Could scale-up of parenting programmes improve child disruptive behaviour and reduce social inequalities? Using individual participant data meta-analysis to establish for whom programmes are effective and cost-effective

Mentalization-based interventions in schools for enhancing socio-emotional competencies and positive behaviour: a systematic review

Mentalization-based interventions (MBIs) have been increasingly applied in school settings to support the social-emotional development and mental health of children and adolescents. This systematic review aimed to synthesize the evidence on the effectiveness of MBIs implemented in educational contexts for students aged 6-18 years. A comprehensive search was conducted in PsychInfo, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, and ERIC databases from inception to October 2023. The search strategy combined terms related to mentalization, school-based interventions, and the target age group. The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42022302757). Inclusion criteria included peer-reviewed publications in English, studies published between 1980 and 2023, interventions based on mentalization principles, and a primary focus on children aged 6 to 18 years. Exclusion criteria involved non-mentalization based interventions and research outside the 6-18 age range. The risk of bias was assessed using the Quality Assessment Tools from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Data were synthesized narratively due to the heterogeneity of study designs and outcomes. Of the 5,250 articles screened, 21 studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising over 7,500 participants. The reviewed interventions targeted various aspects of mentalizing, such as emotion-understanding, empathy, perspective-taking, and Theory of Mind. Significant improvements were found in social-cognitive abilities, emotion regulation, and mental health outcomes, including reductions in disruptive behaviours. Interventions that combined mentalizing training for both students and teachers showed promising results. However, the long-term sustainability of these benefits remains unclear. Limitations of the reviewed studies include the lack of control groups, small sample sizes, and variations in outcome measures. The findings highlight the potential of MBIs as a promising approach to fostering socio-emotional competence, positive behaviour, and well-being in school-aged children. Future research should aim to establish the active components and optimal delivery of these interventions through well-designed randomized controlled trials with larger, more diverse samples and extended follow-up periods. The integration of MBIs within educational systems holds promise for promoting resilience and positive mental health outcomes in young people. Embedding MBIs within school curriculums and evaluating cost-effectiveness are important next steps to guide widespread implementation.

Review: Systematic review and meta-analysis - financial incentives increase engagement with parenting programs for disruptive behavior problems

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the effect of financial incentives on engagement in parenting programs for disruptive behavior disorders, as well as effect on child behavior. As a secondary aim, demographic differences were investigated as effect modifiers.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, Cochrane Trials, and PsycINFO for randomized controlled trials and quasi experimental studies offering parents a financial incentive for engagement with parenting programs targeting disruptive behavior in children aged under 18, vs no incentive. Engagement in each group was evaluated at four stages: connection, attendance, participation, and enaction. Per protocol (CRD42022336210) random effects meta-analysis was conducted using Stata-16. Meta-analyses of binary data used a log odds ratio and continuous data was standardized using Hedges' g.

RESULTS

We identified 2438 papers and screened 35 at full length. We included eight independent cohorts from seven papers. Parents invited to incentive arms were more likely to complete a threshold of sessions than parents invited to control arms (odds ratio 2.51 95% CI 1.42-4.48). Parents were more likely to agree to participate when they knew they were joining the incentive program (odds ratio 1.40, 95% CI 1.20-1.65) and parents in the incentive group were more likely than parents in the control group to reach a completion threshold of sessions (odds ratio 1.76 95% CI 1.17-2.66).

CONCLUSION

Incentives increase parenting programs engagement among parents who are invited and among parents who have begun attending programs. Incentives are an effective potential tool for increasing engagement but further research is needed to establish acceptability and optimal design.

Reducing family and school-based violence at scale: a large-scale pre-post study of a parenting programme delivered to families with adolescent girls in Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Parenting programmes, including those delivered in the Global South, are effective strategies to reduce violence against children (VAC). However, there is limited evidence of their impact when implemented at scale within routine delivery systems. This study aimed to address this gap by evaluating the real-world delivery of Parenting for Lifelong Health for Teens in Tanzania.

METHODS

Participating parents/caregivers and their adolescent girls were recruited by local implementing partners in 2020-2021 as part of a community-based HIV prevention initiative focused on addressing drivers of female adolescent HIV-vulnerability such as VAC, caregiver-adolescent relationships and sexual reproductive health communication. The 14-session, group-based parenting programme was delivered by trained teachers and community facilitators. Quantitative surveys administered by providers measured a variety of outcomes including child maltreatment (primary outcome) and multiple secondary outcomes linked to increased risk of VAC. Multilevel models examined pre-post effects as well as variation by attendance and baseline demographic variables.

RESULTS

Pre-post data from 27 319 parent/caregiver-child dyads were analysed, of which 34.4% of parents/caregivers were male. Analyses showed large reductions in child maltreatment (parents/caregivers: IRR=0.55, (95% CI 0.54, 0.56); adolescents: IRR=0.57, (95% CI 0.56, 0.58)), reduced intimate partner violence experience, reduced school-based violence, increased communication about sexual health, reduced poor supervision, reduced financial insecurity, reduced parenting stress, reduced parent and adolescent depression, and reduced adolescent conduct problems. In contrast to these positive outcomes, parents/caregivers and adolescents also reported reduced parental positive involvement and support of education, with those experiencing greater adversity reporting less change than those with less adversity.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to examine the large-scale implementation of an evidence-based parenting programme in the Global South. Although additional research is necessary to examine potential negative effects on positive parenting and parent support of education, findings suggest that Furaha Teens can sustain its impact on key outcomes associated with VAC when delivered at scale.

Moderators of the Effects of a Digital Parenting Intervention on Child Conduct and Emotional Problems Implemented During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results From a Secondary Analysis of Data From the Supporting Parents and Kids Through Lockdown Experiences (SPARKLE) Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

A smartphone app, Parent Positive, was developed to help parents manage their children's conduct and emotional problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. A randomized controlled trial, Supporting Parents and Kids Through Lockdown Experiences (SPARKLE), found Parent Positive to be effective in reducing children's emotional problems. However, app effectiveness may be influenced by a range of child, family, socioeconomic, and pandemic-related factors.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined whether baseline factors related to the child, family, and socioeconomic status, as well as pandemic-related disruption circumstances, moderated Parent Positive's effects on child conduct and emotional problems at 1- and 2-month follow-up.

METHODS

This study was a secondary exploratory analysis of SPARKLE data. The data set included 646 children (4-10 years of age) with parents randomized to either Parent Positive (n=320) or follow-up as usual (n=326). Candidate baseline moderators included child age, gender, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, parental psychological distress, family conflict, household income, employment status, household overcrowding, and pandemic-related disruption risk (ie, homeschooling, lockdown status, and isolation status). Child conduct and emotional problem outcomes measured at 1- (T2) and 2-months (T3) post randomization were analyzed using linear mixed-effects analysis of covariance models adjusting for baseline (T1) measure of outcome and including intervention and intervention by time point interaction terms allowing for different effects at the 2 time points. Moderation of intervention effects by baseline factors was assessed by replacing the intervention by time interaction terms with intervention by time point by baseline moderator interaction terms.

RESULTS

Child gender was a significant moderator of the Parent Positive versus follow-up as usual effect on emotional problems (B=0.72, 95% CI 0.12-1.33; P=.02). Specifically, the effect of Parent Positive was close to significant (T2: B=-0.41, 95% CI -0.82 to 0.0004; P=.05) or significant (T3: B=-0.76, 95% CI -1.22 to -0.30; P<.001) in males only when compared with females, and males experienced a significantly larger reduction in emotional problems than females in the Parent Positive arm at the 2-month post randomization time point. None of the other investigated baseline factors moderated effects on emotional problems, and no factors moderated effects on conduct problems.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights Parent Positive's potential for effectively reducing emotional problems in primary school-aged male children across a wide range of families. However, due to limited variability in the demographic background of the families, cautious interpretation is required, and replications are necessary in diverse samples with longer follow-up times.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04786080; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04786080.

The Feasibility and Acceptability of Using a Digital Conversational Agent (Chatbot) for Delivering Parenting Interventions: Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Parenting interventions are crucial for promoting family well-being, reducing violence against children, and improving child development outcomes; however, scaling these programs remains a challenge. Prior reviews have characterized the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of other more robust forms of digital parenting interventions (eg, via the web, mobile apps, and videoconferencing). Recently, chatbot technology has emerged as a possible mode for adapting and delivering parenting programs to larger populations (eg, Parenting for Lifelong Health, Incredible Years, and Triple P Parenting).

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to review the evidence of using chatbots to deliver parenting interventions and assess the feasibility of implementation, acceptability of these interventions, and preliminary outcomes.

METHODS

This review conducted a comprehensive search of databases, including Web of Science, MEDLINE, Scopus, ProQuest, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Review of Interventions and PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines were used to conduct the search. Eligible studies targeted parents of children aged 0 to 18 years; used chatbots via digital platforms, such as the internet, mobile apps, or SMS text messaging; and targeted improving family well-being through parenting. Implementation measures, acceptability, and any reported preliminary measures of effectiveness were included.

RESULTS

Of the 1766 initial results, 10 studies met the inclusion criteria. The included studies, primarily conducted in high-income countries (8/10, 80%), demonstrated a high mean retention rate (72.8%) and reported high acceptability (10/10, 100%). However, significant heterogeneity in interventions, measurement methods, and study quality necessitate cautious interpretation. Reporting bias, lack of clarity in the operationalization of engagement measures, and platform limitations were identified as limiting factors in interpreting findings.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to review the implementation feasibility and acceptability of chatbots for delivering parenting programs. While preliminary evidence suggests that chatbots can be used to deliver parenting programs, further research, standardization of reporting, and scaling up of effectiveness testing are critical to harness the full benefits of chatbots for promoting family well-being.

A National Strategy for Preventing Substance and Opioid Use Disorders Through Evidence-Based Prevention Programming That Fosters Healthy Outcomes in Our Youth

The recently released National Drug Control Strategy (2022) from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) lays out a comprehensive plan to, not only enhance access to treatment and increase harm reduction strategies, but also increase implementation of evidence-based prevention programming at the community level. Furthermore, the Strategy provides a framework for enhancing our national data systems to inform policy and to evaluate all components of the plan. However, not only are there several missing components to the Strategy that would assure its success, but there is a lack of structure to support a national comprehensive service delivery system that is informed by epidemiological data, and trains and credentials those delivering evidence-based prevention, treatment, and harm reduction/public health interventions within community settings. This paper provides recommendations for the establishment of such a structure with an emphasis on prevention. Systematically addressing conditions known to increase liability for behavioral problems among vulnerable populations and building supportive environments are strategies consistently found to avert trajectories away from substance use in general and substance use disorders (SUD) in particular. Investments in this approach are expected to result in significantly lower rates of SUD in current and subsequent generations of youth and, therefore, will reduce the burden on our communities in terms of lowered social and health systems involvement, treatment needs, and productivity. A national strategy, based on strong scientific evidence, is presented to implement public health policies and prevention services. These strategies work by improving child development, supporting families, enhancing school experiences, and cultivating positive environmental conditions. Appeared originally in Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2023; 26:1-16.

On spillovers in economic evaluations: definition, mapping review and research agenda

An important issue in economic evaluations is determining whether all relevant impacts are considered, given the perspective chosen for the analysis. Acknowledging that patients are not isolated individuals has important implications in this context. Increasingly, the term "spillovers" is used to label consequences of health interventions on others. However, a clear definition of spillovers is lacking, and as a result, the scope of the concept remains unclear. In this study, we aim to clarify the concept of spillovers by proposing a definition applicable in health economic evaluations. To illustrate the implications of this definition, we highlight the diversity of potential spillovers through an expanded impact inventory and conduct a mapping review that outlines the evidence base for the different types of spillovers. In the context of economic evaluations of health interventions, we define spillovers as all impacts from an intervention on all parties or entities other than the users of the intervention under evaluation. This definition encompasses a broader range of potential costs and effects, beyond informal caregivers and family members. The expanded impact inventory enables a systematic approach to identifying broader impacts of health interventions. The mapping review shows that the relevance of different types of spillovers is context-specific. Some spillovers are regularly included in economic evaluations, although not always recognised as such, while others are not. A consistent use of the term "spillovers", improved measurement of these costs and effects, and increased transparency in reporting them are still necessary. To that end, we propose a research agenda.

A Digital Microintervention Supporting Evidence-Based Parenting Skills: Development Study Using the Agile Scrum Methodology

BACKGROUND

Conduct disorder increases risks of educational dropout, future mental illness, and incarceration if untreated. First-line treatment of conduct disorder involves evidence-based parenting skills programs. Time-outs, a frequent tool in these programs, can be effective at improving behavior, and recent apps have been developed to aid this process. However, these apps promote the use of time-outs in inconsistent or developmentally inappropriate ways, potentially worsening behavior problems. Digital microinterventions like these apps could guide parents through high-quality time-outs in the moment, but current time-out apps lack features promoting adherence to the evidence-based best practice. Agile scrum is a respected approach in the software development industry.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to explore the feasibility of using the agile scrum approach to build a digital microintervention to help parents deliver an evidence-based time-out.

METHODS

The agile scrum methodology was used. Four sprints were conducted. Figma software was used for app design and wireframing. Insights from 42 expert stakeholders were used during 3 sprint reviews. We consulted experts who were identified from councils around the Midlands region of the United Kingdom and charities through personal contacts and a snowballing approach.

RESULTS

Over 4 development sprints from August 2022 to March 2023, the app was iteratively designed and refined based on consultation with a diverse group of 42 experts who shared their knowledge about the content of common parenting programs and the challenges parents commonly face. Modifications made throughout the process resulted in significant app enhancements, including tailored timer algorithms and enhanced readability, as well as an onboarding zone, mindfulness module, and pictorial information to increase inclusivity. By the end of the fourth sprint, the app was deemed ready for home use by stakeholders, demonstrating the effectiveness of our agile scrum development approach.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed an app to support parents to use the evidence-based time-out technique. We recommend the agile scrum approach to create mobile health apps. Our experience highlights the valuable role that frontline health and social care professionals, particularly those working with vulnerable families, can play as experts in scrum reviews. There is a need for research to both evaluate the impact of digital microinterventions on child behavioral change and also create digital microinterventions that cater to non-English speakers and individuals who participate in parenting programs in settings outside the United Kingdom.

Methods used to conceptualize dimensions of health equity impacts of public health interventions in systematic reviews

OBJECTIVES

Our aims were to, first, identify and summarize the use of methods, frameworks, and tools as a conceptual basis for investigating dimensions of equity impacts of public health interventions in systematic reviews including an equity focus. These include PROGRESS-Plus, which identifies key sociodemographic characteristics that determine health outcomes. Second, we aimed to document challenges and opportunities encountered in the application of such methods, as reported in systematic reviews.

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

We conducted a methodological study, comprising an overview of systematic reviews with a focus on, or that aimed to assess, the equity impacts of public health interventions. We used electronic searches of the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, the Database of Promoting Health Effectiveness Reviews (DoPHER), and the Finding Accessible Inequalities Research in Public Health Database, supplemented with automated searches of the OpenAlex dataset. An active learning algorithm was used to prioritize title-abstract records for manual screening against eligibility criteria. We extracted and analyzed a core dataset from a purposively selected sample of reviews, to summarize key characteristics and approaches to conceptualizing investigations of equity.

RESULTS

We assessed 322 full-text reports for eligibility, from which we included 120 reports of systematic reviews. PROGRESS-Plus was the only formalized framework used to conceptualize dimensions of equity impacts. Most reviews were able to apply their intended methods to at least some degree. Where intended methods were unable to be applied fully, this was usually because primary research studies did not report the necessary information. A general rationale for focusing on equity impacts was often included, but few reviews explicitly justified their focus on (or exclusion of) specific dimensions. In addition to practical challenges such as data not being available, authors highlighted significant measurement and conceptual issues with applying these methods which may impair the ability to investigate and interpret differential impacts within and between studies. These issues included investigating constructs that lack standardized operationalization and measurement, and the complex nature of differential impacts, with dimensions that may interact with one another, as well as with particular temporal, personal, social or geographic contexts.

CONCLUSION

PROGRESS-Plus is the predominant framework used in systematic reviews to conceptualize differential impacts of public health interventions by dimensions of equity. It appears sufficiently broad to encompass dimensions of equity examined in most investigations of this kind. However, PROGRESS-Plus does not necessarily ensure or guide critical thinking about more complex pathways, including interactions between dimensions of equity, and with wider contextual factors, and important practical, measurement and conceptual challenges remain. The findings from investigations of equity impacts in systematic reviews could be made more useful through more explicitly rationalized and considered approaches to the design, conduct and reporting of both primary research and the reviews themselves.

A cost-effectiveness analysis of a universal, preventative-focused, parent and infant programme

BACKGROUND

This study assessed whether a relatively newly developed Parent and Infant (PIN) parenting support programme was cost-effective when compared to services as usual (SAU).

METHODS

The cost-effectiveness of the PIN programme versus SAU was assessed from an Irish health and social care perspective over a 24-month timeframe and within the context of a non-randomised, controlled before-and-after trial. In total, 163 parent-infant dyads were included in the study (86 intervention, 77 control). The primary outcome measure for the economic evaluation was the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC).

RESULTS

The average cost of the PIN programme was €647 per dyad. The mean (SE) cost (including programme costs) was €7,027 (SE €1,345) compared to €4,811 (SE €593) in the control arm, generating a (non-significant) mean cost difference of €2,216 (bootstrap 95% CI -€665 to €5,096; p = 0.14). The mean incremental cost-effectiveness of the PIN service was €614 per PSOC unit gained (bootstrap 95% CI €54 to €1,481). The probability that the PIN programme was cost-effective, was 87% at a willingness-to-pay of €1,000 per one unit change in the PSOC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the PIN programme was cost-effective at a relatively low willingness-to-pay threshold when compared to SAU. This study addresses a significant knowledge gap in the field of early intervention by providing important real world evidence on the implementation costs and cost-effectiveness of a universal early years parenting programme. The challenges involved in assessing the cost-effectiveness of preventative interventions for very young children and their parents are also discussed.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN17488830 (Date of registration: 27/11/15). This trial was retrospectively registered.

The social determinants of mental health and disorder: evidence, prevention and recommendations

People exposed to more unfavourable social circumstances are more vulnerable to poor mental health over their life course, in ways that are often determined by structural factors which generate and perpetuate intergenerational cycles of disadvantage and poor health. Addressing these challenges is an imperative matter of social justice. In this paper we provide a roadmap to address the social determinants that cause mental ill health. Relying as far as possible on high-quality evidence, we first map out the literature that supports a causal link between social determinants and later mental health outcomes. Given the breadth of this topic, we focus on the most pervasive social determinants across the life course, and those that are common across major mental disorders. We draw primarily on the available evidence from the Global North, acknowledging that other global contexts will face both similar and unique sets of social determinants that will require equitable attention. Much of our evidence focuses on mental health in groups who are marginalized, and thus often exposed to a multitude of intersecting social risk factors. These groups include refugees, asylum seekers and displaced persons, as well as ethnoracial minoritized groups; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ+) groups; and those living in poverty. We then introduce a preventive framework for conceptualizing the link between social determinants and mental health and disorder, which can guide much needed primary prevention strategies capable of reducing inequalities and improving population mental health. Following this, we provide a review of the evidence concerning candidate preventive strategies to intervene on social determinants of mental health. These interventions fall broadly within the scope of universal, selected and indicated primary prevention strategies, but we also briefly review important secondary and tertiary strategies to promote recovery in those with existing mental disorders. Finally, we provide seven key recommendations, framed around social justice, which constitute a roadmap for action in research, policy and public health. Adoption of these recommendations would provide an opportunity to advance efforts to intervene on modifiable social determinants that affect population mental health.

Evidence for investing in parenting interventions aiming to improve child health: a systematic review of economic evaluations

A comprehensive review of the economic evidence on parenting interventions targeting different aspects of child health is lacking to support decision-making. The aim of this review is to provide an up to date synthesis of the available health economic evidence for parenting interventions aiming to improve child health. A systematic review was conducted with articles identified through Econlit, Medline, PsychINFO, and ERIC databases. Only full economic evaluations comparing two or more options, considering both costs and outcomes were included. We assessed the quality of the studies using the Drummond checklist. We identified 44 studies of varying quality that met inclusion criteria; 22 targeting externalizing behaviors, five targeting internalizing problems, and five targeting other mental health problems including autism and alcohol abuse. The remaining studies targeted child abuse (n = 5), obesity (n = 3), and general health (n = 4). Studies varied considerably and many suffered from methodological limitations, such as limited costing perspectives, challenges with outcome measurement and short-time horizons. Parenting interventions showed good value for money in particular for preventing child externalizing and internalizing behaviors. For the prevention of child abuse, some programs had the potential of being cost-saving over the longer-term. Interventions were not cost-effective for the treatment of autism and obesity. Future research should include a broader spectrum of societal costs and quality-of-life impacts on both children and their caregivers.

Introduction to the Special Issue on Innovations and Applications of Integrative Data Analysis (IDA) and Related Data Harmonization Procedures in Prevention Science

This paper serves as an introduction to the special issue of Prevention Science entitled, "Innovations and Applications of Integrative Data Analysis (IDA) and Related Data Harmonization Procedures in Prevention Science." This special issue includes a collection of original papers from multiple disciplines that apply individual-level data synthesis methodologies, including IDA, individual participant meta-analysis, and other related methods to harmonize and integrate multiple datasets from intervention trials of the same or similar interventions. This work builds on a series of papers appearing in a prior Prevention Science special issue, entitled "Who Benefits from Programs to Prevent Adolescent Depression?" (Howe, Pantin, & Perrino, 2018). Since the publication of this prior work, the use of individual-level data synthesis has increased considerably in and outside of prevention. As such, there is a need for an update on current and future directions in IDA, with careful consideration of innovations and applications of these methods to fill important research gaps in prevention science. The papers in this issue are organized into two broad categories of (1) evidence synthesis papers that apply best practices in data harmonization and individual-level data synthesis and (2) new and emerging design, psychometric, and methodological issues and solutions. This collection of original papers is followed by two invited commentaries which provide insight and important reflections on the field and future directions for prevention science.

Does Social and Economic Disadvantage Predict Lower Engagement with Parenting Interventions? An Integrative Analysis Using Individual Participant Data

There is a social gradient to the determinants of health; low socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to reduced educational attainment and employment prospects, which in turn affect physical and mental wellbeing. One goal of preventive interventions, such as parenting programs, is to reduce these health inequalities by supporting families with difficulties that are often patterned by SES. Despite these intentions, a recent individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis of the Incredible Years (IY) parenting program found no evidence for differential benefit by socioeconomic disadvantage (Gardner et al. in Public Health Resesearch 5, 1-144, 2017). However, it did not examine whether this was influenced by engagement in the intervention. Using intervention arm data from this pooled dataset (13 trials; N = 1078), we examined whether there was an SES gradient to intervention attendance (an indicator of engagement). We ran mixed-effects Poisson regression models to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for program attendance for each of five (binary) markers of SES: low income; unemployment; low education status; teen parent; and lone parent status. The multilevel structure of the data allowed for comparison of within-trial and between-trial effects, including tests for contextual effects. We found evidence that low SES was associated with reduced attendance at parenting programs-an 8-19% reduction depending on the SES marker. However, there was no evidence that this association is impacted by differences in SES composition between trials or by the attendance levels of higher-SES families. The findings underscore the importance of developing and prioritizing strategies that enable engagement in parenting interventions and encourage program attendance by low-SES families.

Oppositional defiant disorder

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a disruptive behaviour disorder involving an ongoing pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behaviour and vindictiveness. Onset is typically before 8 years of age, although ODD can be diagnosed in both children and adults. This disorder is associated with substantial social and economic burden, and childhood ODD is one of the most common precursors of other mental health problems that can arise across the lifespan. The population prevalence of ODD is ~3 to 5%. A higher prevalence in males than females has been reported, particularly before adolescence. No single risk factor accounts for ODD. The development of this disorder seems to arise from the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, and mechanisms embedded in social relationships are understood to contribute to its maintenance. The treatment of ODD is often successful, and relatively brief parenting interventions produce large sized treatment effects in early childhood. Accordingly, ODD represents an important focus for research, practice and policy concerning early intervention and prevention in mental health.

A National Strategy for Preventing Substance and Opioid Use Disorders Through Evidence-Based Prevention Programming that Fosters Healthy Outcomes in Our Youth

The recently released National Drug Control Strategy (2022) from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) lays out a comprehensive plan to, not only enhance access to treatment and increase harm reduction strategies, but also increase implementation of evidence-based prevention programming at the community level. Furthermore, the Strategy provides a framework for enhancing our national data systems to inform policy and to evaluate all components of the plan. However, not only are there several missing components to the Strategy that would assure its success, but there is a lack of structure to support a national comprehensive service delivery system that is informed by epidemiological data, and trains and credentials those delivering evidence-based prevention, treatment, and harm reduction/public health interventions within community settings. This paper provides recommendations for the establishment of such a structure with an emphasis on prevention. Systematically addressing conditions known to increase liability for behavioral problems among vulnerable populations and building supportive environments are strategies consistently found to avert trajectories away from substance use in general and substance use disorders (SUD) in particular. Investments in this approach are expected to result in significantly lower rates of SUD in current and subsequent generations of youth and, therefore, will reduce the burden on our communities in terms of lowered social and health systems involvement, treatment needs, and productivity. A national strategy, based on strong scientific evidence, is presented to implement public health policies and prevention services. These strategies work by improving child development, supporting families, enhancing school experiences, and cultivating positive environmental conditions.

Positive Parenting and Early Childhood Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

This review examines the effectiveness of positive parenting interventions aimed at improving sensitivity, responsiveness, and/or non-harsh discipline on children's early cognitive skills, in four meta-analyses addressing general mental abilities, language, executive functioning, and pre-academics. The objectives are to assess the magnitude of intervention effectiveness and identify moderators of effectiveness. We include randomized controlled trials of interventions targeting positive parenting to improve cognition in children < 6 years. Studies that include children with neurodevelopmental and/or hearing disorders were excluded. MEDLINE, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (October 2021) and citation chaining identified relevant records. Five reviewers completed screening/assessments, extraction, and risk of bias. Pooled analysis in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 3) used random effects modeling, with moderation via Q-statistics and meta-regression. Positive parenting interventions led to significant improvements in mental abilities (g = 0.46, N = 5746; k = 33) and language (g = 0.25, N = 6428; k = 30). Effect sizes were smaller and nonsignificant for executive functioning (g = 0.07, N = 3628; k = 14) and pre-academics (g = 0.16, N = 2365; k = 7). Robust moderators emerged for language and cognition. For cognition, studies with higher risk of bias scores yielded larger intervention effects. For language, studies with younger children had larger effect sizes. Studies mitigated selection and detection bias, though greater transparency of reporting is needed. Interventions that promote parental sensitivity, responsiveness, and non-harsh discipline improve early mental abilities and language. Studies examining executive functioning and pre-academics are needed to examine moderators of intervention effectiveness. Trial registration Systematic review PROSPERO registration. CRD42020222143.

Commentary for Special Issue on Using Baseline Target Moderation to Assess Variation in Prevention Impact: When (and How) to Revise Our Programs

Developing a better understanding of sources and mechanisms of heterogeneity is a key route to improving outcomes and targeting of preventive interventions. This commentary attempts to draw together findings from eight intervention trials in this special issue, each exploring baseline target moderation (BTM) or baseline target moderated mediation (BTMM). It considers their implications for prevention research and program design, particularly the question of whether they can help us to revise or adapt interventions. The studies cover a range of interventions, targets, and contexts, including parenting, couple, and CBT interventions, for depression, anxiety, conduct problems, or obesity. Some important findings stand out. Where studies found moderator effects, they tended to operate in a "compensatory" fashion, such that greater benefit was found in higher risk groups, suggesting that closer targeting might be warranted. It was rare for harmful effects to be detected for any subgroups. In other respects, patterns of BTM/BTMM findings were quite mixed across studies, suggesting it would be premature to change our interventions based on these trials. Implications of the findings for equity, for "slimming down" and scaling up interventions, and for research are discussed, including the need to combine BTMM with intervention component research, and to accumulate a more robust body of evidence by pooling data across trials.

Methods of assessing value for money of UK-based early childhood public health interventions: a systematic literature review

INTRODUCTION

Economic evaluation has an important role to play in the demonstration of value for money of early childhood public health interventions; however, concerns have been raised regarding their consistent application and relevance to commissioners. This systematic review of the literature therefore aims to collate the breadth of the existing economic evaluation evidence of these interventions and to identify the approaches adopted in the assessment of value.

SOURCE OF DATA

Recently published literature in Medline, EMBASE, EconLit, Health Management Information Consortium, Cochrane CENTRAL, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Health Technology Assessment, NHS EED and Web of Science.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT

The importance of the early childhood period on future health and well-being as well as the potential to impact health inequalities making for a strong narrative case for expenditure in early childhood public health.

AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

The most appropriate approaches to evaluating value for money of such preventative interventions relevant for UK decision-makers given the evident challenges.

GROWING POINTS

The presented review considered inconsistencies across methodological approaches used to demonstrate value for money. The results showed a mixed picture in terms of demonstrating value for money.

AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH

Future resource allocations decisions regarding early childhood public health interventions may benefit from consistency in the evaluative frameworks and health outcomes captured, as well as consistency in approaches to incorporating non-health costs and outcomes, incorporating equity concerns and the use of appropriate time horizons.

Investigating group-based classes ('weaning workshops') to support complementary infant feeding in Irish primary care settings: a cross-sectional survey

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to (1) investigate current practice regarding 'weaning workshops' to support complementary infant feeding delivered within Irish primary care, (2) explore the experiences and opinions of community dietitians regarding optimal content and modes of delivery of weaning workshops and (3) identify the key factors to be considered in the development and implementation of weaning workshops delivered within primary care.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

SETTING

Irish primary care.

PARTICIPANTS

Forty-seven community-based dietitians.

RESULTS

Sixteen dietitians reported that workshops were run in their area with variable frequency, with ten reporting that workshops were never run in their area. Participants reported that mostly mothers of medium socio-economic status (SES) attended weaning workshops when infants were aged between 4 and 7 months, and that feedback from workshop attendees was predominantly positive. Dietitians identified that key factors to be considered in future development and delivery of weaning workshops are (1) workshop characteristics such as content, timing and venue, (2) organisational characteristics such as availability of resources and multidisciplinary involvement and (3) attendee characteristics such as SES.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights substantial variability regarding provision of weaning workshops in Ireland, and a lack of standardisation regarding the provider, content and frequency of workshops where workshops are being delivered. The study also provides unique insights into the experiences and opinions of primary care community dietitians regarding the development and delivery of weaning workshops in terms of optimal content and delivery options. These perspectives will make a valuable contribution given the dearth of evidence in this area internationally.

The cost-effectiveness of a proportionate parenting programme for primary caregivers and their child: an economic evaluation using evidence from the E-SEE Trial

BACKGROUND

Behavioural and mental disorders have become a public health crisis; averting mental ill-health in early years can achieve significant longer-term health benefits and cost savings. This study assesses whether the Enhancing Social-Emotional Health and Wellbeing in the Early Years (E-SEE-Steps)-a proportionate universal delivery model comprising the Incredible Babies book (IY-B) and the Incredible Years Infant (IY-I) and Toddler (IY-T) parenting programmes is cost-effective compared to services as usual (SAU) for the primary caregiver, child and dyad.

METHODS

Using UK data for 339 primary caregivers from the E-SEE trial, we conducted a within-trial economic evaluation assessing the cost-effectiveness of E-SEE Steps. Health outcomes were expressed in quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) and costs in UK pounds sterling (2018-19). Missing data were populated via multiple imputation and costs and QALYs discounted at 3.5% per annum. Cost-effectiveness results were conducted for primary caregivers, children and dyad using econometric modelling to control for patient co-variables. Uncertainty was explored through scenario and sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

The average cost of E-SEE Steps intervention was £458.50 per dyad. E-SEE Steps was associated with modest gains in primary caregiver HRQoL but minor decrements in child HRQoL compared to SAU. For primary caregivers, E-SEE Steps was more effective (0.034 QALYs) and more costly (£446) compared to SAU, with a corresponding incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of £13,011 per QALY. In children, E-SEE Steps was strictly dominated with poorer outcomes (-0.005 QALYs) and greater costs (£178) relative to SAU. QALY gains in primary caregivers exceeded those QALY losses found in children, meaning E-SEE Steps was more effective (0.031 QALYs) and costly (£621) for the dyad (ICER: £20,062 per QALY). All scenario analyses found E-SEE Steps cost-effective for the dyad at a £30,000 per QALY threshold. Sensitivity analyses found significant cost reductions from expansions in programme delivery and attendance.

CONCLUSIONS

E-SEE Steps achieved modest health gains in primary caregivers but small negative effects on children and was more costly than SAU. E-SEE Steps appears cost-effective for the dyad, but the results should be interpreted with caution given the potential detrimental impact on children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN11079129 ; Pre participant trial enrolment, 11/05/2015.

Evaluating childhood policy impacts on lifetime health, wellbeing and inequality: Lifecourse distributional economic evaluation

We introduce and illustrate a new framework for distributional economic evaluation of childhood policies that takes a broad and long view of the impacts on health, wellbeing and inequality from a cross-sectoral whole-lifetime perspective. Total lifetime benefits and public cost savings are estimated using lifecourse microsimulation of diverse health, social and economic outcomes for each individual in a general population birth cohort from birth to death. Cost-effectiveness analysis, policy targeting analysis and distributional analysis of inequality impacts are then conducted using an index of lifetime wellbeing that allow comparisons of both value-for-money (efficiency) and distributional impact (equity) from a cross-sectoral lifetime perspective. We illustrate how this framework can be applied in practice by re-evaluating a training programme in England for parents of children at risk of conduct disorder. Our illustration uses a simple index of lifetime wellbeing based on health-related quality of life and consumption, but other indices could be used based on other kinds of outcomes data such as life satisfaction or multidimensional quality of life. We create the detailed underpinning data needed to apply the framework by using a previously published meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials to estimate the short-term effects and a previously published lifecourse microsimulation model to extrapolate the long-term effects.

A proportionate, universal parenting programme to enhance social-emotional well-being in infants and toddlers in England: the E-SEE Steps RCT

Background

Mental disorders have become a public health crisis. Early prevention is key. Parenting programmes are effective for children aged ≥ 3 years; however, there is a lack of evidence of their effectiveness for children aged ≤ 2 years.

Objectives

To establish if the model named Enhancing Social–Emotional Health and Well-being in the Early Years (E-SEE) Steps can (1) enhance child social emotional well-being and establish whether or not it is cost-effective at 20 months of age when compared with services as usual; and (2) be delivered as a proportionate universal model with fidelity.

Design

A pragmatic two-arm randomised controlled trial and economic appraisal, with an embedded process evaluation to examine the outcomes, implementation and cost-effectiveness of the intervention, and intervention uptake, compared with services as usual. The study had an external pilot phase (which was originally planned as an internal pilot).

Setting

The intervention was delivered in community settings by early years children’s services and/or public health staff in four sites.

Participants

A total of 341 parents of infants aged ≤ 8 weeks were randomised in a ratio of 5 : 1 (intervention, n = 285; control, n = 56). The target sample was 606 parents.

Intervention

Two Incredible Years® parenting programmes (i.e. infant and toddler) delivered in a proportionate universal model with three levels [one universal (book) and two targeted group-based parenting programmes].

Main outcome measures

Child social and emotional well-being (primary outcome) was assessed using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social and Emotional, 2nd edition, at 2, 9 and 18 months after randomisation. Parent depression (secondary key outcome) was assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 items. Both questionnaires were eligibility screeners for targeted groups.

Results

The primary outcome analysis provided no evidence that the E-SEE Steps model was effective in enhancing child social and emotional well-being. The adjusted mean difference was 3.02 on the original Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social and Emotional, 2nd edition, in favour of the control [95% confidence interval –0.03 to 6.08; p = 0.052; N = 321 (intervention, n = 268; control, n = 53)]. Analysis of the key secondary outcome (i.e. parent depression levels as assessed by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 items) provided weak evidence on the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 items in favour of the intervention (adjusted mean difference –0.61, 95% confidence interval –1.34 to 0.12; p = 0.1). Other secondary outcomes did not differ between arms. The economic analysis showed that the E-SEE Steps model was associated with higher costs and was marginally more effective (0.031 quality-adjusted life-years gained from E-SEE Steps compared with SAU, 95% confidence interval –0.008 to 0.071) than services as usual, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of approximately £20,062 per quality-adjusted life-year compared with services as usual. Overall take-up of the targeted parenting programmes was low. Sites, although enthusiastic, identified barriers to delivering the intervention.

Limitations

The target sample size was not met and the study was not powered to explore the effectiveness of each level of intervention. Most parents in the sample were well educated and, therefore, the results are unlikely to be generalisable, particularly to those at greatest risk of poor social and emotional well-being.

Conclusions

The E-SEE Steps proportionate universal model did not enhance child social and emotional well-being, but generated non-significant improvements in parent health outcomes, resulting in considerable uncertainty around the cost-effectiveness of the intervention. The primary and key secondary outcome gave inconsistent signals. Although, with system changes, increased resources and adaptations to the intervention, the model could be implemented, evidence for positive outcomes from the E-SEE Steps model is poor.

Future work

The universal-level E-SEE Step data (i.e. the Incredible Years book) from the external pilot will be pooled with the main trial data for further exploration up to follow-up 1, which is the time point at which most change was seen.

Trial registration

This trial is registered as ISRCTN11079129.

Funding

This project was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 10, No. 8. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

Changes in Prosocial Behaviors Among Children With Behavioral Problems Following Incredible Years Parenting Program

Parenting programs often train parents in improving their parenting practices and parent-child relationship to reduce behavioral problems in children. However, the children's prosocial behaviors are less examined as an intervention outcome in these programs. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the Incredible Years parenting program (IYPP) for Malaysian parents of school-going children and its sustainability in improving the children's prosocial behaviors. This randomized controlled study involved pre- and post-intervention assessments at 2 and 14 weeks. Mothers of children aged 6-12 years (n = 70) recruited through the pediatrics and the child and adolescent psychiatric clinics were randomly assigned to the parenting program or a waitlist control condition. The mothers rated their children's prosocial behaviors using a self-administered questionnaire. The program ran two to three hours weekly for 14 weeks. Several modifications were made to the program to accommodate public health control during the pandemic. Children in the intervention group showed a notable but non-significant increase in prosocial skills. However, subsequent score decline at follow-up may suggest a lack of evidence that the program is potentially effective in improving prosocial behaviors among school children who are at risk of or already having behavioral problems.

Promoting Mental Health in Parents of Young Children Using eHealth Interventions: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Parent stress and mental health problems negatively impact early child development. This study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze the effect of eHealth interventions on parent stress and mental health outcomes, and identify family- and program-level factors that may moderate treatment effects. A search of PsycINFO, Medline, CINAHL, Cochrane and Embase databases was conducted from their inception dates to July 2020. English-language controlled and open trials were included if they reported: (a) administration of an eHealth intervention, and (b) stress or mental health outcomes such as self-report or clinical diagnosis of anxiety and depression, among (c) parents of children who were aged 1–5 years old. Non-human studies, case reports, reviews, editorials, letters, dissertations, and books were excluded. Risk of bias was assessed using the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools. Random-effects meta-analyses of standardized mean differences (SMD) were conducted and meta-regressions tested potential moderators. 38 studies were included (N = 4360 parents), from 13 countries (47.4% USA). Meta-analyses indicated eHealth interventions were associated with better self-reported mental health among parents (overall SMD = .368, 95% CI 0.228, 0.509), regardless of study design (k = 30 controlled, k = 8 pre-post) and across most outcomes (k = 17 anxiety, k = 19 depression, k = 12 parenting stress), with small to medium effect sizes. No significant family- or program-level moderators emerged. Despite different types and targets, eHealth interventions offer a promising and accessible option to promote mental health among parents of young children. Further research is needed on moderators and the long-term outcomes of eHealth interventions. Prospero Registration: CRD42020190719.

A good investment: longer-term cost savings of sensitive parenting in childhood

BACKGROUND

Good quality parenting in early childhood is reliably associated with positive mental and physical health over the lifespan. The hypothesis that early parenting quality has significant long-term financial benefits has not been previously tested.

METHODS

Design: Longitudinal study with follow-up from 2012 to 2016.

SETTING

UK multicentre study cohort (London, South-East England).

PARTICIPANTS

174 young people drawn from 2 samples, one at moderate risk of poor outcomes and one at high risk, assessed aged 4-6 years then followed up in early adolescence (mean age 12.1 years).

MEASURES

The primary outcome was total costs: health, social care, extra school support, out-of-home placements and family-born expenditure, determined through semistructured economic interviews. Early parenting quality was independently assessed through direct observation of parent-child interaction.

RESULTS

Costs were lower for youths exposed to more sensitive parenting (most sensitive quartile mean £1,619, least sensitive quartile mean £21,763; p < .001). Costs were spread across personal family expenditure and education, health, social and justice services. The cost difference remained significant after controlling for several potential confounders. These included demographic variables (family poverty, parental education); exposure to child abuse; and child/young person variables including level of antisocial behaviour in both childhood and adolescence, IQ and attachment security.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first showing that more sensitive early parental care predicts lower costs to society many years later, independent of poverty, child and youth antisocial behaviour levels and IQ. Savings are likely to increase as individuals grow older since early parenting quality predicts health, behavioural and occupational outcomes in adulthood. The findings provide novel evidence for the public health impact of early caregiving quality and likely financial benefits of improving it.

Does maternal inhibitory control mediate effects of a parenting intervention on maternal sensitive discipline? Evidence from a randomized-controlled trial

The quality of parenting greatly impacts child development, highlighting the importance of support programs that effectively improve parenting. Studies on successful intervention programs define their efficacy by gains in parenting and/or child development. However, much remains unknown about the internal processes that explain how parenting interventions bring about their effects. The aims of the current randomized-controlled study were to test whether the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) improved maternal inhibitory control (1) and whether inhibitory control mediated any effects of VIPP-SD on maternal sensitive discipline (2). In total, 66 mothers of whom a random 33% received the VIPP-SD and the others a "dummy" intervention participated in pre- and post-intervention assessments. Sensitive discipline was observed during a semi-structured limit-setting situation and inhibitory control was measured using a stop-signal task. Contrary to expectations, inhibitory control improved over time in the control group and sensitive discipline did not show the expected increase in the intervention group. Results did not support mediation. We suggest that the intervention may have induced cognitive restructuring of parenting schemas, delaying improvements in post-intervention inhibitory control and sensitive discipline. Factors that may be involved in parents' susceptibility to interventions require attention in future work.

An overview of reviews on strategies to reduce health inequalities

BACKGROUND

Governments are incentivized to develop and implement health action programs focused on equity to ensure progress with effective strategies or interventions.

OBJECTIVE

Identify and synthesize strategies or interventions that facilitate the reduction of health inequalities.

METHODS

A systematic search strategy was carried out up until August 2019 in MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Elsevier), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, LILACS, Scopus, Scielo and Epistemonikos. In addition, a snowball strategy was used. Literature reviews (LRs) of experimental and quasi-experimental studies were included. The identified interventions and outcomes were categorized based on the recommendation by the Cochrane group in "Effective Practice and Organization of Care". The quality of the included LRs was evaluated using the AMSTAR 2 tool.

RESULTS

Four thousand ninety-five articles were identified, of which 97 were included in the synthesis of evidence. Most of the studies included focused on the general population, vulnerable populations and minority populations. The subjects of general health and healthy lifestyles were the most commonly addressed. According to the classification of the type of intervention, the domain covered most was the delivery arrangements, followed by the domain of implementation strategies. The most frequent group of outcomes was the reported outcome in (clinical) patients, followed by social outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The strategies that facilitate the reduction of health inequalities must be intersectoral and multidisciplinary in nature, including all sectors of the health system. It is essential to continue generating interventions focused on strengthening health systems in order to achieve adequate universal health coverage, with a process of comprehensive and quality care.

Moderators of treatment effects in a child maltreatment prevention programme in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Previous research has found mixed results on whether the most disadvantaged families benefit as much as less disadvantaged families from parenting interventions designed to reduce child maltreatment, and little in known in low-income settings.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we test the effects of child, caregiver, household, and community characteristics as treatment moderators of intervention outcomes - child maltreatment and parenting practices. We test characteristics previously examined elsewhere as well as factors relevant to the South African context.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

This analysis includes adolescents (ages 10-18) and their caregivers (N = 552 pairs) who participated in a randomised trial of a parenting programme in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.

METHODS

Data from the caregiver and adolescent standardised questionnaires collected at baseline, post-test (1-month post-intervention), and follow-up (5-9 months) were analysed using longitudinal multilevel analyses. We tested seven hypothesised moderators for each of the primary outcomes through interactions of treatment effect with baseline moderators.

RESULTS

No moderator effects were statistically significant after correcting for multiple comparisons testing. Hence, in line with several recent studies examining moderation effects in parenting programmes, our study suggests that parenting interventions aiming to reduce child maltreatment and promote parenting skills in low- and middle-income countries may be similarly effective for families facing various levels of economic, social, and health risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

It may be useful to explicitly power trials for testing moderator effects, study different types of moderators and use person-centred analyses to further understand variations in treatment effects.

Helping the Noncompliant Child: An Updated Assessment of Program Costs and Cost-Effectiveness

Behavior disorders (BD) in children can lead to delinquency, antisocial behavior, and mental disorders in adulthood. Evidence-based behavioral parent training (BPT) programs have been developed to treat early-onset BDs, yet cost analyses of BPT are deficient. We provide updated estimates of cost and cost-effectiveness of Helping the Noncompliant Child (HNC), a mastery-based BPT, delivered to low-income families. The cost of research-specific activities was $1,152 per family. HNC program delivery costs were $293 per family from a payer perspective, including the cost of therapist time ($275 per family) and non-labor resources, such as supplies and toys ($18 per family). It costs an average of $6 to improve the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory intensity score by each additional point or $171 to improve it by one standard deviation. The cost of delivering the HNC program appears to compare favorably with the costs of similar BPT programs.

Health and financial burden of adverse childhood experiences in England and Wales: a combined primary data study of five surveys

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the health and financial burden of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in England and Wales.

DESIGN

The study combined data from five randomly stratified cross-sectional ACE studies. Population attributable fractions (PAFs) were calculated for major health risks and causes of ill health and applied to disability adjusted life years (DALYs), with financial costs estimated using a modified human capital method.

SETTING

Households in England and Wales.

PARTICIPANTS

15 285 residents aged 18-69.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The outcome measures were PAFs for single (1 ACE) and multiple (2-3 and ≥4 ACEs) ACE exposure categories for four health risks (smoking, alcohol use, drug use, high body mass index) and nine causes of ill health (cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, violence, anxiety, depression, other mental illness); and annual estimated DALYs and financial costs attributable to ACEs.

RESULTS

Cumulative relationships were found between ACEs and risks of all outcomes. For health risks, PAFs for ACEs were highest for drug use (Wales 58.8%, England 52.6%), although ACE-attributable smoking had the highest estimated costs (England and Wales, £7.8 billion). For causes of ill health, PAFs for ACEs were highest for violence (Wales 48.9%, England 43.4%) and mental illness (ranging from 29.1% for anxiety in England to 49.7% for other mental illness in Wales). The greatest ACE-attributable costs were for mental illness (anxiety, depression and other mental illness; England and Wales, £11.2 billion) and cancer (£7.9 billion). Across all outcomes, the total annual ACE-attributable cost was estimated at £42.8 billion. The majority of costs related to exposures to multiple rather than a single ACE (ranging from 71.9% for high body mass index to 98.3% for cancer).

CONCLUSIONS

ACEs impose a substantial societal burden in England and Wales. Policies and practices that prevent ACEs, build resilience and develop trauma-informed services are needed to reduce burden of disease and avoidable service use and financial costs across health and other sectors.

Parenting Programs for Underserved Populations in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Issues of Scientific Integrity and Social Justice

Research suggests that parenting programs are effective for preventing behavioral and emotional difficulties in children, but a lot more attention needs to be paid to issues of context and culture during the development, testing and implementation of these interventions. The views and needs of underserved and disenfranchised communities in the US and the Global South are often not taken into account for the development and testing of interventions. The successful implementation of evidence-based interventions for vulnerable children and families in underserved and marginalized communities requires careful consideration of how existing paradigms of prevention, evaluation, and implementation science impact issues of social justice and equity. This paper will describe how a team of parenting program researchers has been collaborating with their partners globally in generating local knowledge by balancing the need for rigorous scientific methods with issues of power. Authors from the U.S., Latin America, Africa and Southeast Asia draw on their experiences regarding challenges and successes with issues regarding study design and measurement, the transferability and adaptation of interventions, and the dissemination and implementation of different parenting interventions while placing communities at the center of their efforts through participatory methods. We describe innovative approaches that span the continuum of intervention development, adaptation, optimization, evaluation, implementation, and scale up of different parenting programs for vulnerable children and families across the world. We conclude by offering specific and pragmatic recommendations to increase access of culturally relevant and effective parenting programs in these communities.

The Economic Case for the Prevention of Mental Illness

Poor mental health has profound economic consequences. Given the burden of poor mental health, the economic case for preventing mental illness and promoting better mental health may be very strong, but too often prevention attracts little attention and few resources. This article describes the potential role that can be played by economic evidence alongside experimental trials and observational studies, or through modeling, to substantiate the need for increased investment in prevention. It illustrates areas of action across the life course where there is already a good economic case. It also suggests some further areas of substantive public health concern, with promising effectiveness evidence, that may benefit from economic analysis. Financial and economic barriers to implementation are then presented, and strategies to address the barriers and increase investment in the prevention of mental illness are suggested.

The Earlier the Better? Individual Participant Data and Traditional Meta-analysis of Age Effects of Parenting Interventions

Strong arguments have been made for early intervention for child problems, stating that early is more effective than later, as the brain is more malleable, and costs are lower. However, there is scant evidence from trials to support this hypothesis, which we therefore tested in two well-powered, state-of-the-art meta-analyses with complementary strengths: (a) Individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis of European trials of Incredible Years parenting intervention (k = 13, n = 1696; age = 2-11); (b) Larger, trial-level robust variance estimation meta-analysis of a wider range of parenting programs (k = 156, n = 13,378, M_age  = 2-10) for reducing disruptive behavior. Both analyses found no evidence that intervention earlier in childhood was more effective; programs targeted at a narrower age range were no more effective than general ones.