Effects of conjugated linoleic acids fed to dairy cows during early gestation on hematological, immunological, and metabolic characteristics of cows and their calves

Evaluation of the Metabolic Relationship between Cows and Calves by Monitoring Calf Health and Cow Automatic Milking System and Metabolic Parameters

With this study, we investigated the relationship between a cow's and calf's metabolic state, and its effect on health status. To achieve this, 20 calves of primiparous and 20 calves of multiparous cows were selected. The calves were monitored for 30 days and scored for signs of disease, as described in McQuirk (2008); according to score, they were divided into healthier calves; the Low calf score group (LCS, 5-8), Medium calf score group (MCS, 9-12) and High calf score group (HCS, 14-17); or calves most prone to disease. Their mothers were monitored for the same period with a Lely Astronaut 3 herd management system (Lely, Maassluis, The Netherlands) for rumination time, milk yield, milk fat, protein, lactose concentrations and milk fat to protein ratio. Both cows and calves were sampled for blood, and concentrations of glucose with β-hydroxybutyrate were registered. The results indicate that primiparous cows had a 16% higher blood glucose concentration (3.03 mmol/L SE = 0.093) compared with multiparous cows (2.61 mmol/L, SE = 0.102) (p < 0.01), but no difference in calf glucose was recorded. Β-hydroxybutyrate levels did not differ significantly between cows and calves by parity group. Rumination time was longest in the HCS group at 550.79 min/d. and was 16% longer compared with the LCS group (461.94 min/d.; p < 0.001) and 8% longer compared with the MCS group (505.56 min/d.; p < 0.001). The MCS group rumination time mean was statistically significantly higher compared with the LCS group by 8% (p < 0.001). Milk yield was also highest in the HCS group (44.8 kg/d.): 19% higher compared with the MCS group (36.31 kg/d., p < 0.001) and 13% higher than the LCS group (38.83 kg/d., p < 0.001). There was also a significant difference between the MCS and LCS groups of 6% (p < 0.001). The HCS group had the highest milk fat concentration (4.47%): it was 4% higher compared with the LCS group (4.28%, p < 0.001) and 5% higher than the MCS group (4.25%, p < 0.001). Milk fat to protein ratio was highest in the HCS group (1.21) and was 7% higher than in the MCS group (1.12, p < 0.001) and 8% higher than in the LCS group (1.11, p < 0.001). The LCS group was determined to have the highest concentration of milk lactose (4.66%). It was 1% higher compared with the MCS group (4.62%, p < 0.001) and 1.07% higher than the HCS group (4.61%, p < 0.001). We can conclude that parity did not affect calf health status and that cows of the HCS group showed symptoms of negative energy balance expressed through higher milk yield, higher milk fat concentration and higher milk fat to protein ratio, with lower milk lactose concentration. Further and more thorough research is needed to evaluate the relationship between pregnant cows and calves.

Influences of glyphosate residues and different concentrate feed proportions in dairy cow rations during early gestation on performance, blood parameters, functional properties and DNA damage of blood cells in cows and their offspring

Maternal exposure to various stimuli can influence pre- and postnatal development of the offspring. This potential has been discussed for glyphosate (GLY), active substance in some non-selective herbicides. Accordingly, present study investigated putative effects of GLY residues in rations on cows and their offspring. Dams received either GLY-contaminated (GLY groups) or control (CON groups) rations combined with low (LC groups) or high (HC groups) concentrate feed proportions (CFP) for 16 weeks during mid- and late lactation and early gestation (59±4 days at beginning of GLY exposure; mean±SE). During this feeding trial, average daily GLY exposures of dams were 1.2 (CONLC), 1.1 (CONHC), 112.5 (GLYLC) and 130.3 (GLYHC) μg/kg body weight/d. After a depletion period (107±4 days; mean±SE) and calving, blood samples of dams and their calves were collected (5-345 min after birth) before calves were fed colostrum and analyzed for hematological and clinical-chemical traits, redox parameters, functional properties of leukocytes and DNA damage in leukocytes. No evidence for malformations of newborn calves could be collected. At parturition, most analyzed blood parameters were not affected by dietary treatment of dams during gestation. Significant GLY effects were observed for some traits, e.g. blood non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in calves. These deviations of GLY groups from CON groups likely resulted from strong time-dependent responses of NEFA levels within the first 105 minutes after birth and before colostrum intake (Spearman´s rank correlation R = 0.76, p<0.001). Additionally, significant GLY effects did not result in differences in measures that were beyond normally observed ranges questioning a pathological relevance. In summary, no evidence for teratogenic or other clear effects of GLY or CFP on analyzed parameters of dams and their newborn calves could be collected under applied conditions. However, detailed studies including GLY exposure during late and complete gestation period would be needed to rule out teratogenic effects.

Effects of a Maternal Essential Fatty Acid and Conjugated Linoleic Acid Supplementation during Late Pregnancy and Early Lactation on Hematologic and Immunological Traits and the Oxidative and Anti-Oxidative Status in Blood Plasma of Neonatal Calves

Fatty acids are known for their regulatory role in inflammation and oxidative stress. The present study investigated 38 calves born from dams, abomasally supplemented with coconut oil, essential fatty acids (EFA), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) or EFA + CLA, according to immunological traits and the oxidative and anti-oxidative status for the first 5 days of life. On day 2 of life, plasma total bilirubin, cholesterol, interleukin 1-β and ferric ion reducing anti-oxygen power (FRAP) were lower in calves with than without maternal EFA supplementation, and FRAP additionally on day 4. On day 3, the concentrations of reactive oxygen metabolites were higher in calves with than without maternal EFA supplementation and additionally on day 5 together of retinol. Total leucocyte counts were decreased in the EFA group compared to the CLA group on day 5. Lymphocyte proportions decreased from day 1 to 5 only in the EFA + CLA group. On day 2, plasma total protein was higher in CLA and EFA + CLA than in EFA calves. Similarly, CLA calves had higher interleukin 1-β concentrations compared to EFA + CLA calves. FRAP was decreased by CLA on day 4. Overall, the maternal fatty acid supply affected the inflammatory response and the oxidative and anti-oxidative status of the neonatal offspring.

The untargeted lipidomic profile of quarter milk from dairy cows with subclinical intramammary infection by non-aureus staphylococci

This observational study determined the lipidome of cow milk during subclinical intramammary infection (IMI) by non-aureus staphylococci (NAS), also defined as coagulase-negative staphylococci, using an untargeted approach. Among the pathogens causing bovine IMI, NAS have become the most frequently isolated bacteria from milk samples. Although the application of system biology approaches to mastitis has provided pivotal information by investigating the transcriptome, proteome, peptidome, and metabolome, the milk lipidome during mammary gland inflammation remains undisclosed. To cover this gap, we determined the milk lipidome of 17 dairy cows with IMI caused by NAS (NAS-IMI), and we compared the results with those of healthy quarter milk from 11 cows. The lipidome was determined following a liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry approach. Sixteen subclasses of lipids were identified in both groups of animals. From 2,556 measured lipids, the abundance of 597 changed more than 10-fold in quarter milk with NAS-IMI compared with healthy quarters. The results demonstrate the influence of NAS-IMI on the milk lipidome, implying significant changes in lipid species belonging to the family of triacylglycerols and sphingomyelins, and contribute to the understanding of inflammatory processes in the bovine udder, highlighting potential novel biomarkers for improving mastitis diagnostics.

Phosphoproteomic Analysis of Subcutaneous and Omental Adipose Tissue Reveals Increased Lipid Turnover in Dairy Cows Supplemented with Conjugated Linoleic Acid

Phosphoproteomics is a cutting-edge technique that can be utilized to explore adipose tissue (AT) metabolism by quantifying the repertoire of phospho-peptides (PP) in AT. Dairy cows were supplemented with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, n = 5) or a control diet (CON, n = 5) from 63 d prepartum to 63 d postpartum; cows were slaughtered at 63 d postpartum and AT was collected. We performed a quantitative phosphoproteomics analysis of subcutaneous (SC) and omental (OM) AT using nanoUPLC-MS/MS and examined the effects of CLA supplementation on the change in the phosphoproteome. A total of 5919 PP were detected in AT, and the abundance of 854 (14.4%) were differential between CON and CLA AT (p ≤ 0.05 and fold change ± 1.5). The abundance of 470 PP (7.9%) differed between OM and SC AT, and the interaction treatment vs. AT depot was significant for 205 PP (3.5% of total PP). The integrated phosphoproteome demonstrated the up- and downregulation of PP from proteins related to lipolysis and lipogenesis, and phosphorylation events in multiple pathways, including the regulation of lipolysis in adipocytes, mTOR signaling, insulin signaling, AMPK signaling, and glycolysis. The differential regulation of phosphosite on a serine residue (S777) of fatty acid synthase (FASN) in AT of CLA-supplemented cows was related to lipogenesis and with more phosphorylation sites compared to acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (ACSS2). Increased protein phosphorylation was seen in acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACACA;8 PP), FASN (9 PP), hormone sensitive lipase (LIPE;6 PP), perilipin (PLIN;3 PP), and diacylglycerol lipase alpha (DAGLA;1 PP) in CLA vs. CON AT. The relative gene expression in the SC and OM AT revealed an increase in LIPE and FASN in CLA compared to CON AT. In addition, the expression of DAGLA, which is a lipid metabolism enzyme related to the endocannabinoid system, was 1.6-fold higher in CLA vs. CON AT, and the expression of the cannabinoid receptor CNR1 was reduced in CLA vs. CON AT. Immunoblots of SC and OM AT showed an increased abundance of FASN and a lower abundance of CB1 in CLA vs. CON. This study presents a complete map of the SC and the OM AT phosphoproteome in dairy cows following CLA supplementation and discloses many unknown phosphorylation sites, suggestive of increased lipid turnover in AT, for further functional investigation.

Modulation of colostrum composition and fatty acid status in neonatal calves by maternal supplementation with essential fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid starting in late lactation

Sufficient maternal supply of essential fatty acids (EFA) to neonatal calves is critical for calf development. In the modern dairy cow, EFA supply has shifted from α-linolenic acid (ALA) to linoleic acid (LA) due to the replacement of pasture feeding by corn silage-based diets. As a consequence of reduced pasture feeding, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) provision by rumen biohydrogenation was also reduced. The present study investigated the fatty acid (FA) status and performance of neonatal calves descended from dams receiving corn silage-based diets and random supplementation of either 76 g/d coconut oil (CTRL; n = 9), 78 g/d linseed oil and 4 g/d safflower oil (EFA; n-6/n-3 FA ratio = 1:3; n = 9), 38 g/d Lutalin (BASF SE, Ludwigshafen, Germany) providing 27% cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 CLA, respectively (CLA; n = 9), or a combination of EFA and CLA (EFA+CLA; n = 11) in the last 9 wk before parturition and following lactation. The experimental period comprised the first 5 d of life, during which calves received colostrum and transition milk from their own dam. The nutrient compositions of colostrum and transition milk were analyzed. Plasma samples were taken after birth and before first colostrum intake and on d 5 of life for FA analyses of the total plasma fat and lipid fractions. Maternal EFA and CLA supplementation partly affected colostrum and transition milk composition but did not change the body weights of calves. Most EFA in calves were found in the phospholipid (PL) and cholesterol ester (CE) fractions of the plasma fat. Maternal EFA supplementation increased the percentage of ALA in all lipid fractions of EFA and EFA+CLA compared with CTRL and CLA calves on d 1 and 5, and the increase was much greater on d 5 than on d 1. The LA concentration increased from d 1 to 5 in the plasma fat and lipid fractions of all groups. The concentrations of docosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and arachidonic acid in plasma fat were higher on d 1 than on d 5, and the percentage of n-3 metabolites was mainly increased in PL if dams received EFA. The percentage of cis-9,trans-11 CLA was higher in the plasma fat of EFA+CLA than CTRL calves after birth. By d 5, the percentages of both CLA isomers increased, leading to higher proportions in plasma fat of CLA and EFA+CLA than in CTRL and EFA calves. Elevated cis-9,trans-11 CLA enrichment was observed on d 5 in PL, CE, and triglycerides of CLA-treated calves, whereas trans-10,cis-12 CLA could not be detected in individual plasma fractions. These results suggest that an altered maternal EFA and CLA supply can reach the calf via the placenta and particularly via the intake of colostrum and transition milk, whereas the n-3 and n-6 FA metabolites partly indicated a greater transfer via the placenta. Furthermore, the nutrient supply via colostrum and transition milk might be partly modulated by an altered maternal EFA and CLA supply but without consequences on calf performance during the first 5 d of life.

Consequences of Maternal Essential Fatty Acid and Conjugated Linoleic Acid Supplementation on the Development of Calf Muscle and Adipose Tissue

Common silage and concentrate-based diets in dairy and beef production may deliver insufficient amounts of essential fatty acids (EFA), thereby also reducing conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) in body tissues and milk. An impaired maternal EFA and CLA supply can have an important impact on calf postnatal development. The current study investigates how maternal supplementation with EFA and CLA affects muscle and adipose tissue development in neonatal calves. Holstein cows (n = 40) were abomasaly supplemented with coconut oil (control), CLA or EFA, or both combined during the transition period. Calves were fed their dam's colostrum until slaughter at day 5 of life. Fatty acid composition and tissue morphology were analyzed. In muscle and adipose tissues, EFA, CLA, and metabolites were elevated, indicating the effective transfer of maternally-supplemented FA to the offspring. Muscle fiber types, fiber nuclei, myosin heavy chain isoform distribution, capillarization, and fat cell size of intramuscular and other adipose tissues did not differ among groups. The results confirm that maternal nutrition during the transition period can alter the FA composition of the calf tissues. This could influence the offspring's development and health in the long-term, even though only minor effects were observed in the neonatal calves' tissue morphology.

In vitro effects of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on inflammatory functions of bovine monocytes

The conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, a group of naturally occurring isomers of the essential fatty acid (FA) linoleic acid, have received special attention in animal and human nutrition. Although they have long been used as dietary integrators in dairy cows, the effects of CLA isomers on bovine immune cells remain mostly undisclosed. The present study aimed to cover this gap and investigate the in vitro effects of CLA on inflammatory functions, including chemotaxis, phagocytosis, killing capability, and extracellular respiratory burst of purified bovine monocytes (CD14⁺). The apoptosis rate of monocytes was addressed as well. Once assessed, the effects of different concentrations (10, 50, 100, and 500 μM) of the 2 main CLA isomers, namely cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12, the experiments were carried out using a concentration of 50 μM of the CLA isomers, both individually and in a mixture (50:50). The immunomodulatory activities of linoleic acid, an essential FA, and stearic acid, a saturated FA, were also investigated. Only the 50:50 CLA mixture was able to reduce monocyte apoptosis and to increase the extracellular respiratory burst during experimental proinflammatory conditions, as assessed by measuring production of reactive oxygen species. Linoleic acid and CLA had no effects on chemotaxis, phagocytosis, or killing capability. Remarkably, treatment of monocytes with stearic acid significantly reduced their chemotactic capability. The present results demonstrated that CLA isomers do have immunomodulatory effects on some functions of bovine monocytes, and that the mixture of the 2 CLA isomers is more effective than the CLA isomers individually.

Dietary Fatty Acids Affect Red Blood Cell Membrane Composition and Red Blood Cell ATP Release in Dairy Cows

Diets of dairy cows are often based on maize silage (MS), delivering lower amounts of n-3 fatty acids (FA) compared to grass silage-based diets. The fatty acid composition of the cell membrane can affect the cell function. We evaluated the effects of an MS-based diet on bovine red blood cell (RBC) membrane FA composition and dietary effects on controlled ATP release of RBC. In trial 1, German Holstein cows were fed an MS-based total mixed ration for 24 weeks. The FA composition of RBC membranes from repeatedly taken blood samples was analysed in addition to the abundance of the RBC membrane protein flotillin-1, which is involved in, for example, cell signalling. In trial 2, four rumen fistulated MS-fed cows were abomasally infused in a 4 × 4 Latin square model with three successively increasing lipid dosages (coconut oil, linseed–safflower oil mix (EFA; rich in n-3 FA), Lutalin®, providing conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) or the combination of the supplements, EFA + CLA) for six weeks, followed by a three-week washout period. In trial 2, we analysed RBC ATP release, flotillin-1, and the membrane protein abundance of pannexin-1, which is involved in ATP release as the last part of a signalling cascade. In trial 1, the total amount of n-3 FA in RBC membranes decreased and the flotillin-1 abundance increased over time. In trial 2, the RBC n-3 FA amount was higher after the six-week infusion period of EFA or EFA + CLA. Furthermore, depending on the dosage of FA, the ATP release from RBC increased. The abundance of flotillin-1 and pannexin-1 was not affected in trial 2. It is concluded that changes of the membrane FA composition influence the RBC function, leading to altered ATP release from intact bovine RBC.

Effects of maternal subnutrition during early pregnancy on cow hematological profiles and offspring physiology and vitality in two beef breeds

This experiment evaluated the effects of subnutrition during early gestation on hematology in cows (Bos Taurus) and on hematological, metabolic, endocrine, and vitality parameters in their calves. Parda de Montaña and Pirenaica dams were inseminated and assigned to either a control (CONTROL, 100% requirements) or a nutrient-restricted group (SUBNUT, 65%) during the first third of gestation. Dam blood samples were collected on days 20 and 253 of gestation, and calf samples were obtained during the first days of life. Pirenaica dams presented higher red series parameters than Parda de Montaña dams, both in the first and the last months of gestation. During early pregnancy, granulocyte numbers and mean corpuscular hemoglobin were lower in Pirenaica-SUBNUT than in Pirenaica-CONTROL cows. Calves from the SUBNUT cows did not show a physiological reduction in red series values in early life, suggesting later maturation of the hematopoietic system. Poor maternal nutrition affected calf endocrine parameters. Newborns from dystocic parturitions showed lower NEFA concentrations and weaker vitality responses. In conclusion, maternal nutrition had short-term effects on cow hematology, Pirenaica cows showing a higher susceptibility to undernutrition; and a long-term effect on their offspring endocrinology, SUBNUT newborns showing lower levels of IGF-1 and higher levels of cortisol.

Animal models to study the impact of nutrition on the immune system of the transition cow

The immune system is particularly challenged in transition cows as marked physiological changes occur in this period which are driven by late gestation, partus and onset of lactation. As a consequence, the metabolic and nutritional state of the cow also changes significantly with possible implications for the plasticity and flexibility of the immune system. In order to understand how the balance between metabolism, nutritional status and the immune system is maintained under challenging conditions, such as an infection, various animal models can be used which specifically manipulate the nutritional status through various feeding and management strategies. Such models aim at exploring the immunological response to a challenge under largely varying nutritional and metabolic states. As energy balance (EB) is strongly associated both with the metabolic state and with the immunoreactivity of the cows the manipulation of the EB by either influencing energy intake or energy excretion with milk, or by both, offers model opportunities for studying EB effects on the immune system. For example, assigning cows with a higher body condition score (BCS) at least 6 weeks prior to calving to an energy-dense diet exceeding the energy requirement in combination with a decelerated increase in the concentrate feed proportion post partum was shown to be effective in inducing a ketotic metabolic state under ad libitum feeding conditions. Compared to an adequately managed control group this model allows studying immune responses in the transit period and in dependence on dietary interventions.

The effect of conjugated linoleic acid supplements on oxidative and antioxidative status of dairy cows

Dairy cows develop frequently negative energy balance around parturition and in early lactation, resulting in excessive mobilization of body fat and subsequently in increased risk of ketosis and other diseases. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) supplements are used in dairy cows mainly for their depressing effect on milk fat content, but are also proposed to have antioxidative properties. As negative energy balance is associated with oxidative stress, which is also assumed to contribute to disease development, the present study was conducted to examine effects of CLA on oxidative and antioxidative status of lactating dairy cows. German Holstein cows (primiparous n=13, multiparous n=32) were divided into 3 dietary treatment groups receiving 100g/d of control fat supplement, containing 87% stearic acid (CON; n=14), 50g/d of control fat supplement and 50g/d of CLA supplement (CLA 50; n=15), or 100g/d of CLA supplement (CLA 100; n=16). The CLA supplement was lipid-encapsulated and contained 12% of trans-10,cis-12 CLA and cis-9,trans-11 CLA each. Supplementation took place between d1 and 182 postpartum; d 182 until 252 postpartum served as a depletion period. Blood was sampled at d -21, 1, 21, 70, 105, 140, 182, 224, and 252 relative to calving. The antioxidative status was determined using the ferric-reducing ability of plasma, α-tocopherol, α-tocopherol-to-cholesterol mass ratio, and retinol. For determination of oxidative status concentrations of hydroperoxides, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), N'-formylkynurenine, and bityrosine were measured. Mixed models of fixed and random effects with repeated measures were used to evaluate period 1 (d -21 to 140) and 2 (d182-252) separately. Cows showed increased oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation during the periparturient period in terms of increased serum concentrations of hydroperoxides and TBARS, which decreased throughout lactation. During period 1, the supplemented cows had lower TBARS concentrations, which was not detectable in period 2. The other determined parameters were not affected by CLA supplementation. The obtained results show that dietary CLA supplementation in the chosen dosage, formulation, and application period had a marginal antioxidative effect in terms of lipid peroxidation in lactating dairy cows.

Effects of elevated parameters of subclinical ketosis on the immune system of dairy cows: in vivo and in vitro results

Using an established model in which subclinical ketosis is induced, the response of differential blood counts and levels of various haematological variables, including the inflammatory marker haptoglobin (Hp), were tested over the last six weeks of parturition until the 56th day post-partum in cows with lower or higher body condition scores (LBC and HBC, respectively; n = 9/group). Animals in the HBC group evidenced subclinical ketosis whereas LBC animals were metabolically healthy. For in vitro examination with ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) as a further stimulus, peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) counts of cows with and without subclinical ketosis (n = 5/group) were observed. Counts of leucocytes, granulocytes and lymphocytes (LY) peaked at day 1 post-partum in HBC cows, with a more marked increase in heifers. In subclinical ketosis LY count increased again, with significantly higher values in the HBC group. The red blood cell (RBC) profile was affected by parity (counts were higher in heifers). Hp showed a positive linear correlation with BHB and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA; R(2) = 0.41). PBMC from cows that were not pre-stressed with subclinical ketosis were more sensitive to increasing levels of BHB in vitro, as evidenced by both their higher proliferative capability and increased release of nitric oxide (NO). In summary, cows with subclinical ketosis showed a heightened immune response compared with metabolically healthy individuals, based on increased LY counts, increasing stimulative properties of PBMC and a relationship between Hp and typically increased values of BHB and NEFA. Concentrations of BHB in vivo during subclinical ketosis did not alter the proliferative capability of bovine PBMC in vitro, which was first significantly decreased at a dosage of 5 mM BHB.