Pets, depression and long term survival in community living patients following myocardial infarction

Breast cancer treatment and recovery: pets' roles as emotional buffers and stressors

BACKGROUND

Research suggests pets foster affection, connection, and physical activity, yet has failed to address the challenges people diagnosed with cancer face in caring for their pets. The objective of this study was to better understand how pets serve as emotional buffers and/or stressors for people diagnosed with breast cancer, and how their ability to meet their pet's needs affects their well-being.

METHODS

A cross-section study of people diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States was conducted. Adults diagnosed with stages 0 (in situ) -IV breast cancer and currently the primary guardian of at least one dog or cat and owned the animal(s) for at least 6 months, were recruited for the study. A total of 211 responses, obtained between July - November 2022 were analyzed. The survey included questions about participants' demographics; attachment to their pets; physical, emotional, and functional well-being; social support received from their pet; and 'pet parenting' concerns. Descriptive statistics were calculated to describe participants' demographics. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine predictors of pet attachment, well-being, support from pet, and 'pet parenting' concerns.

RESULTS

People diagnosed with breast cancer derive substantial support from their pets (80% feel their pet makes them feel loved, needed, and offers a positive presence in the home), yet only 50% of participants feel this relationship is supported by their medical team. Controlling for owner demographics, heightened levels of pet-related guilt and concerns, along with lower perceived support from their pet, are all significant predictors of a lower quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the benefits pets offer people diagnosed with breast cancer, yet also the distress they feel in trying to meet their pet's needs. Assessment conversations about pet ownership, including pet-related support systems, are needed to validate people's concerns and support the identification and development of pet support teams. Medical team facilitated discussions about pet care needs is suggested to demonstrate support for the pet-parent bond and help normalize feelings of guilt related to challenges in meeting their pet's needs. These discussions could be aided through the development of research-driven intervention strategies and online, freely accessible targeted tools.

Age modifies the association between pet ownership and cardiovascular disease

Introduction

Studies examining associations between pet ownership and cardiovascular disease have yielded inconsistent results. These discrepancies may be partially explained by variations in age and sex across study populations. Our study included 6,632 American Gut Project participants who are US residents ≥40 years.

Methods

We first estimated the association of pet ownership with cardiovascular disease risk using multivariable-adjusted logistic regression, and further investigated effect modifications of age and sex.

Results

Cat but not dog ownership was significantly associated with lower cardiovascular disease risk (OR: 0.56 [0.42, 0.73] and OR: 1.17 [0.88, 1.39], respectively). Cat and dog ownership significantly interacted with age but not sex, indicating that cardiovascular risk varies by the age-by-pet ownership combination. Compared to the reference group (40-64 years, no cat or dog), participants 40-64 years with only a cat had the lowest cardiovascular disease risk (OR: 0.40 [0.26, 0.61]). Those ≥65 years with no pets had the highest risk (OR: 3.85 [2.85, 5.24]).

Discussion

This study supports the importance of pets in human cardiovascular health, suggesting optimal pet choice is age-dependent. Having both a cat and dog can be advantageous to people ≥65 years, while having only a cat may benefit those 40-64 years. Further studies are needed to assess causality.

Pet Ownership and Maintenance of Physical Function in Older Adults-Evidence From the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA)

Background and Objectives

Pet ownership or human-animal interaction has been associated with better health outcomes in individuals with disease or disability. We hypothesized that pet ownership, as well as dog ownership and cat ownership separately, are associated with maintaining physical function, and leisure time physical activity and that among dog owners, dog walking is associated with maintaining these outcomes for generally healthy community-dwelling older adults participating in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.

Research Design and Methods

A total of 637 men (44.1%) and women aged 50-100 years (M = 68.3, standard deviation [SD] = 9.6) completed a comprehensive pet ownership questionnaire that ascertained pet ownership history 10-13 years and had serial assessments of physical function every 1-4 years prior. Linear or generalized linear mixed models with time varying pet ownership were used to examine change in physical function over a mean of 7.5 years (range 1-13, SD = 3.6) according to pet ownership.

Results

Pet owners (n = 185) were significantly younger (p < .001) and had fewer comorbidities (p = .03) than nonowners; thus, age and comorbidities were included as covariates in the longitudinal analyses. Physical function and leisure time physical activity declined with aging across all outcomes (p < .001); the decline was slower among pet owners in overall physical performance (p < .001), rapid gait speed (p = .03), usual gait speed (p = .032), cardiorespiratory fitness (p < .001), and physical well-being (p = .002) controlling for age and comorbidities. Changes in leisure time physical activities with aging did not differ between pet owners and nonowners. Dog walking was not independently related to the maintenance of physical function or leisure time physical activity with aging.

Discussion and Implications

This study provides the first longitudinal evidence that pet ownership is associated with maintained physical function among community-dwelling generally healthy older adults.

Pet ownership and survival of European older adults

With pet ownership on the rise, millions of individuals are exposed to this environmental exposure. Although the subject has been largely studied, more evidence is needed to clarify the potential association of pet ownership with human health. The aim of this research is to study the potential association of pet exposure (any pet, cat, dog, bird, fish) with all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality of older ([Formula: see text] 50 years) European residents. To this end, a total of 23,274 participants from the Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) were employed (median follow-up 119 months). All-cause mortality (5163 events), as well as cardiovascular (CVD) (1832 events), and cancer mortality (1346 events) were examined using Cox Proportional Hazards models for their relation with pet exposure at baseline. Stratified analyses were also performed by gender and for single or multi-person households. No significant association was observed for any of the pets with all-cause mortality on the whole sample and the fully adjusted models. In stratified analyses, bird exposure significantly increased the risk of all-cause mortality in women [Hazard Ratio [Formula: see text]; 95% CI 1.04-1.44] as well as women living alone [Formula: see text]; 95% CI 1.02-1.85). Cause-specific models revealed an increased risk of death for women bird owners for causes other than cancer and CVD [Formula: see text]; 95% CI 1.05-1.99). In conclusion, bird ownership may be negatively associated with survival of older women in Europe.

The Lived Experience of Human-Pet Relationships among Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Given the high prevalence and severe consequences of childhood sexual abuse, it is essential to identify ways to support adult survivors. One potential and relatively unexplored resource available to survivors is the human-pet relationship. In the literature, the human-pet relationship is linked to many positive benefits to physiological regulation, mental health, physical health, and social support - areas of functioning where survivors of childhood sexual abuse may be particularly at risk. Despite existing evidence, there is little research on human-pet relationships among survivors of childhood sexual abuse. To help address this gap, this qualitative study explored the lived experience of human-pet relationships among adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Utilizing data collection and analysis methods from Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. The following themes were developed from the data: (a) close bond with pet; (b) idiosyncrasies within the human-pet relationship; (c) moral responsibility; (d) fundamental differences between pets and humans; (e) safety in the human-pet relationship; (f) resource for coping with painful experience; (g) positive impact on well-being; (h) buttress for human-human social interaction; (i) medium for skill and knowledge development; and (j) shortcomings of the human-pet relationship. Findings are discussed in the context of the existing literature, along with considerations for practice and future research with childhood sexual abuse survivors.

Disenfranchised Guilt—Pet Owners’ Burden

Simple Summary

Guilt is the unpleasant emotion associated with one’s behaviors, thoughts, or intentions, and it is based on the possibility that one may be in the wrong or others may have this perception. Parental guilt is one common type of guilt and is often associated with work–family conflict (WFC). WFC and related guilt have been found to be related to depression and anxiety. The current study was designed to explore dog owners’ guilt surrounding their dogs through an online anonymous survey. Results suggest that dog owners’ guilt and WFC associated with their dog are at similar levels to those reported in human family studies. Additionally, the relationship between dog owners’ guilt and discrepancy between their actual and ideal self, in regard to the role of a dog owner, also mirrored human-only family research. Because pet-related guilt is unrecognized, acknowledged, or supported, we suggest it is disenfranchised. In this period of post-COVID-19 pandemic time, as people return to work, it is important that companies and communities acknowledge pet owner guilt and pet-related WFC and help owners find practical, effective solutions.

Abstract

Guilt refers to an unpleasant emotional state associated with one’s behaviors, thoughts, or intentions, and it is based on the possibility that one may be in the wrong or that others may have this perception. Parental guilt is one common subtype and is often associated with work–family conflict (WFC). WFC and related guilt have been found to be associated with depression and anxiety. Through an online anonymous survey, the current study was designed to explore dog owners’ guilt surrounding their dogs. Results suggest that dog owners’ guilt and WFC associated with their dog are at levels similar to those reported in human family studies. Additionally, the relationship between dog owners’ guilt and discrepancy between participants’ actual and ideal self, in regard to the role of a dog owner, also mirrored human-only family research. Because pet-related guilt is unrecognized, acknowledged, or supported, we suggest it is disenfranchised. As people return to work, in this period of post-COVID-19 pandemic time, it is paramount that companies and communities acknowledge pet owner guilt and WFC and help owners find practical, effective solutions.

A Cross-Sectional Study of Knowledge on Ownership, Zoonoses and Practices among Pet Owners in Northern Portugal

Simple Summary

Pet ownership is common in most countries, but few published studies have addressed pet owners’ knowledge of zoonoses, pet contact practices, or awareness of zoonotic disease risks posed by pets. The aim of this study was to assess household knowledge, attitudes, and risks related to pet ownership and zoonoses in northern Portugal. A questionnaire was developed to gather information regarding participants’ demographic characteristics; household pet types and their importance to the family; pet contact-related attitudes; knowledge of zoonoses, high-risk groups, disease transmission pathways, and disease protection measures. It was observed that most participants considered pets an important part of the family. Nevertheless, high-risk practices were recurrent and pet owners’ knowledge was limited. These results reinforce the importance of further studies to better understand the existing gaps in knowledge of pet ownership and zoonoses and strengthens the need to adopt the One Health concept.

Abstract

Pet ownership is common in modern society. In Portugal, 38% and 31% of all households own at least one dog or cat, respectively. Few studies have ascertained the knowledge of pet owners on pet ownership and zoonoses, and none have been carried out in Portugal. The aim of the present study was to assess household knowledge and practices related to pet ownership and zoonoses in northern Portugal. A face-to-face questionnaire was completed by 424 pet owners, from November 2019 to February 2020. Most respondents (97.2%) considered pets as an important part of the family, especially women (p = 0.036); 73.1% allowed their pets to live an indoor/outdoor life; 41.3% denied sharing the bed with their pets while 29% assumed they did it daily; 20.3% reported never kissing their pets/pets licking their faces. Furthermore, 73.6% considered animals as potential sources of human diseases, but only 25.9% reported knowing the definition of zoonoses; 96.9% considered the role of veterinarians important in protecting public health. The low level of knowledge of pet owners and the occurrence of high-risk behaviors indicates a need to strengthen communication between veterinarians, physicians, pet owners, and the general public towards reduce the risk of acquisition and transmission of zoonoses.

Advancing Human-Animal Interaction to Counter Social Isolation and Loneliness in the Time of COVID-19: A Model for an Interdisciplinary Public Health Consortium

The mental and physical human costs of social isolation and loneliness-and their possible amelioration through human-animal interaction (HAI)-have both received intense attention since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, and its lockdowns, quarantines, and related mitigation measures. Concern about society's "loneliness epidemic", however, predates the pandemic, as does serious inquiry into HAI as a positive intervention. Recognizing the potential of companion animals to make a difference on an important public health issue, the Consortium on Social Isolation and Companion Animals-a novel partnership of the Human Animal Bond Research Institute (HABRI) and Mars Petcare-launched a joint initiative in 2019 to advance HAI research, address barriers to HAI, and support best practices in bringing together animals and people to ease loneliness. Beginning with a first-ever summit of multidisciplinary thought leaders, this collaboration has already yielded actionable insights and research projects. As a novel partnership initiative in the HAI field, it offers a promising model for future cross-disciplinary forward thinking to elevate HAI for the mutual benefit of companion animals and their welfare, as well as vulnerable human populations.

Dogs at the Workplace: A Multiple Case Study

Simple Summary

Pet-friendly policies are becoming more common in the workplace, but little is known about how the presence of dogs influences the work environment. For this reason, the paper includes a study on how dogs influence the work environment and under which circumstances companies can benefit from a pet-friendly policy. An inductive research approach was used for this study. Qualitative data were conducted by interviewing dog-owners who routinely bring their dogs to the office and persons in management positions in the same companies. Finally, the results of the evolving data analysis through successive iterations was formed into a grounded theory. The results of the study generally support the belief that dogs at the workplace can have a positive influence on individual and collective well-being of organizational members in an office environment. However, the study shows that these positive effects of dogs are linked to certain prerequisites that need to be fulfilled in the company. These include flexible hours, autonomy, and open communication. While those requisites are not necessary in order to be able to implement pet-friendly policies, they are highly relevant when companies seek to decrease stress for employees and improve the work atmosphere and social capital.

Abstract

As the work environment is increasing in competitiveness and stressfulness, more and more companies try to increase employee well-being. One option is allowing employees to bring their dogs to work, building on the considerable evidence that dogs have a positive influence on people’s well-being. However, little is known about how a dog’s presence influences the employees and the companies in offices. Therefore, we empirically scrutinize the presence of dogs in organizations and the impact of pet-friendly organizational policies, with multiple case studies with semi-structured interviews as their foundation. Based on an inductive approach for the data analysis, we found that organizational members consider that dogs can lower their stress, improve communication, and foster social cohesion when a flexible organizational culture is in place. This includes the following: Problems in the company are openly addressed; employees have job autonomy, with flexibility to take breaks; and mistakes and errors are allowed to be made by employees and their companions alike, and room to find solutions is given. The inflexible permission of pets at work can, on the contrary, create pressure and stress in employees. For the business world, this implicates that this kind of incentive only leads to success if the right framework and culture is in place, and it cannot only be seen as an instrument to increase employee well-being.

Punishment to Support: The Need to Align Animal Control Enforcement with the Human Social Justice Movement

Simple Summary

The current emphasis on enforcement and punishment in animal control policy has disproportionately negative impacts on low-income communities in the United States (US), particularly people of color. In this way, animal protection efforts are perpetuating many of the same inequities under examination in the human social justice movement. Reallocating the resources that have historically gone towards enforcement in communities to efforts that provide support in addressing the root causes of animal welfare concerns is needed to improve outcomes for pets in historically underserved communities.

Abstract

Due to inherent and systemic biases, animal control policies in the US are over-enforced in low-income communities and communities of color, resulting in worse health outcomes for the pets in these communities. These outcomes are exemplified by higher confiscation, relinquishment, and euthanasia rates, lower return to owner rates, and extended lengths of stay in animal shelters. The Humane Communities framework operationalizes One Health and One Welfare concepts to comprehensively address issues of inequity at both the individual and structural levels to improve animal control policy and outcomes. Person-centered and culturally competent policies and programs that focus resources on addressing root causes of pet health and welfare issues as opposed to an emphasis on code enforcement can create more positive, scalable, and sustainable improvements in human, other animal, and environmental health and welfare outcomes. This shift from punishment-oriented approaches to support-based models of animal control aligns the animal welfare field with the modern human social justice movement.

Pet Ownership Patterns and Successful Aging Outcomes in Community Dwelling Older Adults

Introduction: Diminishing cognitive and physical functions, worsening psychological symptoms, and increased mortality risk and morbidity typically accompany aging. The aging population's health needs will continue to increase as the proportion of the population aged > 50 years increases. Pet ownership (PO) has been linked to better health outcomes in older adults, particularly those with chronic conditions. Much of the evidence is weak. Little is known about PO patterns as people age or the contribution of PO to successful aging in community-dwelling older adults. This study examines PO patterns among healthy community-dwelling older adults and the relationship of PO to cognitive and physical functions and psychological status. Methods: Participants in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (> 50 years old, N = 378) completed a battery of cognitive, physical function, and psychological tests, as well as a PO questionnaire. Descriptive and non-parametric or general/generalized linear model analyses were conducted for separate outcomes. Results: Most participants (82%) had kept pets and 24% have pets: 14% dogs, 12% cats, 3% other pets. The most frequent reasons for having pets included enjoyment (80%) and companionship (66%). Most owners had kept the pet they had the longest for over 10 years (70%). PO was lower in older decades (p < 0.001). Pet owners were more likely to live in single-family homes and reside with others (p = 0.001) than non-owners. Controlling for age, PO was associated independently with better cognitive function (verbal leaning/memory p = 0.041), dog ownership predicted better physical function (daily energy expenditure, p = 0.018), and cat ownership predicted better cognitive functioning (verbal learning/memory, p = 0.035). Many older adults who did not own pets (37%) had regular contact with pets, which was also related to health outcomes. Conclusion: PO is lower at older ages, which mirrors the general pattern of poorer cognitive and physical function, and psychological status at older ages. PO and regular contact with pets (including PO) are associated with better cognitive status compared with those who did not own pets or had no regular contact with pets independent of age. Dog ownership was related to better physical function. Longitudinal analysis is required to evaluate the association of PO and/or regular contact with maintenance of health status over time.

Critical Review of Research Methods Used to Consider the Impact of Human-Animal Interaction on Older Adults' Health

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Most research on human-animal interaction (HAI) and human health focuses on one of three perspectives: (a) health effects of pet ownership; (b) health effects of contact with a companion animal; or (c) health effects of animal-assisted interventions including animal-assisted therapies, and animal-assisted activities.

METHODS

We reviewed research methods used to address each perspective, within the context of human aging, and identified challenges associated with these methods.

RESULTS

The complex challenges involved in designing studies to address all three perspectives and examples of research design elements that can be used to alleviate issues raised in each type of study are provided.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

We suggest emerging methodologies that may be helpful for answering important questions from all three perspectives about the relationship of HAI to health outcomes for older adults.

Pet ownership and risk of dying from cancer: observation from a nationally representative cohort

We longitudinally examined the relationship between pet ownership and risk of dying from cancer in a nationally representative cohort of 13,725 adults in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. The vital status was followed through 31 December 2010. Women who owned pets (any type) presented one-year shorter survival time (15.88 years) than non-pet owner (16.83 years). A larger difference of survival time was particularly seen in bird owners (13.01 years) compared to non-bird owners (16.82 years). After adjusting for potential confounders, hazard ratio (HR) of dying from cancer associated with any type of pets was 1.08 (95% CI = 0.77-1.50) for men and 1.40 (1.01-1.93) for women. The association in women was presumably driven by owning birds [HR 2.41 (1.34-4.31)] or cats [HR 1.48 (0.97-2.24)]. Keeping birds and cats in the household was associated with an increased risk of dying from cancer, especially in women.

Service provider recognition of the significance of animal companionship among trans and cisgender women of diverse sexualities

Extensive literature reveals the many health benefits animal companions can bring to the humans who live with them. However, much of this work has taken place with heterosexual and cisgender populations. To address this gap, we conducted qualitative interviews with 19 trans and cisgender women of diverse sexualities in Australia who reported having significant relationships with animal companions. In this article, we explore the benefits of healthcare providers (e.g. doctors, counsellors) recognising the potential significance of interspecies companionship for the health of trans and cisgender women of diverse sexualities. Findings relating to interactions with animal service providers are used to further illustrate themes of recognition and non-recognition as they relate to the women's genders, sexualities, and relationships with animal companions. In the discussion we consider some of the contextual challenges for such recognition to occur in service provision. Suggestions are then offered in relation to how providers might think about service provision which is both inclusive of all women and takes into account close connections with animal companions.

Association between dog ownership and type 2 diabetes in later life: the Helsinki birth cohort study

Dog ownership has been reported to have beneficial effects on physical activity and emotional well-being, both known to reduce the risk for type 2 diabetes (T2D). The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between dog ownership during the whole life course and having T2D in later life. The study subjects consisted of 731 people (307 men and 424 women) from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. We assessed dog ownership with questionnaires, for every decade of life as well as current dog ownership. We investigated the associations between dog ownership and T2D with generalised estimating equation models and with generalised linear models. At a mean age of 71.0 (standard deviation [SD] 2.6) years, 13% of the participants had T2D. Dog ownership prior to the clinical examination was not associated with T2D (p ≥ 0.51). In men, but not in women, current dog owners had greater odds of having T2D compared with the non-owners when adjusted for age when clinically examined, socio-economic status, smoking, leisure-time physical activity, chronic diseases (OR = 3.32, 95% confidence interval 1.25-8.79, p = 0.016). In the age group of people around 70 years, dog ownership is not associated with reduced odds for developing T2D. Abbreviations: BMI: body mass index; CI: confidence interval; GEE: generalised estimating equation; HBCS: Helsinki Birth Cohort Study; KIHD: Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease; LTPA: leisure-time physical activity; MET: metabolic equivalent of task; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; OR: Odds ratio; SD: standard deviation; SES: socio-economic status; T2D: type 2 diabetes.

The State of Animal-Assisted Interventions: Addressing the Contemporary Issues that will Shape the Future

As the worldwide popularity of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) increases, the fieldis quickly approaching a paradigm shift, adjusting its image to incorporate more evidence-basedresearch and aligning its purpose for advancing a new future. Contemporary critical issues thatconfront the field today include, but are not limited, to research, animal welfare, practice guidelines,and public policy. This article will provide an overview of the history of AAI and the majormilestones that the field has undergone. The current state of AAI research will be scrutinized, andthe areas that warrant further study will be recommended. Special attention will be given to thecurrent state of animal welfare in AAI, the research that has been done in the area, and practiceguidelines that safeguard animal wellbeing. This article will then discuss how evidence-basedresearch and animal welfare guidelines inform the development of comprehensive professionalstandards and influence changes in public policy regarding AAI. The authors' perceptions for thefield's future trajectory will be presented, which will include solutions to move the field in thedirection that best advances the human-animal bond in research, practice, and public perception.

Dog Ownership and Survival: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Dog ownership has been associated with decreased cardiovascular risk. Recent reports have suggested an association of dog companionship with lower blood pressure levels, improved lipid profile, and diminished sympathetic responses to stress. However, it is unclear if dog ownership is associated with improved survival as previous studies have yielded inconsistent results. Thus, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the association of dog ownership with all-cause mortality, with and without prior cardiovascular disease, and cardiovascular mortality.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Studies published between 1950 and May 24, 2019 were identified by searching Embase and PubMed. Observational studies that evaluated baseline dog ownership and subsequent all-cause mortality or cardiovascular mortality. Two independent reviewers extracted the data. We assessed pooled data using random-effects model. A possible limitation was that the analyses were not adjusted for confounders. Ten studies were included yielding data from 3 837 005 participants (530 515 events; mean follow-up 10.1 years). Dog ownership was associated with a 24% risk reduction for all-cause mortality as compared to nonownership (relative risk, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.67-0.86) with 6 studies demonstrating significant reduction in the risk of death. Notably, in individuals with prior coronary events, living in a home with a dog was associated with an even more pronounced risk reduction for all-cause mortality (relative risk, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.17-0.69; I², 0%). Moreover, when we restricted the analyses to studies evaluating cardiovascular mortality, dog ownership conferred a 31% risk reduction for cardiovascular death (relative risk, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.67-0.71; I², 5.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Dog ownership is associated with lower risk of death over the long term, which is possibly driven by a reduction in cardiovascular mortality. Systematic Review Registration URL: http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/. Unique identifier: CRD42018111048.

Dog Ownership and Cardiovascular Health: Results From the Kardiovize 2030 Project

Objective

To investigate the association of pet ownership, and specifically dog ownership, with cardiovascular diseases (CVD) risk factors and cardiovascular health (CVH) in the Kardiovize Brno 2030 study, a randomly selected prospective cohort in Central Europe.

Patients and Methods

We included 1769 subjects (aged from 25 to 64 years; 44.3% males) with no history of CVD who were recruited from January 1, 2013, to December 19, 2014. We compared sociodemographic characteristics, CVD risk factors, CVH metrics (ie, body mass index, healthy diet, physical activity level, smoking status, blood pressure, fasting glucose, and total cholesterol), and score between pet owners and non-pet owners or dog owners and several other subgroups.

Results

Approximately 42% of subjects owned any type of pet: 24.3% owned a dog and 17.9% owned another animal. Pet owners, and specifically dog owners, were more likely to report physical activity, diet, and blood glucose at ideal level, and smoking at poor level, which resulted in higher CVH score than non-pet owners (median, 10; interquartile range = 3 vs median, 9; interquartile range = 3; P=0.006). Compared with owners of other pets, dog owners were more likely to report physical activity and diet at ideal level. The comparison of dog owners with non-dog owners yielded similar results. After adjustment for covariates, dog owners exhibited higher CVH scores than non-pet owners (β=0.342; SE=0.122; P=0.005), other pet-owners (β=0.309; SE=0.151; P=0.041), and non-dog owners (β=0.341; SE=0.117; P=0.004).

Conclusion

Except for smoking, dog owners were more likely to achieve recommended level of behavioral CVH metrics (physical activity and diet) than non-dog owners, which translated into better CVH.

Pet ownership and the risk of dying from lung cancer, findings from an 18 year follow-up of a US national cohort

PURPOSE

In contrast to the popularity of pets, research on the health effects of living with pets, particularly, on the risk of cancer, is minimal and inconclusive. We longitudinally examined relationships between pet ownership and the risk of dying from lung cancer.

METHODS

We analyzed nationally representative data of 13,725 adults aged ≥ 19 who answered the question about pet ownership in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994, as the baseline survey. Vital status was followed through December 31st, 2010.

RESULTS

About 43% of the study population owned pets, with 20.4% having cats and 4.6% having birds. A total of 213 lung cancer deaths were recorded by the end of 183,094 unweighted person-years of follow-up with a lung-cancer specific death rate of 1.00 per 1000 person-years. After adjustment for cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, body mass index, history of atopic conditions, and serum cotinine, owning a pet (any) was associated with a doubled mortality rate among women for lung cancer [hazard ratio (HR)= 2.31 (1.41-3.79)] over non-owners. This association was largely attributed to having a cat or a bird. The HR was 2.85 (1.62-5.01) for cats, and 2.67 (0.68-10.5) for birds. The HR for dogs was 1.01 (0.57-1.77). No significant patterns of association were observed among men either for any pets or for a subtype of pet.

CONCLUSIONS

Living with a pet, especially, a cat or a bird, was significantly associated with elevated hazard of dying from lung cancer among women. The detrimental effect that pets conferred was not explained by confounding from cigarette smoking or atopic conditions.

A modest protective association between pet ownership and cardiovascular diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose

Investigate the relationship between pet ownership and cardiovascular (CV) outcomes.

Methods

We searched the PubMed, Ovid EMBASE, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases up to August 2018. Eligible publications examining the association between pet ownership and all-cause and CV mortality (primary outcomes) and risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD), myocardial infarction (MI), and stroke (secondary outcomes) were included. We used the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale to assess the quality of the articles.

Results

We included 12 studies, involving 488,986 participants (52.3% female, mean age 56.1 years), in our systematic review. The mean follow-up duration was 8.7 ± 6.3 years. Pet ownership had no association with adjusted all-cause mortality (odds ratio, OR = 1.01, 95% confidence interval, CI [0.94, 1.08], I² = 76%), adjusted CV mortality (OR = 0.87, 95% CI [0.75, 1.00], I² = 72%), or risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) (OR = 0.87, 95% CI [0.72, 1.05], I² = 73%), myocardial infarction (MI) (OR = 0.99, 95% CI [0.97, 1.01], I² = 0%), or stroke (OR = 0.99, 95% CI [0.98, 1.01], I² = 0%). However, subgroup analysis showed that pet ownership was associated with a lower adjusted CV mortality in the general population (OR = 0.93, 95% CI [0.86, 0.99], I² = 27%) than in CVD patients. In patients with established CVD, pet ownership was associated with a lower adjusted CVD risk (OR = 0.71, 95% CI [0.60, 0.84], I² = 0%).

Conclusion

Pet ownership is not associated with adjusted all-cause or CV mortality, or risk of CVD, MI, or stroke, but it is associated with a lower adjusted CV mortality in the general population and a lower CVD risk in patients with established CVD.

The Relationship between Pet Ownership, Social Support, and Internalizing Symptoms in Students from the First to Fourth Year of College

Internalizing symptoms are prevalent in students as they enter and complete college. Considering research suggesting mental health benefits of pet ownership, this study explores the relationship between pet ownership, social support (SS), and internalizing symptoms (IS) in a cohort of students across their 4-year college experience. With no differences at college entry, students growing up with pets had greater IS through the fourth year, and greater SS through the third year, than those without pets. Currently living with a pet, gender, SS and personality predicted IS in the fourth year. Females experiencing higher IS in their first year are more likely to live with pets in their fourth year, and fourth year females living with pets or greatly missing absent pets have higher IS than females without pets or missing pets less. Findings suggest a unique relationship between IS in female students and their pet relationships not seen in males.

Pets, Social Participation, and Aging-in-Place: Findings from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging

Des données de référence nationales et représentatives de l’Étude longitudinale canadienne sur le vieillissement (ÉLCV) ont été utilisées pour évaluer si la possession d’un animal de compagnie était associée à la participation sociale et à la satisfaction de vivre des personnes âgées (≥65 ans, n= 7,474). Des statistiques descriptives ont permis de distinguer les modalités de la possession d’animaux dans la population canadienne plus âgée, et des modèles de régression logistique ont été utilisés pour estimer les associations entre la participation sociale et la satisfaction de vivre de personnes âgées possédant ou non des animaux. Un tiers des personnes âgées de l’échantillon ont rapporté posséder des animaux. En moyenne, les personnes possédant des animaux avaient une satisfaction de vivre inférieure (OR=0,73, p<0,001) et participaient à moins d’activités sociales, récréatives et culturelles sur une base régulière (OR=0,73, p<0,001) que les personnes sans animaux; cependant, les personnes avec animaux n’étaient pas moins satisfaites de leur niveau actuel de participation sociale que celles sans animaux. Pour les propriétaires d’animaux dont la participation sociale était compromise, les animaux semblaient constituer un facteur de protection dans certaines circonstances. Des caractéristiques individuelles et des facteurs structurels liés au cadre conceptuel des Collectivités amies des aînés de l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé ont permis de mieux comprendre ces résultats.

Human-animal interaction as a social determinant of health: descriptive findings from the health and retirement study

Background

We focused on human-animal interaction (HAI) as an important aspect of social functioning at the individual level, framing this emerging field from a public health perspective.

Methods

Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) 2012 HAI module, we describe the characteristics of pet ownership in a population of older adults, and examine the relation between pet ownership and multiple mental and physical health indicators such as health status, depression, and physical activity.

Results

Of the 1657 participants in our subsample, approximately half (51.5%) reported being pet owners; the majority owned dogs or cats, and most had only one pet. Pet ownership was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of ever having had depression, with pet owners being 1.89 times more likely to have experienced depression. However, pet ownership was not associated with having experienced depression within the last week.

Conclusions

The findings from this study could indicate a relationship between pet ownership and depression, but it is impossible to determine the directionality of that relationship. It is possible that owning a pet may put a person at an increased risk of developing depression, or individuals who are at risk, or who have already developed depression, may acquire a pet as a way of managing their depressive symptoms. The findings of this study provide an initial step in contributing to our understanding of the relationship between companion animals and the social, physical, and mental well-being of the HRS study population. Future research should include measures of HAI in longitudinal, population-based surveys.

Dog ownership and the risk of cardiovascular disease and death - a nationwide cohort study

Dogs may be beneficial in reducing cardiovascular risk in their owners by providing social support and motivation for physical activity. We aimed to investigate the association of dog ownership with incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) and death in a register-based prospective nation-wide cohort (n = 3,432,153) with up to 12 years of follow-up. Self-reported health and lifestyle habits were available for 34,202 participants in the Swedish Twin Register. Time-to-event analyses with time-updated covariates were used to calculate hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). In single- and multiple-person households, dog ownership (13.1%) was associated with lower risk of death, HR 0.67 (95% CI, 0.65–0.69) and 0.89 (0.87–0.91), respectively; and CVD death, HR 0.64 (0.59–0.70), and 0.85 (0.81–0.90), respectively. In single-person households, dog ownership was inversely associated with cardiovascular outcomes (HR composite CVD 0.92, 95% CI, 0.89–0.94). Ownership of hunting breed dogs was associated with lowest risk of CVD. Further analysis in the Twin Register could not replicate the reduced risk of CVD or death but also gave no indication of confounding by disability, comorbidities or lifestyle factors. In conclusion, dog ownership appears to be associated with lower risk of CVD in single-person households and lower mortality in the general population.

Pet ownership and survival in the elderly hypertensive population

OBJECTIVES

To assess the association of pet ownership and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality over a long-term follow-up among elderly treated hypertensive participants.

METHODS

Pet-ownership data from a subcohort of the Second Australian National Blood Pressure study were used. Participants were aged 65-84 years at enrolment (1995-1997) and responded to a pet-ownership questionnaire during year 2000. Participants' survival information was determined over a median of 10.9 years that includes Second Australian National Blood Pressure in-trial period (median 4.2 years) together with posttrial follow-up period (median 6.9 years). For the current study, end points were any fatal cardiovascular event and all-cause fatal events.

RESULTS

Of those who responded to a pet-ownership questionnaire (4039/6018 - 67%), 86% (3490/4039) owned at least one pet at any-time during their life (current or previous pet owner), with 36% (1456/4039) owning at least one pet at the time of the survey. During the follow-up period, 958 participants died including 499 deaths of cardiovascular origin. Using a Cox proportional hazard regression model adjusting for possible confounders, there was a 22 and 26% reduction in cardiovascular mortality observed among previous and current pet owners, respectively, compared with those who had never owned one. A similar nonsignificant trend was observed for all-cause mortality once adjusted for potential confounders.

CONCLUSION

Pet ownership was associated with an improved cardiovascular disease survival in a treated elderly hypertensive population.

Human-Animal Interaction and Older Adults: An Overview

Both pet ownership and animal-assisted therapy are becoming increasingly popular in the United States, and the science of human-animal interaction (HAI) seeks to explore how these relationships with animals can impact health and well-being. In particular, one burgeoning area of research is the role of HAI in healthy aging, given the potential for HAI as an important feature of health and well-being in older adults. The purpose of this review is to summarize and evaluate existing research in this innovative area of scholarship, identifying the potential benefits and risks of both pet ownership and animals in therapeutic settings for older adults. We will also identify recommendations for future research and applications in this developing area of scholarship.

Human-Animal Interaction and Older Adults: An Overview

Both pet ownership and animal-assisted therapy are becoming increasingly popular in the United States, and the science of human–animal interaction (HAI) seeks to explore how these relationships with animals can impact health and well-being. In particular, one burgeoning area of research is the role of HAI in healthy aging, given the potential for HAI as an important feature of health and well-being in older adults. The purpose of this review is to summarize and evaluate existing research in this innovative area of scholarship, identifying the potential benefits and risks of both pet ownership and animals in therapeutic settings for older adults. We will also identify recommendations for future research and applications in this developing area of scholarship.

Dog Ownership and Dog Walking: The Relationship With Exercise, Depression, and Hopelessness in Patients With Ischemic Heart Disease

BACKGROUND

Dog ownership has been associated with increased physical activity in the general adult population.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine dog ownership and dog walking and their relationship with home-based and phase II cardiac rehabilitation exercise, depression, and hopelessness in patients with ischemic heart disease.

METHODS

A total of 122 patients with ischemic heart disease were included in this prospective observational study. Patients completed dog ownership/walking questions during their hospitalization. The Cardiac Rehabilitation Exercise Participation Tool, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and State-Trait Hopelessness Scale were completed by mail at 3, 8, or 12 months later. Regression modeling was used to evaluate the significance of dog ownership/walking on exercise, depression and hopelessness.

RESULTS

The sample was 34.4% female and had a mean age of 64.7 ± 9.1 years. Forty-two patients (34.4%) reported owning a dog. Patients who owned but did not walk their dog reported significantly lower levels of home exercise compared with patients who walked their dogs at least 1 day per week (36.8% for non-dog walkers vs 73.9% for dog walkers, P = .019). The odds of participating in home exercise were significantly higher for dog walkers compared with non-dog walkers (odds ratio, 8.1 [1.7, 38.5] vs 1.0). There were no differences in phase II cardiac rehabilitation exercise, depression, or hopelessness between dog owners and non-dog owners or between dog walkers and non-dog walkers.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings show a beneficial effect on home-based exercise for those who dog-walk at least 1 day per week. Healthcare professionals should encourage dog walking to increase dog owners' physical activity levels.

Is Pet Ownership Helpful in Reducing the Risk and Severity of Geriatric Depression?

Many community-dwelling older adults are searching for ways to remain mentally and physically healthy as they age. One frequently offered suggestion is for older people to adopt a pet to avoid loneliness, to stay socially engaged, and to stave off depression. Despite the ubiquity of this advice in popular culture, research findings are equivocal on whether pet ownership is beneficial to the physical and psychological health of older adults. This article evaluates published data relating to pet ownership and its possible impact on depression and related symptoms in the elderly.

Pet Ownership and the Risk of Dying from Cardiovascular Disease Among Adults Without Major Chronic Medical Conditions

INTRODUCTION

In a recent statement, the American Heart Association stated "There are scant data on pet ownership and survival in people without established cardiovascular disease (CVD)". This study sought to fill this gap.

METHODS

We analyzed nationally representative data of 3964 adults aged ≥50 who were free from major physical illnesses. Pet ownership was assessed at baseline between 1988 and 1994. Vital status was followed through December 31st 2006.

RESULTS

With dogs being most popular pets owned by 22.0 (standard error 0.34) % of the participants, 34.6 % of the study population owned a pet. Pet ownership was associated with low rates of CVD deaths [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.69 (95 % CI 0.45-1.07)] and stroke [0.54 (0.28-1.01)] at borderline significant levels among women. These associations were adjusted for physical activity and largely attributed to having a cat rather than a dog. Among cat owners, the HR of all CVD deaths was 0.62 (0.36-1.05) and the HR of dying from stroke was 0.22 (0.07-0.68) compared with non-cat owners. The corresponding HRs among dog owners were 0.82 (0.51-1.34) and 0.76 (0.34-1.71) respectively. No similar associations were observed among men. The hazard of dying from hypertension was not associated with pet ownership for both men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

Owning a cat rather than a dog was significantly associated with a reduced hazard of dying from CVD events, in particular, stroke. The protection pets confer may not be from physical activities, but possibly due to personality of the pet owners or stress-relieving effects of animal companionship.

Invasive Pasteurella multocida Infections - Report of Five Cases at a Minnesota Hospital, 2014

During October 2014, the Minnesota Department of Health was notified of five Hospital A patients with Pasteurella multocida bacteraemia; three had died. Human soft tissue infection with P. multocida typically results from cat or dog bites or scratches. Invasive infection, defined as a P. multocida isolate from a usually sterile site, is rare. We evaluated P. multocida isolations at Hospital A, compared with other Minnesota hospitals to understand invasive infection trends. A case was defined as clinically confirmed P. multocida in a Minnesota resident during 2012-2014. All hospital laboratories were queried; Fisher's exact test was used for comparison. Medical charts were reviewed for 2014 Hospital A patients with P. multocida infections. The Minnesota clinical laboratories survey response rate was 79% (63/80). At Hospital A, proportion of P. multocida isolates from usually sterile sites increased from 0% (0/2) during 2012 to 11% (1/9) during 2013, and to 86% (5/6) during 2014. The proportion of patients with P. multocida isolated from sterile sites was 35% (6/17) at Hospital A compared with 10% (58/583) statewide during 2012-2014 combined (P < 0.05). Among 2014 Hospital A patients with invasive P. multocida infection, all five were men; median age was 70 (range: 44-78) years. Four were temporally clustered within a 33-day period; three of those had bacteraemia on admission, making hospital acquisition possible in only one. Among five bacteraemia patients, four had cirrhosis and/or skin ulcerations, and three died. The proportion of invasive P. multocida cases was substantially higher at Hospital A during 2014. No epidemiologic links between patients were found. Three had known pet exposure. Collaborative educational efforts of chronically ill pet owners by physicians and veterinarians can acknowledge the health benefits of pet ownership, while minimizing risk for serious invasive zoonotic infections, including those caused by P. multocida.

Emerging Cardiovascular Risk Research: Impact of Pets on Cardiovascular Risk Prevention

Animals interact with humans in multiple ways, including as therapy and service animals, commercially as livestock, as wildlife, and in zoos. But the most common interaction is as companion animals in our homes, with an estimated 180 million cats and dogs living in US households. While pet ownership has been reported to have many health benefits, the findings are inconsistent. Cardiovascular risk factors such as lipids, glucose, obesity, and heart rate variability have improved, worsened, or remained the same in the limited number of studies considering companion animals. Physical activity increases have more consistently been linked with dog ownership, although whether this reflects antecedent motivation or direct benefit from the dog is unclear. Allergies and asthma also are variably linked to pet ownership and are confounded by family history of atopy and timing of exposure to pet dander. The benefits of companion animals are most likely to be through reduction in depression, anxiety, and social isolation, but these studies have been largely cross-sectional and may depend on degree of bonding of the owner with the animal. Positive relationships show measurably higher oxytocin with lower cortisol and alpha-amylase levels. Finally, pet ownership is also a marker of better socioeconomic status and family stability, and if companion animals are to provide cardiovascular risk benefit, the route should perhaps be through improved education and opportunity for ownership.

The benefit of pets and animal-assisted therapy to the health of older individuals

Many studies utilizing dogs, cats, birds, fish, and robotic simulations of animals have tried to ascertain the health benefits of pet ownership or animal-assisted therapy in the elderly. Several small unblinded investigations outlined improvements in behavior in demented persons given treatment in the presence of animals. Studies piloting the use of animals in the treatment of depression and schizophrenia have yielded mixed results. Animals may provide intangible benefits to the mental health of older persons, such as relief social isolation and boredom, but these have not been formally studied. Several investigations of the effect of pets on physical health suggest animals can lower blood pressure, and dog walkers partake in more physical activity. Dog walking, in epidemiological studies and few preliminary trials, is associated with lower complication risk among patients with cardiovascular disease. Pets may also have harms: they may be expensive to care for, and their owners are more likely to fall. Theoretically, zoonotic infections and bites can occur, but how often this occurs in the context of pet ownership or animal-assisted therapy is unknown. Despite the poor methodological quality of pet research after decades of study, pet ownership and animal-assisted therapy are likely to continue due to positive subjective feelings many people have toward animals.

Poor social support is associated with increases in depression but not anxiety over 2 years in heart failure outpatients

BACKGROUND

Heart failure (HF) is a major health problem in the United States, affecting 5.7 million American adults. Psychosocial distress, in particular depression, contributes to morbidity and mortality in patients with HF. Little is known about the interrelationship among disease severity, social support, and depression.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the contributions of social support and disease severity to longitudinal changes in depression and anxiety of outpatients with HF.

METHODS

Patients (N = 108) enrolled in the Psychosocial Factors Outcome Study completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II, the State Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Social Support Questionnaire-6 at study entry and every 6 months for up to 2 years.

RESULTS

At baseline, 30% of the patients were depressed and 42% were anxious. Social support amount contributed to changes in depression (P = .044) but not anxiety (P = .856). Depression increased over time for patients who had lower initial social support amount. Depression did not increase for those with higher initial social support amount. Neither New York Heart Association class nor treatment group (placebo or implantable cardioverter defibrillator) interacted with time to predict depression, which indicates that changes in depression were parallel for patients with New York Heart Association class II and class III HF and for those who received implantable cardioverter defibrillators and those who did not. Assessment of patients with HF should include depression and social support. Interventions to enhance social support among patients with HF who have low social support may help alleviate the development of depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Reducing psychological distress and increasing social support may improve health outcomes among HF outpatients. It is important for studies of HF to include assessment of depression, anxiety, and social support and evaluate their contributions to health outcomes.

Describing the relationship between cat bites and human depression using data from an electronic health record

Data mining approaches have been increasingly applied to the electronic health record and have led to the discovery of numerous clinical associations. Recent data mining studies have suggested a potential association between cat bites and human depression. To explore this possible association in more detail we first used administrative diagnosis codes to identify patients with either depression or bites, drawn from a population of 1.3 million patients. We then conducted a manual chart review in the electronic health record of all patients with a code for a bite to accurately determine which were from cats or dogs. Overall there were 750 patients with cat bites, 1,108 with dog bites, and approximately 117,000 patients with depression. Depression was found in 41.3% of patients with cat bites and 28.7% of those with dog bites. Furthermore, 85.5% of those with both cat bites and depression were women, compared to 64.5% of those with dog bites and depression. The probability of a woman being diagnosed with depression at some point in her life if she presented to our health system with a cat bite was 47.0%, compared to 24.2% of men presenting with a similar bite. The high proportion of depression in patients who had cat bites, especially among women, suggests that screening for depression could be appropriate in patients who present to a clinical provider with a cat bite. Additionally, while no causative link is known to explain this association, there is growing evidence to suggest that the relationship between cats and human mental illness, such as depression, warrants further investigation.