization were associated with outcome. Remarkably and contrary to the existing literature, leukopenia at admission had no association with outcome, possibly owing to early prevention of complications.

Prevalence of enteropathogens in cats with and without diarrhea in four different management models for unowned cats in the southeast United States

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Most cats in shelters, sanctuaries, foster homes, and trap-neuter-return programs carried at least one enteropathogen.

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Tritrichomonas foetus and coronavirus were more common in cats with diarrhea.

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Other bacterial, viral, protozoal, and helminth enteropathogens were present in cats with normal feces and diarrhea.

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of enteropathogens in cats with and without diarrhea in four different models for managing unowned cats: short-term animal shelter, long-term sanctuary, home-based foster care, and trap-neuter-return. Fecal samples from 482 cats, approximately half of the cats with normal fecal consistency and half with diarrhea, were tested by zinc sulfate centrifugation and by real-time PCR for a panel of enteropathogens.

At least one enteropathogen of feline or zoonotic importance was detected in a majority of cats, regardless of management model. For most enteropathogens, the presence or absence of diarrhea was not significantly associated with infection, the exceptions being Tritrichomonas foetus in sanctuary cats with diarrhea (26%) and normal fecal consistency (10%), respectively (P ≤ 0.04), and feline coronavirus in foster cats (80% and 58%) (P ≤ 0.001). The types of enteropathogens detected were related to the type of management model, e.g., viral and protozoal infections were most common in shelters, sanctuaries, and foster homes (confinement systems), whereas helminth infections were most common in trap-neuter-return programs (free-roaming cats).

These results suggest that management practices for unowned cats are inadequate for control of enteropathogens and that the presence of diarrhea is a poor indicator of enteropathogen carriage. Risk-management strategies to reduce transmission to people and other animals should focus on sanitation, housing, compliance with preventive care guidelines, periodic surveillance, response to specific enteropathogens, humane population management of free-roaming community cats, public health education, and minimizing the duration and number of cats in mass confinement.

Highly suspected cases of salmonellosis in two cats fed with a commercial raw meat-based diet: health risks to animals and zoonotic implications

BACKGROUND

Feeding raw meat-based diets (RMBD) to companion animals raises public health concerns for both animals and humans. While considerable attention has been paid to bacterial contamination of commercial pet food, few literature studies have investigated foodborne disease in companion animals. Salmonellosis is reported to be infrequent in cats but no known data or studies estimating feline salmonellosis are available or large-scale epidemiological studies assessing Salmonella risk factors.

CASE PRESENTATION

Two highly suspected cases of salmonellosis in two cats fed with a commercial frozen poultry RMBD are presented, for the first time from the same household. The clinical presentation, diagnostics, treatment and follow-up are reported and the zoonotic implications are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

This case highlights the health risks posed to both animals and owners by feeding RMBD to pets, and suggests that these risks should be considered by veterinary practitioners.

Epidemiological evaluation of cat health at a first-response animal shelter in Fukushima, following the Great East Japan Earthquakes of 2011

The Great East Japan Earthquakes of March 11, 2011 caused immense harm to the community and subsequent nuclear accident in Fukushima Prefecture extended the damage. Local residents were forced to evacuated without pets and the left behind animals were rescued from the restricted zone one month later. Unplanned animal rescue and unregulated sheltering caused secondary damage to animals such as disease epidemics at impounded animal shelter. The purpose of this study was to retrospectively evaluate the incidence of upper respiratory infection (URI) and diarrhea in cats at the first response animal shelter in Fukushima, and investigate factors affecting the duration of disease and determinants of treatments performed. Eighty percent and 59% of impounded cats developed URI, 71% and 54% of cats developed diarrhea, and 91% and 83% of cats had at least one disease in 2011 and 2012, respectively. Uses of multiple drug administration (more than five drugs) was associated with prolonged URI and diarrhea. Multiple antibiotics, antihistamines, interferon, and steroids were associated with relapse of and prolonged URI. Developing a standardized treatment protocol for commonly observed diseases at Japanese animal shelters to prevent and control diseases, to promote animal welfare, and protect public health in the face of future disasters is overdue.

Abundance, zoonotic potential and risk factors of intestinal parasitism amongst dog and cat populations: The scenario of Crete, Greece

Background

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the prevalence and infection intensity of intestinal parasites in different dog and cat populations in Crete, Greece, estimate the zoonotic risk and identify risk factors.

Methods

Faecal samples from shelter, household and shepherd dogs and shelter and household cats were analyzed using sedimentation/flotation techniques. Giardia and Cryptosporidium were detected by a quantitative direct immunofluorescence assay (IFA). PCR and sequencing was performed to evaluate the zoonotic potential of Giardia and Cryptosporidium positive samples.

Results

Totals of 879 dog and 264 cat faecal samples were examined. In dogs, the overall prevalence was 25.2% (CI: 22.4–28.1) for Giardia spp.; 9.2% (CI: 7.3–11.1) for Ancylostoma/Uncinaria spp.; 7.6% (CI: 5.9–9.4) for Toxocara spp.; 5.9% (CI: 4.4–7.5) for Cryptosporidium spp.; 4.6% (CI: 3.2–5.9) for Cystoisospora spp.; 2.7% (CI: 1.7–3.8) for Toxascaris leonina; 1.7% (CI: 0.9–2.6) for Capillaria spp.; 0.8% (CI: 0.2–1.4) for taeniid eggs; 0.2% (CI: 0–0.5) for Dipylidium caninum; and 0.1% (CI: 0–0.3) for Strongyloides stercoralis. In cats, the prevalence was 20.5% (CI: 15.6–25.3) for Giardia spp.; 9.5% (CI: 5.9–13.0) for Cystoisospora spp.; 8.3% (CI: 5.0–11.7) for Toxocara spp.; 7.6% (CI: 4.4–10.8) for Ancylostoma/Uncinaria spp.; 6.8% (CI: 3.8–9.9) for Cryptosporidium spp.; 4.2% (CI: 1.8–6.6) for Capillaria spp.; 0.8% (CI: 0–1.8) for taeniid eggs; and 0.4% (CI: 0–1.1) for Hammondia/Toxoplasma. Concerning the risk factors evaluated, there was a negative association between age and Giardia infection and between age and T. leonina infection intensity for dogs. Sequencing results revealed the presence of mainly animal-specific G. duodenalis assemblages C and D in dogs and assemblages F, C and BIV-like in cats, with only a limited number of (co-)infections with assemblage A. As for Cryptosporidium, the dog-specific C. canis and the pig-specific C. scrofarum were detected in dogs and the cat-specific C. felis was detected in cats.

Conclusions

High levels of parasitism in both dogs and cats were recorded. Giardia was the most prevalent parasite in all dog and cat populations except for shepherd dogs. Genotyping results suggest a limited zoonotic risk of Giardia and Cryptosporidium infections from dogs and cats in Crete. Taeniid eggs were more prevalent in shepherd dogs suggesting access to carcasses and posing a threat for cystic echinococcosis transmission. Infection rates of Toxocara spp. in both dogs and cats show that companion animals could be a significant source of infection to humans.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-1989-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Efficacy of a combination of febantel, pyrantel, and praziquantel for the treatment of kittens experimentally infected with Giardia species

This study evaluated the effect of two combination products containing febantel, pyrantel, and praziquantel (FPP) for the treatment of Giardia species in experimentally infected kittens. In experiment 1, five kittens were administered the United States (US) formulation of FPP at doses of 37.8 mg/kg, 7.56 mg/kg, and 7.56 mg/kg, respectively, PO, q24h, for 5 days and four kittens remained as controls. In experiment 2, five kittens were administered the European formulation of FPP at the doses of 12.5 mg/kg, 12 mg/kg, and 4.16 mg/kg, respectively, PO, q24h, for 5 days and four kittens remained as controls. In experiment 3, six kittens were administered the US formulation of FPP at 56.5 mg/kg, 11.3 mg/kg, 11.3 mg/kg, respectively, PO, q24h, for 5 days and five kittens remained as controls. Thirteen days after treatment, kittens testing negative for Giardia species cysts were administered 20 mg/kg methylprednisolone acetate, IM, weekly for a maximum of two injections. Feces were analyzed for Giardia species cysts using a direct immunofluorescence test. After experiment 3, four of the six treated kittens, but no control kittens, remained negative for Giardia species after the administration of methylprednisolone acetate.

Parasites

Parasites are an important cause of human disease worldwide. The clinical severity and outcome of parasitic disease is often dependent on the immune status of the host. Specific parasitic diseases discussed in this chapter are amebiasis, giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporiasis, cystoisosporiasis, microsporidosis, granulomatous amebic encephalitis, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, malaria, babesiosis, strongyloidiasis, and scabies.

Campylobacter Species and Neutrophilic Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Cats

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a common cause of signs of gastrointestinal disease in cats. A subset of cats with IBD has neutrophilic inflammation of the intestinal mucosa.

HYPOTHESIS

Neutrophilic enteritis in cats is associated with mucosal invasion by microorganisms, and specifically Campylobacter spp.

ANIMALS

Seven cats with neutrophilic IBD and 8 cats with lymphoplasmacytic IBD.

METHODS

Retrospective review of duodenal biopsy specimens that were collected endoscopically for histologic examination. Cases were identified and selected by searching the histopathology archive for cats with a diagnosis of neutrophilic and lymphoplasmacytic IBD. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) targeting either all eubacteria or individual Campylobacter spp. was performed on archived samples. Neutrophils were detected on the same samples using a FISH probe for neutrophil elastase.

RESULTS

Campylobacter coli was present in (6/7) cats with neutrophilic IBD and in (1/8) cats with lymphoplasmacytic IBD (P = .009). Cats with neutrophilic IBD had significantly higher number of C. coli (median bacteria 0.7/hpf) in the mucosa than cats with lymphoplasmacytic IBD (median bacteria 0/hpf) (P = 0.002). Colocalization of neutrophils and C. coli was demonstrated, with C. coli closer to the neutrophils than any other bacteria (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Identification of C. coli associated with neutrophilic inflammation suggests that C. coli is able either to produce compounds which stimulate neutrophils or to induce feline intestinal cells to produce neutrophil chemoattractants. This association should allow a directed therapeutic approach in cats with neutrophilic IBD, potentially improving outcome and reducing any zoonotic risk.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Campylobacter spp. Prevalence and Concentration in Household Pets and Petting Zoo Animals for Use in Exposure Assessments

Animal contact is a potential transmission route for campylobacteriosis, and both domestic household pet and petting zoo exposures have been identified as potential sources of exposure. Research has typically focussed on the prevalence, concentration, and transmission of zoonoses from farm animals to humans, yet there are gaps in our understanding of these factors among animals in contact with the public who don’t live on or visit farms. This study aims to quantify, through a systematic review and meta-analysis, the prevalence and concentration of Campylobacter carriage in household pets and petting zoo animals. Four databases were accessed for the systematic review (PubMed, CAB direct, ProQuest, and Web of Science) for papers published in English from 1992–2012, and studies were included if they examined the animal population of interest, assessed prevalence or concentration with fecal, hair coat, oral, or urine exposure routes (although only articles that examined fecal routes were found), and if the research was based in Canada, USA, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Studies were reviewed for qualitative synthesis and meta-analysis by two reviewers, compiled into a database, and relevant studies were used to create a weighted mean prevalence value. There were insufficient data to run a meta-analysis of concentration values, a noted study limitation. The mean prevalence of Campylobacter in petting zoo animals is 6.5% based on 7 studies, and in household pets the mean is 24.7% based on 34 studies. Our estimated concentration values were: 7.65x10³cfu/g for petting zoo animals, and 2.9x10⁵cfu/g for household pets. These results indicate that Campylobacter prevalence and concentration are lower in petting zoo animals compared with household pets and that both of these animal sources have a lower prevalence compared with farm animals that do not come into contact with the public. There is a lack of studies on Campylobacter in petting zoos and/or fair animals in Canada and abroad. Within this literature, knowledge gaps were identified, and include: a lack of concentration data reported in the literature for Campylobacter spp. in animal feces, a distinction between ill and diarrheic pets in the reported studies, noted differences in shedding and concentrations for various subtypes of Campylobacter, and consistent reporting between studies.

Cerebral Toxocariasis: Silent Progression to Neurodegenerative Disorders?

Toxocara canis and T. cati are highly prevalent nematode infections of the intestines of dogs and cats. In paratenic hosts, larvae do not mature in the intestine but instead migrate through the somatic tissues and organs of the body. The presence of these migrating larvae can contribute to pathology. Toxocara larvae can invade the brains of humans, and while case descriptions of cerebral toxocariasis are historically rare, improved diagnosis and greater awareness have contributed to increased detection. Despite this, cerebral or neurological toxocariasis (NT) remains a poorly understood phenomenon. Furthermore, our understanding of cognitive deficits due to toxocariasis in human populations remains particularly deficient. Recent data describe an enhanced expression of biomarkers associated with brain injury, such as GFAP, AβPP, transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), NF-L, S100B, tTG, and p-tau, in mice receiving even low doses of Toxocara ova. Finally, this review outlines a hypothesis to explore the relationship between the presence of T. canis larvae in the brain and the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) due to enhanced AD-associated neurodegenerative biomarker expression.

Nucleic-acid testing, new platforms and nanotechnology for point-of-decision diagnosis of animal pathogens

Accurate disease diagnosis in animals is crucial for animal well-being but also for preventing zoonosis transmission to humans. In particular, livestock diseases may constitute severe threats to humans due to the particularly high physical contact and exposure and, also, be the cause of important economic losses, even in non-endemic countries, where they often arise in the form of rapid and devastating epidemics. Rapid diagnostic tests have been used for a long time in field situations, particularly during outbreaks. However, they mostly rely on serological approaches, which may confirm the exposure to a particular pathogen but may be inappropriate for point-of-decision (point-of-care) settings when emergency responses supported on early and accurate diagnosis are required. Moreover, they often exhibit modest sensitivity and hence significantly depend on later result confirmation in central or reference laboratories. The impressive advances observed in recent years in materials sciences and in nanotechnology, as well as in nucleic-acid synthesis and engineering, have led to an outburst of new in-the-bench and prototype tests for nucleic-acid testing towards point-of-care diagnosis of genetic and infectious diseases. Manufacturing, commercial, regulatory, and technical nature issues for field applicability more likely have hindered their wider entrance into veterinary medicine and practice than have fundamental science gaps. This chapter begins by outlining the current situation, requirements, difficulties, and perspectives of point-of-care tests for diagnosing diseases of veterinary interest. Nucleic-acid testing, particularly for the point of care, is addressed subsequently. A range of valuable signal transduction mechanisms commonly employed in proof-of-concept schemes and techniques born on the analytical chemistry laboratories are also described. As the essential core of this chapter, sections dedicated to the principles and applications of microfluidics, lab-on-a-chip, and nanotechnology for the development of point-of-care tests are presented. Microdevices already applied or under development for application in field diagnosis of animal diseases are reviewed.

Stray cats gastrointestinal parasites and its association with public health in ahvaz city, South Western of iran

Background:

Cats are the hosts for some zoonotic parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. which are important in medicine and veterinary. Studies on the prevalence of intestinal parasites of cats have received little attention in south west of Iran.

Objectives:

The current study aimed to investigate the prevalence of parasites in stray cats in Ahvaz.

Materials and Methods:

Random sampling was carried out from January to May 2012. One hundred and forty fecal samples from stray cats were examined using sucrose flotation method.

Results:

Gastrointestinal parasites were found in 121 of the 140 (86.4%) examined samples. The parasites detected in stray cats were Toxocara spp. (45%, 63/140), Isospora spp. (21.4%, 30/140), nematode larvae (21.4%, 30/140), Taenia spp. (18.6%, 26/140), Sarcocystis spp. (17.1%, 24/140), Eimeria spp. (15%, 21/140), Blastocystis spp. (14.3%, 20/140), Giardia spp, (10.7%, 15/140), Physaloptera spp. (7.1%, 10/140), and amoeba cyst (5.7%, 8/140) respectively. The prevalence of infection by Joyexiella spp. and hook worms (4.3%, 6/140), for example, Dipylidium caninum (2.9%, 4/140) was similar; and the prevalence of infection by T. gondii and Dicrocoelium dendriticum was similar (1.4%, 2/140).

Conclusions:

Since the prevalence of zoonotic gastrointestinal parasites such as Toxocara spp. in stray cats is high, there is a need to plan adequate programs to control these zoonotic parasites.

Infectious diseases in large-scale cat hoarding investigations

Animal hoarders accumulate animals in over-crowded conditions without adequate nutrition, sanitation, and veterinary care. As a result, animals rescued from hoarding frequently have a variety of medical conditions including respiratory infections, gastrointestinal disease, parasitism, malnutrition, and other evidence of neglect. The purpose of this study was to characterize the infectious diseases carried by clinically affected cats and to determine the prevalence of retroviral infections among cats in large-scale cat hoarding investigations. Records were reviewed retrospectively from four large-scale seizures of cats from failed sanctuaries from November 2009 through March 2012. The number of cats seized in each case ranged from 387 to 697. Cats were screened for feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) in all four cases and for dermatophytosis in one case. A subset of cats exhibiting signs of upper respiratory disease or diarrhea had been tested for infections by PCR and fecal flotation for treatment planning.

Mycoplasma felis (78%), calicivirus (78%), and Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (55%) were the most common respiratory infections. Feline enteric coronavirus (88%), Giardia (56%), Clostridium perfringens (49%), and Tritrichomonas foetus (39%) were most common in cats with diarrhea. The seroprevalence of FeLV and FIV were 8% and 8%, respectively. In the one case in which cats with lesions suspicious for dermatophytosis were cultured for Microsporum canis, 69/76 lesional cats were culture-positive; of these, half were believed to be truly infected and half were believed to be fomite carriers. Cats from large-scale hoarding cases had high risk for enteric and respiratory infections, retroviruses, and dermatophytosis. Case responders should be prepared for mass treatment of infectious diseases and should implement protocols to prevent transmission of feline or zoonotic infections during the emergency response and when transferring the rescued cats to other shelters or to adopters.

Enteropathogen co-infection in UK cats with diarrhoea

Background

Individual enteropathogen infections in healthy and clinically ill cats are well described, but prevalence and patterns of enteropathogen co-infection have only been reported on a limited basis. We studied enteropathogen co-infection in diarrhoeic UK cats using results of a real time PCR assay for 8 enteropathogenic species; feline coronavirus (Co), feline panleukopenia virus (Pa), Clostridium perfringens (Cl), Salmonella enterica (Sa), Giardia spp. (Gi), Tritrichomonas foetus (Tr), Cryptosporidium spp. (Cr), and Toxoplasma gondii (To). Age, gender, breed and history were recorded. PCR panels from 1088 diarrhoeic cats were available for analysis.

Results

Overall enteropathogen prevalence was 56.9% (Co), 22.1% (Pa), 56.6% (Cl), 0.8% (Sa), 20.6% (Gi), 18.8% (Tr), 24.4% (Cr) and 1.0% (To). Prevalence of Co, Gi and Tr was higher in pedigree cats compared to non-pedigree cats (DSH) and prevalence decreased with increasing age for Co, Pa, Gi, Cr and Tr. Co-infection was common: ≥2 enteropathogens were detected in 62.5% of cats, and 13.3% of cats had ≥4 enteropathogens. Mean ( x¯) enteropathogen co-infection 2.01 (±1.3 SD), was significantly higher in pedigree cats ( x¯ =2.51) compared to DSH ( x¯ =1.68) and decreased with age ( x¯ =2.64 <6 months, x¯ =1.68 for >1 yr). More cats were negative for all 8 enteropathogens tested (12.7%) than expected. When exact combinations of co-infection were examined, Tr tended to be found in combinations with Co, Cl, and Gi.

Conclusions

Multiple infections should be considered the most likely result of faecal testing in cats, and case management needs to take this into account. In contrast, the relatively high percentage of cats negative for all 8 enteropathogens tested could indicate an innate resistance to infection. Alternatively it could indicate a lack of exposure to these 8 enteropathogens or the presence of other enteropathogens not assessed by this assay.

Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Cats

Overview:

Toxoplasma gondii infection is common in cats, but the clinical disease is rare. Up to 50% of cats, especially free-roaming ones, have antibodies indicating infection and the presence of cystic stages.

Disease signs:

Clinical signs only appear in few cats when they become immunosuppressed – in these situations cystic stages can be reactivated. Commonly affected are the central nervous system (CNS), muscles, lungs and eyes.

Human infection:

Cats can pose a risk for humans when they shed oocysts. However, this happens only once in their lifetime, usually only for 3–10 days after ingestion of tissue cysts. Thus, cats that have antibodies to T gondii no longer shed oocysts, and do not pose a risk to humans.

Questionnaire survey on the occurrence of risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection amongst farmers in Thika District, Kenya

A survey was conducted to determine the occurrence of risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection amongst farmers in Thika District, Kenya. Interviews were conducted in a total of 385 households using a structured questionnaire. The water consumed at household level originated from taps (74.3%), rivers or streams (15.1%), wells (5.4%) and boreholes (5.2%). A number of households (46.8%) consumed water without boiling or applying any form of treatment. All respondents washed vegetables before cooking, whilst 99.0% washed fruits before eating. Boiled milk was preferred by 99.5% of the farmers. The majority (85.2%) consumed beef more often, whilst 1.6% consumed pork. The majority (98.7%) consumed thoroughly cooked meat. Meat was preserved by 17% of farmers. Only four farmers (1.2%) who practised mixed farming used gloves when handling livestock manure. Five farmers (1.6%) reported the occurrence of abortion in ruminants and pigs on their farms within the last two years before the study. Almost half (44.9%) of the households owned cats, which were kept mainly as pets (79.8%) and for deterring rodents (20.2%). The majority of households (91.3%) fed the cats on leftovers, whilst 8.1% fed cats with raw offal. Sixteen households (9.2%) provided housing for cats. Only five households (2.8%) had litter boxes, but none of the households with litter boxes used gloves when cleaning them out. Disposal of cat faeces was done mainly by women (55.5%). Only one farmer (0.3%) had some knowledge about toxoplasmosis, but was not aware of the transmission mechanism. The study highlights the need for public health education to raise awareness of risk factors for toxoplasmosis.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies, circulating antigens and DNA in stray cats in Shanghai, China

Background

Toxoplasma gondii is prevalent in most areas of the world and may cause abortions or neonatal complications in humans. As the only definitive host, cats play an important role in the epidemiology of the disease. Infection rates in cats, especially stray or free-living cats, are considered to be the best sentinels of the level of T. gondii in the environment. The T. gondii infection can be diagnosed in different ways with different methods depending on the target. However, little information on T. gondii infection in cats was available in Shanghai, China. Moreover reports on prevalence of circulating antigens, antibodies and DNA of T. gondii in the same study are rare.

Methods

In the present study, the presence of antibodies (Ab), circulating antigens (CA), and/or DNA of Toxoplasma gondii in samples from 145 stray or unwanted cats from 6 animal shelters in Shanghai (China) was determined in order to estimate the prevalence of T. gondii infection, by Ab-ELISA, CA-ELISA, and nested-PCR, respectively.

Results

The positive rates for the antibodies, circulating antigen and DNA of T. gondii were 11.7% (17 of 145), 5.5% (8 of 145) and 5.71% (2 of 35), respectively. No cat tested was positive by both the Ab-ELISA and the CA-ELISA, but the results of the PCR were consistent with the CA-ELISA assay. Therefore, the overall estimated prevalence of toxoplasmosis was 17.2% (25 of 145). According to our results, the positive rates of specific antibodies and circulating antigen of T. gondii were significantly different between adult cats (>1 year old) and juvenile cats (≤1 year old); the former was 13.5% versus 3.9% by Ab-ELISA, while the latter was 1.7% versus 23.1% by CA-ELISA. From the results obtained with all three detection methods used in this study, the rate of infection was not significantly different between male and female cats (P ≥0.05); and the overall rate was 17.9% for males versus 16.4% for females.

Conclusions

The results suggest that detection of circulating antigens (CA) is necessary in surveys of T. gondii infection, especially for juvenile cats. Our investigation revealed that the prevalence of T. gondii infection in stray cats in Shanghai is high. Control programs are needed for stray cat populations in order to reduce the risk of zoonotic transmission of toxoplasmosis to other domestic animals and humans, especially females.

Association of Parkinson's disease with infections and occupational exposure to possible vectors

The ultimate causes of idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) are not fully known, but environmental and occupational causes are suspected. Postencephalitic parkinsonism has been linked to influenza, and other viral infections have also been suspected to relate to PD. We estimated the relationship between PD and both infections and possible vectors of infection (i.e., animal and human) in a population-based, case-control study in British Columbia, Canada. We recruited 403 cases detected by their use of antiparkinsonian medications and 405 controls from the registrants of the provincial universal health insurance plan. Severe influenza was associated with PD (odds ratio [OR]: 2.01; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16-3.48), although this effect was attenuated when reports were restricted to those occurring 10 or more years before diagnosis. Childhood illnesses were inversely associated with PD, particularly red measles (OR: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.48-0.90). Several animal exposures were associated with PD, with statistically significant effects for cats (OR: 2.06; 95% CI: 1.09-3.92) and cattle (OR: 2.23; 95% CI: 1.22-4.09). Influenza infection may be associated with PD. The inverse relationships with childhood infections may suggest an increased risk with subclinical or asymptomatic childhood infections. Occupational exposure to animals may increase risk through transmission of infections or may indicate exposure to another agent of interest (e.g., bacterial endotoxin).

Zoonotic parasites of bobcats around human landscapes

We analyzed Lynx rufus fecal parasites from California and Colorado, hypothesizing that bobcats shed zoonotic parasites around human landscapes. Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium, Ancylostoma, Uncinaria, and Toxocara cati were shed. Toxoplasma gondii serology demonstrated exposure. Giardia and Cryptosporidium shedding increased near large human populations. Genotyped Giardia may indicate indirect transmission with humans.

Cryptosporidium species screening using Kinyoun technique in domestic cats with diarrhea

Cryptosporidium is a coccidian that can lead to diarrhea, especially in immunosuppressed individuals. Retroviruses are considered a primary cause of immunosuppression in cats. Fecal specimens and blood collected from the 60 cats were evaluated for the presence of acid-fast cryptosporidia in three consecutive stool samples and for feline leukemia virus (FeLV) antigen and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) antibody by ELISA testing. Five animals (8.33%) shedding oocysts were found, one was both FIV- and FeLV-negative and four were FeLV-positive.

Cryptosporidiosis: comparison of three diagnostic methods and effects of storage temperature on detectability of cryptosporidia in cattle faeces

Three diagnostic methods (a modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining technique (MZN), a negative staining with carbol fuchsine (CF) and a commercial enzyme immunoassay (EIA) kit, ProSpecT® Cryptosporidium Microplate Assay (Remel, Lenexa, KS, USA)) for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in cattle faeces were compared regarding sensitivity and suitability under routine laboratory conditions, with particular emphasis on sample storage. In the 103 faecal samples examined, cryptosporidia infections were detected significantly more often by EIA (p<0.05; n=76) than by MZN (n=65) if ten random fields were evaluated microscopically, but not if the whole coverslip was scanned. In contrast, sensitivities of EIA and CF (n=69) did not differ significantly. Results were obtained very rapidly by CF. However, the hands-on time of CF is comparable to EIA, while MZN is more time consuming. EIA is more expensive than CF and MZN but easy to perform and to evaluate and does not need considerably experienced staff in contrast to CF and MZN. Moreover, 45 faecal samples stored for up to 27 days at different temperatures (+6°C, +16°C, +30°C, +40°C) were examined. The sensitivity of microscopic detection of oocysts in stained smears (CF, MZN) decreased in a temperature and time-dependent manner, while EIA results were not influenced by sample storage at any temperature.

Prevalence of selected bacterial and parasitic agents in feces from diarrheic and healthy control cats from Northern California

BACKGROUND

Bacterial and parasitic agents are commonly implicated as causes of diarrhea in cats, but there is a paucity of information evaluating epidemiological and prevalence factors associated with most of these organisms in cats.

OBJECTIVES

Determine the prevalence of selected enteropathogens in diarrheic and nondiarrheic cats.

ANIMALS

A total of 219 diarrheic and 54 nondiarrheic cats.

METHODS

Prospective study. Fresh fecal specimens were submitted for centrifugation flotation, culture, ELISA (Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin [CPE], and C. difficile toxin A [TcdA]) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing (Tritrichomonas foetus and Campylobacter spp.). An epidemiologic questionnaire was completed for each cat.

RESULTS

Campylobacter was isolated from significantly fewer diarrheic (21/219 or 9.6%) versus nondiarrheic cats (15/54 or 27.8%, P = .001), and was detected in 74 of 131 cats (56.5%) via PCR. Campylobacter jejuni, C. helveticus, and C. upsaliensis were detected in 6.8, 100, and 44.6% of the 74 cats. Multiple Campylobacter spp. were identified in 47.3% of these cats. All cats were negative on fecal culture for Salmonella and for C. difficile TcdA via ELISA. CPE was detected in 9/219 diarrheic (4.1%) and in 1/54 nondiarrheic cats (1.9%, P = .69). Cats < 2 years were significantly more likely to be infected with intestinal parasites (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Routine fecal cultures and toxin immunoassays for detection of bacteria are of limited diagnostic value in diarrheic cats. Molecular-based testing is superior to fecal cultures for detection and identification of Campylobacter spp., but positive test results do not correlate to the presence of disease.

Enteropathogenic bacteria in dogs and cats: diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment, and control

This report offers a consensus opinion on the diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment, and control of the primary enteropathogenic bacteria in dogs and cats, with an emphasis on Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli associated with granulomatous colitis in Boxers. Veterinarians are challenged when attempting to diagnose animals with suspected bacterial-associated diarrhea because well-scrutinized practice guidelines that provide objective recommendations for implementing fecal testing are lacking. This problem is compounded by similar isolation rates for putative bacterial enteropathogens in animals with and without diarrhea, and by the lack of consensus among veterinary diagnostic laboratories as to which diagnostic assays should be utilized. Most bacterial enteropathogens are associated with self-limiting diarrhea, and injudicious administration of antimicrobials could be more harmful than beneficial. Salmonella and Campylobacter are well-documented zoonoses, but antimicrobial administration is not routinely advocated in uncomplicated cases and supportive therapy is recommended. Basic practices of isolation, use of appropriate protective equipment, and proper cleaning and disinfection are the mainstays of control. Handwashing with soap and water is preferred over use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers because spores of C. difficile and C. perfringens are alcohol-resistant, but susceptible to bleach (1:10 to 1:20 dilution of regular household bleach) and accelerated hydrogen peroxide. The implementation of practice guidelines in combination with the integration of validated molecular-based testing and conventional testing is pivotal if we are to optimize the identification and management of enteropathogenic bacteria in dogs and cats.

A survey on endoparasites and ectoparasites of stray cats from Mashhad (Iran) and association with risk factors

As there appeared to be no data available on parasite infection of stray cats in the region and considering the potential threat of stray cats for animal and public health, the present study was carried out using biological samples and necropsy finding collected from cats captured in Mashhad city in the northeast of Iran. From a total 52 stray cats examined, 18 (34.6%) were male and 34 (65.4%) were female. Ten species of endoparasites including helminthes and protozoa and two species of ectoparasites were detected in the examined cats. There were two protozoa, five cestodes, three nematodes and two arthropods. Overall 46 cats (88.46%) have been infected with at least one of the parasites. The following parasites, with their respective prevalence, were found; Nematoda: Toxocara cati 28.84%, Toxocara leonina 7.69%, Physaloptera praeputialis 3.84%; Cestoda: Dipylidium caninum 23.08%, Mesocestoides lineatus 13.46%, Taenia taeniaformis 9.6%, Joyeuxiella echinorhyncoides 7.6% and Taenia hydatigena 1.92%; Protozoa: I. felis 23.7%, Haemobartonella felis 1.92%; Arthropoda: Ctenocephalides felis 1.92% and Cheyletiella blakei 1.92%. Based on our data, there was no significant difference in infection rate between male and female animals. However, the age of the cats were found to be an important risk factor associated with parasitic infection. Our results revealed that zoonotic agents, namely T. cati were present in stray cat colonies in the investigated area. In this respect, appropriate control measures should be taken and it is recommended to determine the most appropriate preventive methods.

Sources of microbial pathogens in municipal solid waste landfills in the United States of America

Municipal solid waste (MSW) categories, as specified by United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), were evaluated for their relative contribution of pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and protozoan parasites into MSW landfills from 1960 to 2007. The purpose of this study was to identify trends and quantify the potential contribution of pathogens in MSW as an aid to the assessment of potential public health risks. A review of the literature was conducted to estimate values for the concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria and pathogens in the major categories of MSW. The major sources of MSW contributing enteric pathogens were food waste, pet faeces, absorbent products, and biosolids. During the last 47 years, recycling of glass, metals, plastic, paper and some organic wastes in MSW has increased, resulting in a decreased proportion of these materials in the total landfilled MSW. The relative proportion of remaining waste materials has increased; several of these waste categories contain pathogens. For all potential sources, food waste contributes the greatest number of faecal coliforms (80.62%). The largest contribution of salmonellae (97.27%), human enteroviruses (94.88%) and protozoan parasites (97%) are expected to come from pet faeces. Biosolids from wastewater treatment sludge contribute the greatest number of human noroviruses (99.94%). By comparison, absorbent hygiene products do not appear to contribute significantly to overall pathogen loading for any group of pathogens. This is largely due to the relatively low volume of these pathogen sources in MSW, compared, for example, with food waste at almost 40% of total MSW.

Prevalence of fecal-borne parasites detected by centrifugal flotation in feline samples from two shelters in upstate New York

Over a 3.5-year period, fecal samples from 1322 cats from two shelters and affiliated foster homes in upstate New York were processed for parasite detection by both 1.18 spg zinc sulfate and 1.3 spg sugar double centrifugal flotation. In 50.9% of the samples at least one parasite was detected. Overall, 18 different parasites ranging in prevalence from 0.2% to 21% were recovered. The most prevalent parasites of foster and shelter cats in this study were Cystoisospora species and Toxocara cati (21% prevalence, each). In order of percentage of positive samples, other findings were: Giardia species (8.9%), Aelurostrongylus abstrusus (6.2%), taeniid eggs (3.9%), Cryptosporidium species (3.8%), Aonchotheca species (3.7%), Eucoleus species (2.3%), Ancylostoma species (2.2%), Cheyletiella species (2.0%), Dipylidium caninum (1.1%), Otodectes species, Toxoplasma-like oocysts and Sarcocystis species (0.8% each), Demodex and Spirometra species (0.4% each), and Alaria species and Felicola subrostratus (0.2% each).