Well-known surface and extracellular antigens of pathogenic microorganisms among the immunodominant proteins of the infectious microalgae Prototheca zopfii

Protothecosis in Dogs: A Narrative Review

Protothecosis is a rare and unusual disease that affects both humans and animals, including dogs. The causative agents are unicellular, achlorophyllous, "yeast-like" microalgae of the genus Prototheca (Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta). Although usually saprophytic, Prototheca may, under conditions of immunologic compromise, become pathogenic and even lethal to the host. We present a synthesis of the current literature on protothecosis, with special emphasis on disease features in the dog. Five open-access scientific journal repositories were searched two times by two independent reviewers for original studies (including case reports, standard articles, and conference abstracts) pertaining to cases of protothecosis in dogs. Findings about protothecosis cases in dogs (e.g., animal metrics, type of infection, implemented treatment, and treatment outcome) were synthesized in independent data tables. Eighty studies describing 125 cases of protothecosis in dogs qualified for final analysis. Based on this investigation, protothecosis in dogs can be defined as an emerging disease that poses a serious challenge to the veterinary profession in terms of both diagnosis and management. In general, clinical signs and physical findings most often are referable to the gastrointestinal tract (n = 68; 54.4%). Yet the most common clinical manifestation in dogs is disseminated systemic infection (n = 84; 67.2%), including clinical signs referable to inflammation affecting more than one organ. We emphasize the complexity of Prototheca infection in dogs by summarizing clinical and laboratory findings from 125 cases of Prototheca infection in dogs published over the last half-century.

Genotyping and drug susceptibility profiling of Prototheca sp. strains isolated from cases of protothecosis in dogs

BACKGROUND

Protothecosis in dogs is a rare, yet emerging disease, distinguished by its often-aggressive clinical course and high fatality rate. Our study was conducted to enhance treatment protocols for affected dogs by better understanding the genetic diversity and drug resistance patterns of Prototheca species.

OBJECTIVES

To identify species and drug susceptibility profiles of an international collection of 28 Prototheca strains isolated from cases of protothecosis in dogs.

ANIMALS

None.

METHODS

Retrospective study. Species-level identification was made for isolates from 28 dogs in 6 countries by molecular typing with the partial cytb gene as a marker. For the determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum algicidal concentrations (MACs), the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) protocol (M27-A3) was used.

RESULTS

Prototheca bovis was the most prevalent species, accounting for 75% (21/28) of the cases, followed by P. wickerhamii (18%; 5/28) and P. ciferrii (7%; 2/28). Of the 6 drugs tested, efinaconazole (EFZ) was the most potent in vitro, with its median MIC and MAC values equal to 0.125 mg/L. The lowest activity was found for fluconazole (FLU), with MIC and MAC medians of 48 mg/L and 64 mg/L, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Our study identifies P. bovis as the species that most frequently causes protothecosis in dogs, which suggests the possibility of cross-species infection from other animals, especially cows. Additionally, it indicates that EFZ could be used in the treatment of infection in the colon.

Identification of Prototheca from the Cerebrospinal Fluid of a Cat with Neurological Signs

Prototheca infections are rare in cats, and they are usually associated with cutaneous or subcutaneous infections by P. wickerhamii, with no evidence of neurological signs or systemic disease. In this study, we report the identification of prototheca in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of a cat with neurological symptoms. Fourteen CSF samples were gathered from cats presented with neurological disease between 2012 and 2014. The inclusion criteria for the samples were an increase in CSF protein and cell number (pleocytosis), suggestive of an infectious inflammatory status of the central nervous system (CNS). Nine samples fulfilled the inclusion criteria (inflammatory samples), while five samples, used as control, did not (non-inflammatory samples). All the samples were screened molecularly for different pathogens associated with CNS disease in cats, including prototheca. Out of 14 CSF samples, only one inflammatory sample tested positive for prototheca. Upon sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the amplicon, the strain was characterized as P. bovis. This report is the first documented evidence of prototheca in the cerebrospinal fluid of a cat with neurological signs. Prototheca should be considered in the diagnostics procedures on the CNS of cats presented with infectious diseases.

New Approaches for risk assessment and management of bovine protothecosis

Protothecosis is a potential zoonosis related to bovine mastitis. In several countries, a higher incidence of protothecal bovine mastitis that is being recorded and the resistance of Prototheca species to various factors (chlorine, high temperatures, antimicrobial and antiseptic treatments, pH variations), make it difficult to control its spread among farms. The authors aim to describe the infection caused by microalgae, focusing on the problems within cattle farms and proposing new approaches to farm management, based on Regulation (EU) No 2016/429 on transmissible animal diseases. This new flexible approach, based on risk analysis, is a further tool in protecting against Prototheca species. The list of transmissible animal diseases under Regulation (EU) No 2016/429 includes those caused by microorganisms resistant to antimicrobials, which can have important implications for human and animal health, feed and food safety. This approach would involve a series of changes to the rules used for Official Controls (Regulation (EU) No 2017/625) moving from the concept of the food chain to that of the agri-food chain.

Prototheca Infections and Ecology from a One Health Perspective

Prototheca microalgae were only recognized as pathogens of both humans and animals in the 1960s; however, since then, these microbes have been drawing increasing interest in both human and veterinary medicine. The first human outbreak of protothecosis in a tertiary care chemotherapy ward in 2018 further highlighted the need to understand in more depth and detail their ecology, etiology, pathogenesis and routes of transmission between different hosts, environments and habitats from a One Health perspective. Protothecal infections have been reported in a growing number of cattle herds around the world in recent decades, and Prototheca has become an important bovine mastitis pathogen in certain countries and regions. The survival of Prototheca in the environment and its ability to spread in the herd pose a serious challenge to the management of infected dairy farms. Prevention of the disease is particularly important, as there is no effective and reliable treatment for it and the chances of self-healing are minimal. Therefore, the development of more effective drugs is needed for the treatment of human and animal protothecosis. The prudent use of antibiotics and their replacement by alternative or preventive measures, when possible, may further contribute to the control of protothecal infections.

Quarter-level analyses of the associations among subclinical intramammary infection and milk quality, udder health, and cheesemaking traits in Holstein cows

In this study, we investigated associations among subclinical intra-mammary infection (IMI) and quarter-level milk composition, udder health indicators, and cheesemaking traits. The dataset included records from 450 Holstein cows belonging to three dairy herds. After an initial screening (T0) to identify animals infected by Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Prototheca spp., 613 quarter milk samples for 2 different sampling times (T1 and T2, 1 mo after T1) were used for analysis. Milk traits were analyzed using a hierarchical linear mixed model including the effects of days in milk, parity and herd, and bacteriological and inflammatory category [culture negative with somatic cell count (SCC) <200,000 cells/mL; culture negative with SCC ≥200,000 cells/mL; or culture positive]. All udder health indicators were associated with increased SCC and IMI at both sampling times. The largest effects were detected at T2 for milk lactose (-7% and -5%) and milk conductivity (+9% and +8%). In contrast, the increase in differential SCC (DSCC) in samples with elevated SCC was larger at T1 (+17%). Culture-negative samples with SCC ≥200,000 cells/mL had the highest SCC and greatest numbers of polymorphonuclear-neutrophils-lymphocytes and macrophages at both T1 and T2. Regarding milk cheesemaking ability, samples with elevated SCC showed the worst pattern of curd firmness at T1 and T2. At T2, increased SCC and IMI induced large decreases in recoveries of nutrients into the curd, in particular recovered protein (-14% and -16%) and recovered fat (-12% and -14%). Different behaviors were observed between Strep. agalactiae and Prototheca spp., especially at T2. In particular, samples that were positive for Strep. agalactiae had higher proportions of DSCC (+19%) compared with negative samples with low SCC, whereas samples that were positive for Prototheca spp. had lower DSCC (-11%). Intramammary infection with Prototheca spp. increased milk pH compared with culture-negative samples (+3%) and negative samples that had increased SCC (+2%). The greatest impairment in curd firmness at 30 min from rennet addition was observed for samples that were positive for Prototheca spp. (-99% compared with negative samples, and -98% compared with negative samples with high SCC). These results suggest that IMI caused by Prototheca spp. have detrimental effects on milk technological traits that deserve further investigation of the mechanisms underlying animals' responses to infection.

Comparative proteomics and secretomics revealed virulence, and coresistance-related factors in non O1/O139 Vibrio cholerae recovered from 16 species of consumable aquatic animals

Vibrio cholerae can cause pandemic cholera in humans. The bacterium resides in aquatic environments worldwide. Identification of risk factors of V. cholerae in aquatic products is imperative for assuming food safety. In this study, we determined virulence-associated genes, cross-resistance between antibiotics and heavy metals, and genome fingerprinting profiles of non O1/O139 V. cholerae isolates (n = 20) recovered from 16 species of consumable aquatic animals. Secretomes and proteomes of V. cholerae with distinct genotypes and phenotypes were obtained by using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2D-GE) and/or liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) techniques. Comparative secretomic analysis revealed 4 common and 45 differential extracellular proteins among 20 V. cholerae strains, including 13 virulence- and 8 resistance-associated proteins. A total of 21,972 intracellular proteins were identified, and comparative proteomic analysis revealed 215 common and 913 differential intracellular proteins, including 22 virulence- and 8 resistance-associated proteins. Additionally, different secretomes and proteomes were observed between V. cholerae isolates of fish and shellfish origins. A number of novel proteins with unknown function and strain-specific proteins were also discovered in the V. cholerae isolates. SIGNIFICANCE: V. cholerae can cause pandemic cholera in humans. The bacterium is distributed in aquatic environments worldwide. Identification of risk factors of V. cholerae in aquatic products is imperative for assuming food safety. Non-O1/O139 V. cholerae has been reported to cause sporadic cholera-like diarrhea and bacteremia diseases, which indicates virulence factors rather than the major cholera toxin (CT) exist. This study for the first time investigated proteomes and secretomes of non-O1/O139 V. cholerae originating from aquatic animals. This resulted in the identification of a number of virulence and coresistance-related factors, as well as novel proteins and strain-specific proteins in V. cholerae isolates recovered from 16 species of consumable aquatic animals. These results fill gaps for better understanding of pathogenesis and resistance of V. cholerae, and also support the increasing need for novel diagnosis and vaccine targets against the leading waterborne pathogen worldwide.

A first insight into the genome of Prototheca wickerhamii, a major causative agent of human protothecosis

BACKGROUND

Colourless microalgae of the Prototheca genus are the only known plants that have consistently been implicated in a range of clinically relevant opportunistic infections in both animals and humans. The Prototheca algae are emerging pathogens, whose incidence has increased importantly over the past two decades. Prototheca wickerhamii is a major human pathogen, responsible for at least 115 cases worldwide. Although the algae are receiving more attention nowadays, there is still a substantial knowledge gap regarding their biology, and pathogenicity in particular. Here we report, for the first time, the complete nuclear genome, organelle genomes, and transcriptome of the P. wickerhamii type strain ATCC 16529.

RESULTS

The assembled genome size was of 16.7 Mbp, making it the smallest and most compact genome sequenced so far among the protothecans. Key features of the genome included a high overall GC content (64.5%), a high number (6081) and proportion (45.9%) of protein-coding genes, and a low repetitive sequence content (2.2%). The vast majority (90.6%) of the predicted genes were confirmed with the corresponding transcripts upon RNA-sequencing analysis. Most (93.2%) of the genes had their putative function assigned when searched against the InterProScan database. A fourth (23.3%) of the genes were annotated with an enzymatic activity possibly associated with the adaptation to the human host environment. The P. wickerhamii genome encoded a wide array of possible virulence factors, including those already identified in two model opportunistic fungal pathogens, i.e. Candida albicans and Trichophyton rubrum, and thought to be involved in invasion of the host or elicitation of the adaptive stress response. Approximately 6% of the P. wickerhamii genes matched a Pathogen-Host Interaction Database entry and had a previously experimentally proven role in the disease development. Furthermore, genes coding for proteins (e.g. ATPase, malate dehydrogenase) hitherto considered as potential virulence factors of Prototheca spp. were demonstrated in the P. wickerhamii genome.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this study is the first to describe the genetic make-up of P. wickerhamii and discovers proteins possibly involved in the development of protothecosis.

Murine and Human Cathelicidins Contribute Differently to Hallmarks of Mastitis Induced by Pathogenic Prototheca bovis Algae

Prototheca bovis (formerly P. zopfii genotype-II) is an opportunistic, achlorophyllous alga that causes mastitis in cows and skin disease in cats and dogs, as well as cutaneous lesions in both immunocompetent and immunosuppressed humans. Antifungal medications are commonly ineffective. This study aimed to investigate innate immune responses contributed by cathelicidins to P. bovis in the mammary gland using a mastitis model in mice deficient in the sole murine cathelicidin (Camp). We determined P. bovis caused acute mastitis in mice and induced Camp gene transcription. Whereas, Camp-/- and Camp+/+ littermates had similar local algae burden, Camp+/+ mice produced more pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, and Cxcl-1. Likewise, Camp+/+ bone marrow-derived macrophages were more responsive to P. bovis, producing more TNF-α and Cxcl-1. Human cathelicidin (LL-37) exhibited a different effect against P. bovis; it had direct algicidal activity against P. bovis and lowered TNF-α, Cxcl-1, and IL-1β production in both cultured murine macrophages and mammary epithelial cells exposed to the pathogenic algae. In conclusion, cathelicidins were involved in protothecosis pathogenesis, with unique roles among the diverse peptide family. Whereas, endogenous cathelicidin (Camp) was key in mammary gland innate defense against P. bovis, human LL-37 had algicidal and immunomodulatory functions.

Prototheca zopfii genotype II induces mitochondrial apoptosis in models of bovine mastitis

Prototheca zopfii is an alga increasingly isolated from bovine mastitis. Of the two genotypes of P. zopfii (genotype I and II (GT-I and -II)), P. zopfii GT-II is the genotype associated with acute mastitis and decreased milk production, although its pathogenesis is not well known. The objective was to determine inflammatory and apoptotic roles of P. zopfii GT-II in cultured mammary epithelial cells (from cattle and mice) and murine macrophages and using a murine model of mastitis. Prototheca zopfii GT-II (but not GT-I) invaded bovine and murine mammary epithelial cells (MECs) and induced apoptosis, as determined by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay. This P. zopfii GT-II driven apoptosis corresponded to mitochondrial pathways; mitochondrial transmembrane resistance (ΔΨm) was altered and modulation of mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis regulating genes changed (increased transcriptional Bax, cytochrome-c and Apaf-1 and downregulated Bcl-2), whereas caspase-9 and -3 expression increased. Apoptotic effects by P. zopfii GT-II were more pronounced in macrophages compared to MECs. In a murine mammary infection model, P. zopfii GT-II replicated in the mammary gland and caused severe inflammation with infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils and upregulation of pro-inflammatory genes (TNF-α, IL-1β and Cxcl-1) and also apoptosis of epithelial cells. Thus, we concluded P. zopfii GT-II is a mastitis-causing pathogen that triggers severe inflammation and also mitochondrial apoptosis.

Emergence of Fungal-Like Organisms: Prototheca

The genus Prototheca consists of achlorophyllic algae that are ubiquitous in the environment and animal intestines. However, this organism has forfeited its photosynthetic ability and switched to parasitism. In 1894, Krüger described two microorganisms isolated in Germany from mucous flux of Tilia and Ulmus spp., namely Prototheca moriformis and P. zopfii. Based on their yeast-like colony morphology, Krüger classified these organisms as fungi. The genus is now included within the class Trebouxiophyceae, order Chlorellales, and family Chlorellaceae. Historically, protothecosis and infections caused by green algae have been studied in the field of medical mycology. Prototheca spp. have been found to colonize human skin, fingernails, the respiratory tract, and digestive system. Although human infection by Prototheca is considered rare, an increase in infections has been noted among immunosuppressed patients, those on corticosteroid treatment, or both. Moreover, the first human outbreak of protothecal algaemia and sepsis was recently reported in a tertiary care chemotherapy oncology unit in 2018. Prototheca is also a causative pathogen of bovine disease. Prototheca zopfii and P. blaschkeae are associated with bovine mastitis, which causes a reduction in milk production and secretion of thin, watery milk containing white flakes. Economic losses are incurred either directly via reduced milk production and premature culling of affected animals or indirectly as a result of treatment and veterinary care expenses. Thus, knowledge of this fungal-like pathogen is essential in human and veterinary medicine. In this mini-review, I briefly introduce human and animal protothecoses.

Comparative Genome and Transcriptome Study of the Gene Expression Difference Between Pathogenic and Environmental Strains of Prototheca zopfii

Prototheca zopfii commonly exists in the environment, and causes invasive infections (protothecosis) in humans. The morbidity of protothecosis has increased rapidly in recent years, especially in systemic infections of patients with an impaired immune system. The infection in immunocompromised patients has a poor prognosis due to limited understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease, as most previous studies mainly focused on classification and recognition of pathogenic strains. In this study, we constructed the genome and transcriptome of two pathogenic strains and one environmental strain, by next generation sequencing methods. Based on our preliminary gene expression findings, genes in P. zopfii pathogenic strains are significantly up-regulated in metabolism in peroxisome, such as glyoxylate cycle, which may improve the organism's resistance to the harsh environment in phagolysosome of macrophage and its ability to survive in an anaerobic environment. We also found some significant up-regulated genes, which are related to adherence and penetration in dermatophytes, and we speculate that this may enhance the virulence capacity of pathogenic strains. Finally, the genomes and transcriptomes of P. zopfii described here provide some base for further studies on the pathogenesis of this organism.

Medical phycology 2017

In 2014, ISHAM formed a new working group: "Medical Phycology: Protothecosis and Chlorellosis." The purpose of this working group is to help facilitate collaboration and communication among people interested in the pathogenic algae, to share ideas and work together. Here we present reports on recent work we have done in five areas. 1. The history of medical phycology as a branch of science. 2. Aspects of the genetics of Prototheca. 3. Aspects of the proteins of Prototheca. 4. Human infections caused by Prototheca. 5. Dairy cow mastitis caused by Prototheca.

A Case of Prototheca zopfii Genotype 1 Infection in a Dog (Canis lupus familiaris)

Protothecosis is a rare disease caused by environmental algae of the genus Prototheca. These are saprophytic, non-photosynthetic, aerobic, colorless algae that belong to the Chlorellaceae family. Seven different species have been described. Prototheca zopfii genotype 2 and P. wickerhamii are most commonly involved in pathogenic infections in humans and animals. The objective of this work is to describe, for the first time, a case of protothecosis caused by P. zopfii genotype 1 in a dog. The dog, a 4-year-old mix bred male, was presented to a veterinary clinic in Montevideo, Uruguay, with multiple skin nodules, one of which was excised by surgical biopsy. The sample was examined histologically and processed by PCR, DNA sequencing, and restriction fragments length polymorphisms for the detection and genotyping of P. zopfii. In addition, transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were performed. Histology showed severe ulcerative granulomatous dermatitis and panniculitis with myriads of pleomorphic algae. Algal cells were 4-17 µm in size, with an amphophilic, 2-4-µm-thick wall frequently surrounded by a clear halo, contained flocculant material and a deeply basophilic nucleus, and internal septae with daughter cells (endospores) consistent with endosporulation. Ultrastructurally, algal cells/endospores at different stages of development were found within parasitophorous vacuoles in macrophages. Prototheca zopfii genotype 1 was identified by molecular testing, confirming the etiologic diagnosis of protothecosis.

Prototheca zopfii isolated from bovine mastitis induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in bovine mammary epithelial cells

Bovine protothecal mastitis results in considerable economic losses worldwide. However, Prototheca zopfii induced morphological alterations and oxidative stress in bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMECs) is not comprehensively studied yet. Therefore, the aim of this current study was to investigate the P. zopfii induced pathomorphological changes, oxidative stress and apoptosis in bMECs. Oxidative stress was assessed by evaluating catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), malondialdehyde (MDA) contents and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, while ROS generation and apoptosis was measured by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The results revealed that infection of P. zopfii genotype II (GTII) significantly changed bMECs morphology, increased apoptotic rate and MDA contents at 12 h (p < 0.05) and 24 h (p < 0.01) in comparison with control group, in time-dependent manner. LDH activity and ROS generation was also increased (p < 0.01) at 12 h and 24 h. However, SOD and CAT contents in bMECs infected with GTII were decreased (p < 0.05) at 12 h, while GPx (p < 0.01), SOD (p < 0.05) and CAT (p < 0.01) levels were reduced at 24 h. In case of GTI, only CAT and GPx activities were significantly decreased when the duration prolonged to 24 h but lesser than GTII. This suggested that GTII has more devastating pathogenic effects in bMECs, and the findings of this study concluded that GTII induced apoptosis and oxidative stress in bMECs via the imbalance of oxidant and antioxidant defenses as well as the production of intracellular ROS.

Prototheca zopfii Induced Ultrastructural Features Associated with Apoptosis in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

Prototheca zopfii infections are becoming global concerns in humans and animals. Bovine protothecal mastitis is characterized by deteriorating milk quality and quantity, thus imparting huge economic losses to dairy industry. Previous published studies mostly focused on the prevalence and characterization of P. zopfii from mastitis. However, the ultrastructural pathomorphological changes associated with apoptosis in bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMECs) are not studied yet. Therefore, in this study we aimed to evaluate the in vitro comparative apoptotic potential of P. zopfii genotype-I and -II on bMECs using flow cytometry, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results showed fast growth rate and higher adhesion capability of genotype-II in bMECs as compared with genotype-I. The viability of bMECs infected with P. zopfii genotype-II was significantly decreased after 12 h (p < 0.05) and 24 h (p < 0.01) in comparison with control cells. Contrary, genotype-I couldn't show any significant effects on cell viability. Moreover, after infection of bMECs with genotype-II, the apoptosis increased significantly at 12 h (p < 0.05) and 24 h (p < 0.01) as compared with control group. Genotype-I couldn't display any significant effects on cell apoptosis. The host specificity of P. zopfii was also tested in mouse osteoblast cells, and the results suggest that genotype-I and -II could not cause any significant apoptosis in these cell lines. SEM interpreted the pathomorphological alterations in bMECs after infection. Adhesion of P. zopfii with cells and further disruption of cytomembrane validated the apoptosis caused by genotype-II under SEM. While genotype-1 couldn't cause any significant apoptosis in bMECs. Furthermore, genotype-II induced apoptotic manifested specific ultrastructure features, like cytoplasmic cavitation, swollen mitochondria, pyknosis, cytomembrane disruption, and appearance of apoptotic bodies under TEM. The findings of the current study revealed that genotype-II has the capability to invade and survive within the bMECs, thus imparting significant damages to the mammary cells which result in apoptosis. This study represents the first insights into the pathomorphological and ultrastructure features of apoptosis in bMECs induced by P. zopfii genotype-II.

Prototheca: A Danger Underwater

Prototheca wickerhamii rarely causes systemic infection in humans but when it occurs, there are coexisting comorbidities. This case illustrated shows the manifestation of this opportunistic microorganism in an immunosuppressed patient. The patient was successfully treated with Liposomal amphotericin B with complete resolution of the lesions.

Label-Free Quantitative Proteomic Analysis of Harmless and Pathogenic Strains of Infectious Microalgae, Prototheca spp

Microalgae of the genus Prototheca (P.) spp are associated with rare algal infections of invertebrates termed protothecosis. Among the seven generally accepted species, P. zopfii genotype 2 (GT2) is associated with a severe form of bovine mastitis while P. blaschkeae causes the mild and sub-clinical form of mastitis. The reason behind the infectious nature of P. zopfii GT2, while genotype 1 (GT1) remains non-infectious, is not known. Therefore, in the present study we investigated the protein expression level difference between the genotypes of P. zopfii and P. blaschkeae. Cells were cultured to the mid-exponential phase, harvested, and processed for LC-MS analysis. Peptide data was acquired on an LTQ Orbitrap Velos, raw spectra were quantitatively analyzed with MaxQuant software and matching with the reference database of Chlorella variabilis and Auxenochlorella protothecoides resulted in the identification of 226 proteins. Comparison of an environmental strain with infectious strains resulted in the identification of 51 differentially expressed proteins related to carbohydrate metabolism, energy production and protein translation. The expression level of Hsp70 proteins and their role in the infectious process is worth further investigation. All mass spectrometry data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD005305.

Mastitis associated with Prototheca zopfii - an emerging health and economic problem on dairy farms

Increased incidence of protothecal mastitis has been recorded in several countries in the past ten years. The main goal of this article is to draw the attention of scientific and professional community to the emerging issue of mammary protothecosis. The article collates currently known facts about infection reservoirs, predisposing factors for the development of mastitis, clinical manifestations of the disease, and potential transmission routes within the herd as well as the measures for control and eradication. We would like to point out that identification of protothecal mastitis on a dairy farm is associated with a range of problems. Early detection of infected animals can be difficult because of predominantly subclinical course of early-stage infection, which easily spreads between cows via the milking system. Spontaneous recovery has not been recorded and infected cows typically develop chronic mastitis with granulomatous infiltration and progressive loss of functional parenchyma of the mammary gland. Substantial economic losses and health damages associated with mammary protothecosis strongly emphasise the need for developing effective prevention strategies aimed at control of the infection.

Isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation-based comparative proteomic analysis of human pathogenic Prototheca zopfii genotype 2 and environmental genotype 1 strains

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Prototheca species are ubiquitous achlorophyllic microalgae belonging to the family Chlorellaceae, which can cause a wide range of infections in humans and animals. Mainly in individuals with immunologic defects or trauma, Prototheca spp. can cause even lethal diseases. However, the exact pathogenic mechanism of Prototheca in causing disease remains largely unknown. To investigate the differences between pathogenic and nonpathogenic Prototheca spp. genotypes on proteome level, a nonpathogenic Prototheca zopfii genotype 1 strain, isolated from cow manure, and a human pathogenic P. zopfii genotype 2, isolated from human granulomatous lymphadenitis, were studied.

METHODS

Differentially expressed proteins between the two genotypes were quantified by isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation-based quantitative proteomics, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

A total of 245 proteins were identified from the proteomic analysis after data filtering to eliminate low-scoring spectra. Among these, 35 proteins that displayed a significant (p<0.05) 1.5-fold change were considered as differentially expressed proteins.

CONCLUSION

The differentially expressed proteins were associated with suppressed energy production and conversion, carbohydrate transport and metabolism, and enhanced translation in the genotype 2 strain, and are thus potentially relevant in the pathogenic mechanism of P. zopfii genotype 2, but need further investigation.

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri surface proteome by 2D-DIGE: Ferric enterobactin receptor and other outer membrane proteins potentially involved in citric host interaction

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (XAC) is the causative agent of citrus canker, a disease of great economic impact around the world. Understanding the role of proteins on XAC cellular surface can provide new insights on pathogen-plant interaction. Surface proteome was performed in XAC grown in vivo (infectious) and in vitro (non-infectious) conditions, by labeling intact cells followed by cellular lysis and direct 2D-DIGE analysis. Seventy-nine differential spots were analyzed by mass spectrometry. Highest relative abundance for in vivo condition was observed for spots containing DnaK protein, 60kDa chaperonin, conserved hypothetical proteins, malate dehydrogenase, phosphomannose isomerase, and ferric enterobactin receptors. Elongation factor Tu, OmpA-related proteins, Oar proteins and some Ton-B dependent receptors were found in spots decreased in vivo. Some proteins identified on XAC's surface in infectious condition and predicted to be cytoplasmic, such as DnaK and 60KDa chaperonin, have also been previously found at cellular surface in other microorganisms. This is the first study on XAC surface proteome and results point to mediation of molecular chaperones in XAC-citrus interaction. The approach utilized here can be applied to other pathogen-host interaction systems and help to achieve new insights in bacterial pathogenicity toward promising targets of biotechnological interest.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This research provides new insights for current knowledge of the Xanthomonas sp. pathogenicity. For the first time the 2D-DIGE approach was applied on intact cells to find surface proteins involved in the pathogen-plant interaction. Results point to the involvement of new surface/outer membrane proteins in the interaction between XAC and its citrus host and can provide potential targets of biotechnological interest for citrus canker control.