Chemokines Modulate Immune Surveillance in Tumorigenesis, Metastasis, and Response to Immunotherapy

Clinical Application of 68 Ga-Pentixafor PET/CT for the Detection of Thymoma: A Pilot Study

PURPOSE

This study was designed to evaluate 68 Ga-pentixafor, which targets C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), in the noninvasive diagnosis of thymomas.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

With institutional review board approval and signed informed consent, 32 patients with thymic masses were enrolled in this study, and all patients underwent 68 Ga-pentixafor PET/CT scans.

RESULTS

Among the 28 patients included in the analysis, 13 patients were diagnosed with thymomas, 9 patients with cysts, and 6 patients with other anterior mediastinal masses. 68 Ga-pentixafor identified all patients with thymomas (13/13, 100%), and the mean SUV max in all 13 thymomas lesions was 13.96±8.20, which was significantly higher than that in patients with cysts (1.54±0.88) and other anterior mediastinal masses (2.59±1.68), respectively ( P <0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The preliminary study indicates the diagnostic utility of 68 Ga-pentixafor in thymomas and the differential diagnostic ability of 68 Ga-pentixafor in thymomas, thymic cysts and other benign anterior mediastinal masses.

Systemic immune characteristics predicting toxicity to immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with advanced breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are among the most promising treatment options for cancer. However, frequent and sometimes life-threatening immune-related adverse events (irAEs) are associated with ICI treatment. Therefore, it is imperative to establish a model for predicting the risk of irAEs to identify high-risk groups, enable more accurate clinical risk‒benefit analysis for ICI treatment and decrease the incidence of irAEs. However, no ideal model for predicting irAEs has been applied in clinical practice. The aim of this study was to analyze the systemic immune characteristics of patients with irAEs and establish a model for predicting the risk of irAEs.

METHODS

We conducted a study to monitor irAEs in patients with advanced breast cancer undergoing immunotherapy during and following the treatment course. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were collected before and after two cycles of therapy. Mass cytometry time-of-flight (CyTOF) was employed to identify baseline and posttreatment immune cell subpopulations, and the relationships between the proportions of cells in these subpopulations and the occurrence of irAEs were explored. Additionally, we conducted subgroup analyses stratified by the anatomic location and time of onset of irAEs. Furthermore, we developed a logistic regression model to predict the risk of irAEs and validated this model using two independent validation cohorts from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database (accession numbers GSE189125 and GSE186143).

RESULTS

By analyzing 106 blood samples and samples from two independent validation cohorts (n = 16 and 60 patients), we found that high proportions of CXCR3+CCR6+CD4+ T cells and CD38+CD86+CXCR3+CCR6+CD8+ T cells and a low proportion of CXCR3lowCD56dim natural killer (NK) cells at baseline were significantly correlated with the incidence of irAEs (P = 0.0029, P < 0.001, and P = 0.0017, respectively). In the subgroup analysis, we observed consistent results in patients with immune-related pneumonitis (ir-pneumonitis) and immune-related thyroiditis (ir-thyroiditis). In the early irAE group, the baseline proportion of CXCR3+CCR6+CD4+ T cells was greater than that in the late irAE group (P = 0.011). An analysis of PBMCs before and after ICI treatment revealed thatthe dynamic changes in the proportions of naïve CD4+ T cells and CXCR3lowCD56dim NK cells were closely related to irAE occurrence. Finally, we ultimately developed a model for predicting the risk of irAEs, which yielded an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.79 in the training cohort and an AUROC of 0.75 in the single-cell validation cohort (GSE189125).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that different populations of immune cells are associated with different irAEs and that characterization of these cells may be used as biomarkers to predict the risk of specific toxicities. This will facilitate the management of irAEs and may lead to a reduction in the incidence of irAEs.

Poly(amino acid) nanoformulation of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 inhibitor for molecularly targeted immunotherapy in triple-negative breast cancer

Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 inhibitors (CDK4/6is) selectively arrest malignant cells in the G1 phase of cell cycle by inhibiting CDK4/6-mediated phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein. However, CDK4/6i therapy is often ineffective against triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) due to the high lysosomal content in TNBC cells, which sequesters the drugs and prevents them from reaching their nuclear target. To address this challenge, three pH- and glutathione-responsive poly(amino acid) nanogels composed of methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) of various lengths and poly(L-glutamic acid-co-L-cystine) (mPEG-P(Glu10-co-Cys25)) were developed to efficiently deliver the CDK4/6i abemaciclib (ABE) to TNBC cells. These nanogels bypassed lysosomal sequestration, thereby enhancing the efficacy of molecularly targeted immunotherapy. Among the nanogels, the formulation with mPEG2000 (NG2000) exhibited the highest efficiency in delivering ABE, resulting in increased cell apoptosis, activation of an anti-cancer immune response, reduction of immunosuppression, and improved therapeutic outcomes against TNBC. Furthermore, NG2000/ABE enhanced immune checkpoint therapy for TNBC, achieving a tumor inhibition rate of 89.66%. These findings demonstrate the potential of poly(amino acid) nanoformulations for delivering CDK4/6 inhibitors as molecularly targeted immunotherapy for TNBC in clinical applications.

Uncovering gene and cellular signatures of immune checkpoint response via machine learning and single-cell RNA-seq

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have transformed cancer therapy. However, only a fraction of patients benefit from these treatments. The variability in patient responses remains a significant challenge due to the intricate nature of the tumor microenvironment. Here, we harness single-cell RNA-sequencing data and employ machine learning to predict patient responses while preserving interpretability and single-cell resolution. Using a dataset of melanoma-infiltrated immune cells, we applied XGBoost, achieving an initial AUC score of 0.84, which improved to 0.89 following Boruta feature selection. This analysis revealed an 11-gene signature predictive across various cancer types. SHAP value analysis of these genes uncovered diverse gene-pair interactions with non-linear and context-dependent effects. Finally, we developed a reinforcement learning model to identify the most informative single cells for predictivity. This approach highlights the power of advanced computational methods to deepen our understanding of cancer immunity and enhance the prediction of treatment outcomes.

Tumor treating fields enhance anti-PD therapy by improving CCL2/8 and CXCL9/CXCL10 expression through inducing immunogenic cell death in NSCLC models

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type of lung cancer. Tumor treating fields (TTFields) combined with anti-PD immunotherapy offers a promising strategy to address this issue. Nevertheless, the mechanism of action (MOA) of TTFields therapy combined with anti-PD immunotherapy in NSCLC has not been thoroughly investigated. This study aims to elucidate the MOA of the combined therapy from the aspect of improving the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME).

METHODS

Using a mouse model of NSCLC, we tested the efficacy of TTFields therapy with anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy. By RNA-seq, the differential genes and signaling pathways between combination therapy and anti-PD therapy groups were studied. In-vitro experiments validated the effects of TTFields on tumor cells for CD4+ T cell and CD8+ T cell infiltration, as well as the expression of tumor immunogenic death related genes and chemokines.

RESULTS

Combining TTFields with anti-PD-1 reduced tumor weight and volume, respectively, compared to controls (p < 0.05). RNA-seq analysis revealed 1,745 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the combination therapy group versus controls, including upregulated immune pathways and immunogenic cell death (ICD) associated genes. Further study showed that the combination therapy resulted in increased T cell infiltration compared to anti-PD immunotherapy alone, and TTFields induced higher level expression of ATP, HMGB1, CCL2, CCL8, CXCL9, and CXCL10 and inflammatory cytokines than control group. These effects collectively contributed to the altered TIME, and finally potentiated the efficacy of anti-PD therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

TTFields enhance the effectiveness of anti-PD immunotherapy by improving CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T infiltration via inducing ICD to increase CCL2/8 and CXCL9/CXCL10 expression of tumor cells. This study provides theoretical basis and new insights for evaluating the effectiveness of TTFields combined with anti-PD therapy for NSCLC.

Microglia-derived CXCL2 induced neuronal ferroptosis via CXCR2/Jun axis in sepsis-associated encephalopathy

Background

Neuronal ferroptosis is a characteristic pathological change of sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE), which can be induced by activated microglia. CXCL2 is mainly secreted by inflammatory cells (neutrophil and microglia) and involved in neuronal damage. However, the specific mechanism behind microglia-neuron crosstalk in SAE remains unclear.

Method

This study is to explore in which way microglia-secreted CXCL2 induced neuronal ferroptosis. For this purpose, the present study used CXCL2 knockdown (KD) mice to generate SAE model and determined effects of CXCL2 on neuronal ferroptosis. Afterward, BV2 and HT22 were used to instead of microglia and neuron respectively and the co-cultured system was used to simulate their interaction in vivo environment. RNA-sequencing technology was applied to investigate the key mechanism and targets of CXCL2-induced neuronal ferroptosis. siRNA was used to evaluate the function of key molecules.

Results

Cecum ligation perforation (CLP) induced an obvious cognitive dysfunction, shorten the survival time and promoted the activation of microglia and neuronal loss. The level of inflammatory cytokines, ferroptosis-related markers and malonaldehyde was obviously lower and the level of glutathione was significantly higher in CXCL2 KD mice when compared with wide-type SAE mice. RNA-seq revealed that Jun is a potential target of CXCL2. The following experiments further demonstrated that microglia-secreted CXCL2 induced the neuronal ferroptosis, but siRNA-Jun in neuron can abolish this effect. In addition, siRNA-CXCL2 of microglia mitigated the neuronal ferroptosis induced by sepsis, while Jun agonist reversed this protective effect.

Conclusion

In conclusion, microglia-derived CXCL2 could induce the occurrence of neuronal ferroptosis by targeting Jun. Thus, regulating the expression and secretion of CXCL2 will probably be a crucially novel strategy for the treatment of SAE.

Clinicopathological and prognostic value of tertiary lymphoid structures in lung cancer: a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the clinicopathological and prognostic significance of tertiary lymphocytic infiltrates in lung cancer.

METHOD

A systematic search was performed in many databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase, CNKI, Wangfangdate, and CBM, up until January 2024. We calculated the hazard ratio (HR), odds ratios (OR), and confidence interval (CI), and accomplished this meta-analysis with Stata 15 software.

RESULT

14 studies, including 3101 patients, were subjected to analysis. High TLS detection was associated with a longer OS (HR = 0.545, 95% CI: 0.359-0.827, p = 0.004), DFS (HR = 0.431, 95% CI: 0.350-0.531, p < 0.001), and RFS (HR = 0.430, 95% CI: 0.325-0.569, p < 0.001). Meanwhile, it was observed that a higher detection of TLS was significantly correlated with the administration of adjuvant chemotherapy (OR = 1.505, 95% CI: 1.017-2.225, p = 0.041). Not only that, but there was a higher occurrence of significantly elevated TLS detection in the early N stages (N = 0) compared to the advanced N stages (N = 1, 2, and 3) (OR = 1.604, 95% CI: 1.021-2.521, p = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

Elevated detection of TLS has been observed to be correlated with extended OS, DFS, and RFS in cases of lung cancer. This finding suggests that TLS could potentially serve as a valuable prognostic biomarker for lung cancer.

Integrative Bioinformatics Analysis and Experimental Study of NLRP12 Reveal Its Prognostic Value and Potential Functions in Ovarian Cancer

NLRP12 plays a significant role in cellular functional behavior and immune homeostasis, influencing inflammation, tumorigenesis, and prognosis. This study aimed to explore its specific effects on the tumor microenvironment (TME) and its contribution to heterogeneity in ovarian cancer (OV) through bioinformatics analysis and experimental verification. Utilizing various bioinformatics databases and clinical specimens, we investigated NLRP12 expression and its relationship with OV prognosis and immune infiltration. In vitro assays were conducted to assess the impact of NLRP12 on the proliferation and invasion of OV cells. Our findings indicate that NLRP12 is upregulated in OV, with high expression correlating with a negative prognosis. Furthermore, NLRP12 expression demonstrated a positive correlation with the infiltration of various immune cells and the expression of immune checkpoint molecules in OV. Analysis of The Cancer Immunome Atlas (TCIA) database revealed that OV patients with lower NLRP12 expression may exhibit an enhanced response to immunotherapy, particularly CTLA4 blockers, a finding validated in animal experiments. Additionally, the study emphasized the role of NLRP12 in influencing the prognosis of OV patients by promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in ovarian cancer cells. Finally, we identified a potential therapeutic compound, Schisandrin B (Schi B), which decreases NLRP12 expression in ovarian cancer cells by binding to the transcription factor SPI1 associated with NLRP12. Our findings suggest that NLRP12 serves as a crucial immune-related biomarker predicting poor outcomes in OV, and targeting NLRP12 may represent a promising therapeutic approach for OV patients in the future.

Unlocking the potential of chimeric antigen receptor T cell engineering immunotherapy: Long road to achieve precise targeted therapy for hepatobiliary pancreatic cancers

Innovative therapeutic strategies are urgently needed to address the ongoing global health concern of hepatobiliary pancreatic malignancies. This review summarizes the latest and most comprehensive research of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR-T) cell engineering immunotherapy for treating hepatobiliary pancreatic cancers. Commencing with an exploration of the distinct anatomical location and the immunosuppressive, hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME), this review critically assesses the limitations of current CAR-T therapy in hepatobiliary pancreatic cancers and proposes corresponding solutions. Various studies aim at enhancing CAR-T cell efficacy in these cancers through improving T cell persistence, enhancing antigen specificity and reducing tumor heterogeneity, also modulating the immunosuppressive and hypoxic TME. Additionally, the review examines the application of emerging nanoparticles and biotechnologies utilized in CAR-T therapy for these cancers. The results suggest that constructing optimized CAR-T cells to overcome physical barrier, manipulating the TME to relieve immunosuppression and hypoxia, designing CAR-T combination therapies, and selecting the most suitable delivery strategies, all together could collectively enhance the safety of CAR-T engineering and advance the effectiveness of adaptive cell therapy for hepatobiliary pancreatic cancers.

Tumor microbiome: roles in tumor initiation, progression, and therapy

Over the past few years, the tumor microbiome is increasingly recognized for its multifaceted involvement in cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. With the application of 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (16S rRNA) sequencing, the intratumoral microbiome, also referred to as tumor-intrinsic or tumor-resident microbiome, has also been found to play a significant role in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Understanding their complex functions is critical for identifying new therapeutic avenues and improving treatment outcomes. This review first summarizes the origins and composition of these microbial communities, emphasizing their adapted diversity across a diverse range of tumor types and stages. Moreover, we outline the general mechanisms by which specific microbes induce tumor initiation, including the activation of carcinogenic pathways, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage, epigenetic modifications, and chronic inflammation. We further propose the tumor microbiome may evade immunity and promote angiogenesis to support tumor progression, while uncovering specific microbial influences on each step of the metastatic cascade, such as invasion, circulation, and seeding in secondary sites. Additionally, tumor microbiome is closely associated with drug resistance and influences therapeutic efficacy by modulating immune responses, drug metabolism, and apoptotic pathways. Furthermore, we explore innovative microbe-based therapeutic strategies, such as engineered bacteria, oncolytic virotherapy, and other modalities aimed at enhancing immunotherapeutic efficacy, paving the way for microbiome-centered cancer treatment frameworks.

Bystander Expression of Atypical Chemokine Receptor 2 Protects T Cells from Chemoattraction towards Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts

Atypical chemokine receptors (ACKRs) are a subclass of chemokine receptors that internalise and degrade chemokines instead of eliciting chemotaxis. Scavenging by ACKRs reduces the local bioavailability of chemokines and can thus reshape chemokine gradients that direct leukocyte trafficking during inflammation and anticancer responses. In pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), chemokine axes, such as CXCL12-CXCR4, are co-opted by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) for tumour growth and escape, and immunosuppression. Here, we explore the use of ACKRs to reshape chemokine gradients within the PDAC tumour microenvironment. ACKR2, previously only known to scavenge inflammatory CC chemokines, was recently shown to be able to interact with CXCL10 and CXCL14. Here, using a chemokine binding assay and cytometric bead arrays, we reveal that ACKR2 scavenges additional CXC chemokines CXCL12 and CXCL1. ACKR2 scavenges CXCL12 with reduced efficiency compared to ACKR3, previously reported to bind CXCL12. Finally, we demonstrate that the overexpression of ACKR2 on bystander cells protects primary murine cytotoxic T lymphocytes from PDAC CAF-mediated chemoattraction. These findings reveal new CXC chemokine ligands of ACKR2 and indicate that ACKR overexpression may protect T cells from misdirection by CAFs.

Interleukin-6 trans-signalling regulates monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 production in immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy

OBJECTIVE

Immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy (IMNM) is pathologically characterized by diffuse myofibre necrosis and regeneration, myophagocytosis and a sparse inflammatory infiltrate. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) is a key chemokine that regulates monocyte/macrophage infiltration into injured tissues. IL-6 signalling in the induction of MCP-1 expression has not been investigated in IMNM.

METHODS

MCP-1 expression in muscle specimens was assessed using immunohistochemistry and Reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Levels of multiple serological cytokines were evaluated using the electrochemiluminescence-based immunoassays. Flow cytometry, RT-qPCR, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blot, dual-luciferase reporter assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation qPCR were performed to explore the effects of IL-6 signalling on MCP-1 production in human myoblasts.

RESULTS

MCP-1 was scattered and was positively expressed within myofibres and a few inflammatory cells in the muscles of patients with IMNM. Sarcoplasmic MCP-1 expression significantly correlated with myonecrosis, myoregeneration and inflammatory infiltration. Serum MCP-1, IL-6 and the soluble form of the IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) were elevated in patients with IMNM compared with controls. Serological MCP-1 levels were significantly associated with serum IL-6 expression and clinical disease severity in IMNM patients. The IL-6/sIL-6R complex induced MCP-1 expression via the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway in human myoblasts. Mechanistically, phospho-STAT3 was enriched in the MCP-1 promoter region and promoted the transcription.

CONCLUSION

IL-6 trans-signalling may contribute to the immunopathogenesis of IMNM by augmenting inflammation through regulation of MCP-1 expression in IMNM.

Combined PARP14 inhibition and PD-1 blockade promotes cytotoxic T cell quiescence and modulates macrophage polarization in relapsed melanoma

BACKGROUND

Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) signaling blockade by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) effectively restores immune surveillance to treat melanoma. However, chronic interferon-gamma (IFNγ)-induced immune homeostatic responses in melanoma cells contribute to immune evasion and acquired resistance to ICI. Poly ADP ribosyl polymerase 14 (PARP14), an IFNγ-responsive gene product, partially mediates IFNγ-driven resistance. PARP14 inhibition prolongs PD-1 blockade responses in preclinical models, but fails to achieve full tumor clearance, suggesting the involvement of additional resistance mechanisms.

METHODS

We identified a robust PARP14 catalytic inhibitor gene signature and evaluated its association with patient survival. Using preclinical models and single-cell RNA sequencing, we investigated immune and tumor cell adaptations to PARP14 inhibition combined with PD-1 blockade.

RESULTS

Combining PARP14 inhibition and PD-1 blockade suppressed tumor-associated macrophages while increasing proinflammatory memory macrophages. Moreover, this combination mitigated the terminal exhaustion of cytotoxic T cells by inducing a quiescent state, thereby preserving functionality. Despite the enhanced immune responses, tumor cells developed adaptive resistance by engaging alternative immune evasion pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Although adaptive resistance mechanisms re-emerge, PARP14 inhibition combined with PD-1 blockade offers a promising strategy to enhance treatment outcomes and overcome ICI resistance in melanoma, as immune cells are primed for further therapeutic interventions that leverage the quiescent state.

The role and therapeutic targeting of the CCL2/CCR2 signaling axis in inflammatory and fibrotic diseases

CCL2, a pivotal cytokine within the chemokine family, functions by binding to its receptor CCR2. The CCL2/CCR2 signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the development of fibrosis across multiple organ systems by modulating the recruitment and activation of immune cells, which in turn influences the progression of fibrotic diseases in the liver, intestines, pancreas, heart, lungs, kidneys, and other organs. This paper introduces the biological functions of CCL2 and CCR2, highlighting their similarities and differences concerning fibrotic disorders in various organ systems, and reviews recent progress in the diagnosis and treatment of clinical fibrotic diseases linked to the CCL2/CCR2 signaling pathway. Additionally, further in-depth research is needed to explore the clinical significance of the CCL2/CCR2 axis in fibrotic conditions affecting different organs.

Genome-wide meta-analysis associates donor-recipient non-HLA genetic mismatch with acute cellular rejection post-liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

Acute cellular rejection (ACR) remains a common complication causing significant morbidity post-liver transplantation. Non-human leukocyte antigen (non-HLA) mismatches were associated with an increased risk of ACR in kidney transplantation. Therefore, we hypothesized that donor-recipient non-HLA genetic mismatch is associated with increased ACR incidence post-liver transplantation.

METHODS

We conducted an international multicenter case-control genome-wide association study of donor-recipient liver transplant pairs in 3 independent cohorts, totaling 1846 pairs. To assess genetic mismatch burden, we calculated sum scores for single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mismatch based on all non-HLA functional SNPs, specifically SNPs coding for transmembrane or secreted proteins as they more likely affect the immune system. We analyzed the association between the non-HLA mismatch scores and ACR in a multivariable Cox regression model per cohort, followed by a weighted meta-analysis.

RESULTS

During the first year post-transplantation, 90 of 689 (13%), 161 of 720 (22%), and 48 of 437 (11%) recipients experienced ACR in cohorts 1-3, respectively. Weighted meta-analyses showed that higher mismatch in functional non-HLA SNPs was associated with an increased incidence of ACR (HR 5.99; 95% CI: 1.39-20.08; p=0.011). Moreover, we found a larger effect of mismatch in SNPs coding for transmembrane or secreted proteins on ACR (HR 7.54; 95% CI 1.95-28.79; p=0.003). Sensitivity analyses showed that imputed HLA mismatch did not affect the associations between both non-HLA mismatch scores and ACR.

CONCLUSIONS

Donor-recipient mismatch of functional non-HLA SNPs overall and, especially, of SNPs encoding transmembrane or secreted proteins correlated with 1-year ACR post-liver transplantation. Identifying high-risk immunological burdens between pairs may prevent early graft rejection and aid in personalizing immunosuppressive therapy. Future studies are, however, needed to validate our findings using a genotyped HLA cohort.

Ferrocenyl-Substituted Curcumin Derivatives as Potential SHP-2 Inhibitors for Anticolorectal Cancer: Design, Synthesis and In Vitro Evaluation

A panel of ferrocenyl-substituted curcumin derivatives has been designed and synthesized as protein tyrosine phosphatase proto-oncogene SHP-2 inhibitors. Antiproliferative activities of the synthesized compounds were tested against colorectal cancer cell lines (including RKO, SW480, and CT26). Compound 3f showed excellent activities against the tested cell lines with IC50 values of 5.72, 3.71, and 1.42 μM. The cytotoxicity of compound 3f was investigated on human normal colon epithelial cell line NCM460 with IC50 values of 929 μM compared to curcumin with IC50 values of 431 μM. The Western blot analysis approved that the expression level of SHP-2 in the CT26 and SW480 cell lines after being treated with 3f was decreased, meanwhile it also affected the SHP-2 in tumor-associated macrophages (THP-1 and RAW264.7), which may support the suggested mechanism of 3f as an SHP-2 inhibitor. Besides, 3f could also inhibit the activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway in SW480 and CT26 cell lines and the tumor microenvironment (TME) by reducing the expression of PI3K and Akt proteins. Some cytokines (Arg-1, TGF-β, and IL-10) and chemokines (chemokine receptors and CC and CXC chemokine subfamilies) in the TME were also inhibited by 3f. Finally, 3f could increase the expression level of cell cycle-related and mitophagy-related proteins p27, PINK1, and Parkin and decrease the expression level of CDK1 and Cyclin-D1 proteins in CT26 and SW480 cells, which proved that 3f could inhibit the proliferation of CRC cells through multiple pathways. Molecular docking studies against ALDH1 (PDB ID: 5ABM) revealed the good binding modes of the newly synthesized compounds.

The Therapeutic Potential of Physical Exercise in Cancer: The Role of Chemokines

The global increase in cancer cases and mortality has been associated with inflammatory processes, in which chemokines play crucial roles. These molecules, a subfamily of cytokines, are essential for the migration, adhesion, interaction, and positioning of immune cells throughout the body. Chemokines primarily originate in response to pathogenic stimuli and inflammatory cytokines. They are expressed by lymphocytes in the bloodstream and are divided into four classes (CC, CXC, XC, and CX3C), playing multifaceted roles in the tumor environment (TME). In the TME, chemokines regulate immune behavior by recruiting cells such as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), which promote tumor survival. Additionally, they directly influence tumor behavior, promoting pathological angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. On the other hand, chemokines can also induce antitumor responses by mobilizing CD8+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells to the tumor, reducing pro-inflammatory chemokines and enhancing essential antitumor responses. Given the complex interaction between chemokines, the immune system, angiogenic factors, and metastasis, it becomes evident how important it is to target these pathways in therapeutic interventions to counteract cancer progression. In this context, physical exercise emerges as a promising strategy due to its role modulating the expression of anti-inflammatory chemokines and enhancing the antitumor response. Aerobic and resistance exercises have been associated with a beneficial inflammatory profile in cancer, increased infiltration of CD8+ T cells in the TME, and improvement of intratumoral vasculature. This creates an environment less favorable to tumor growth and supports the circulation of antitumor immune cells and chemokines. Therefore, understanding the impact of exercise on the expression of chemokines can provide valuable insights for therapeutic interventions in cancer treatment and prevention.

Adipocyte-derived CXCL10 in obesity promotes the migration and invasion of ovarian cancer cells

BACKGROUND

As a widespread epidemic, obesity poses a significant risk to health and leads to physiological abnormalities, including diabetes mellitus and inflammation. Obesity-induced inflammation can accelerate the development of various cancers; however, the role of obesity in the migration of ovarian carcinoma is still unclear.

RESULTS

Twenty-four commonly upregulated genes were identified from single-cell RNA sequencing datasets of both ovarian carcinoma and adipose tissue of obese humans, with the chemokine CXCL10 showing a significant increase in adipose tissues associated with obesity. And CXCL10 treated primed macrophages exhibit both direct and indirect effects on the proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion of ovarian adenocarcinoma cells. The treatment of CXCL10 on the SKOV3 cells enhances FAK expression and phosphorylation, thereby accelerating the migration and invasion of ovarian cancer cells. Conditioned medium-derived from CXCL10-treated THP-1 cells significantly promoted ovarian cancer cell migration and invasion, which may be attributed to the increased expression of C1QA, C1QC, CCL24, and IL4R in macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

Obesity exacerbates the production of CXCL10 from adipose tissues in obese women. CXCL10 is a key hub factor between developments of ovarian cancer and adipose tissues in obese. Targeting adipose-derived CXCL10 or its downstream macrophages may be a potential strategy to alleviate ovarian cancer accompanied by obesity.

Chemokines and chemokine receptors: Potential therapeutic targets in systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that affects connective tissue and can lead to multisystem organ damage. Chemokines are a class of small proteins that interact with receptors and participate in a variety of physiological functions, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis and distribution. They also play important roles in pathological processes, such as the inflammatory response, wound repair, tumor formation and metastasis. Previous studies have shown that the levels of chemokines and their receptors are elevated in the blood and inflamed tissues of SLE patients. In addition, chemokine ligand-receptor interactions control the recruitment of leukocytes into tissues, suggesting that chemokines and their receptors may be biomarkers and therapeutic targets for SLE. This review summarizes the causative role of chemokines and their receptors in SLE, as well as their clinical values and challenges as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Tertiary lymphoid structures in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) are ectopic clusters of immune cells found in non-lymphoid tissues, particularly within the tumor microenvironment (TME). These structures resemble secondary lymphoid organs and have been identified in various solid tumors, including colorectal cancer (CRC), where they are associated with favorable prognosis. The role of TLS in modulating the immune response within the TME and their impact on cancer prognosis has garnered increasing attention in recent years.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to summarize the current understanding of TLS in CRC, focusing on their formation, function, and potential as prognostic markers and therapeutic targets. We explore the mechanisms by which TLS influence the immune response within the TME and their correlation with clinical outcomes in CRC patients.

METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive review of recent studies that investigated the presence and role of TLS in CRC. The review includes data from histopathological analyses, immunohistochemical studies, and clinical trials, examining the association between TLS density, composition, and CRC prognosis. Additionally, we explored emerging therapeutic strategies targeting TLS formation and function within the TME.

RESULTS

The presence of TLS in CRC is generally associated with an improved prognosis, particularly in early-stage disease. TLS formation is driven by chronic inflammation and is characterized by the organization of B and T cell zones, high endothelial venules (HEVs), and follicular dendritic cells (FDCs). The density and maturity of TLS are linked to better patient outcomes, including reduced recurrence rates and increased survival. Furthermore, the interplay between TLS and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) suggests potential therapeutic implications for enhancing anti-tumor immunity in CRC.

CONCLUSIONS

TLS represent a significant prognostic marker in CRC, with their presence correlating with favorable clinical outcomes. Ongoing research is required to fully understand the mechanisms by which TLS modulate the immune response within the TME and to develop effective therapies that harness their potential. The integration of TLS-focused strategies in CRC treatment could lead to improved patient management and outcomes.

Multiple myeloma long-term survivors exhibit sustained immune alterations decades after first-line therapy

The long-term consequences of cancer and its therapy on the patients' immune system years after cancer-free survival remain poorly understood. Here, we present an in-depth characterization of the bone marrow immune ecosystem of multiple myeloma long-term survivors, from initial diagnosis up to 17 years following a single therapy line and cancer-free survival. Using comparative single-cell analyses combined with molecular, genomic, and functional approaches, we demonstrate that multiple myeloma long-term survivors exhibit pronounced alterations in their bone marrow microenvironment associated with impaired immunity. These immunological alterations were frequently linked to an inflammatory immune circuit fueled by the long-term persistence or resurgence of residual myeloma cells. Notably, even in the complete absence of any detectable residual disease for decades, sustained changes in the immune system were observed, suggesting an irreversible 'immunological scarring' caused by the initial exposure to the cancer and therapy. Collectively, our study provides key insights into the molecular and cellular bone marrow ecosystem of long-term survivors of multiple myeloma, revealing both reversible and irreversible alterations in the immune compartment.

Chemokines Signature and T Cell Dynamics in Leishmaniasis: Molecular insight and therapeutic application

Leishmaniasis, caused by obligate intracellular Leishmania parasites, poses a significant global health burden. The control of Leishmania infection relies on an effective T cell-dependent immune response; however, various factors impede the host’s ability to mount a successful defence. Alterations in the chemokine profile, responsible for cell trafficking to the infection site, can disrupt optimal immune responses and influence the outcome of pathogenesis by facilitating parasite persistence. This review aims to emphasize the significance of the chemokine system in T cell responses and to summarize the current knowledge on the dysregulation of chemokines and their receptors associated with different subsets of T lymphocytes during Leishmaniasis. A comprehensive understanding of the dynamic nature of the chemokine system during Leishmaniasis is crucial for the development of successful immunotherapeutic approaches.

Prospective study on the association between 36 human blood cell traits and pan-cancer outcomes: a mendelian randomization analysis

BACKGROUND

Research on the link between blood cell traits and cancer risk has gained significant attention. Traditional epidemiological and cell biology studies, have identified correlations between blood traits and cancer risks. These findings are important as they suggest potential risk factors and biological mechanisms. However, these studies often can't confirm causality, pointing to the need for further investigation to understand these relationships better.

METHODS

Mendelian randomization (MR), utilizing single-nucleotide polymorphisms as instrumental variables, was employed to investigate blood cell trait causal effects on cancer risk. Thirty-six blood cell traits were analyzed, and their impact on 28 major cancer outcomes was assessed using data from the FinnGen cohort, with eight major cancer outcomes and 22 cancer subsets. Furthermore, 1,008 MR analyses were conducted, incorporating sensitivity analyses (weighted median, MR-Egger, and MR-PRESSO) to address potential pleiotropy and heterogeneity.

RESULTS

The analysis (data from 173,480 individuals primarily of European descent) revealed significant results. An increase in eosinophil count was associated with a reduced risk of colorectal malignancies (OR = 0.7702 per 1 SD higher level, 95% CI = 0.6852 to 0.8658; P = 1.22E-05). Similarly, an increase in total eosinophil and basophil count was linked to a decreased risk of colorectal malignancies (OR = 0.7798 per 1 SD higher level, 95% CI = 0.6904 to 0.8808; P = 6.30E-05). Elevated hematocrit (HCT) levels were associated with a reduced risk of ovarian cancer (OR = 0.5857 per 1 SD higher level, 95% CI = 0.4443 to 0.7721; P = 1.47E-04). No significant heterogeneity or horizontal pleiotropy was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the complex and context-dependent roles of blood cell traits in cancers.

Advances and prospects in tumor infiltrating lymphocyte therapy

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) therapy in adoptive T-cell therapy (ACT) has already caused durable regression in a variety of cancer types due to T-cell persistence, clinical activity, and duration of objective response and safety. TILs are composed of polyclonal effector T-cells specific to heterogenetic tumor antigens, reasonably providing a promising means for tumor therapy. In addition, their expansion in vitro can release them from the suppressive tumor microenvironment. Even though significant advances have been made in the procedure of TIL therapy, from TIL isolation, modification, expansion, and infusion back to the patient to target the tumor, strategy optimization is always ongoing to overcome drawbacks such as a complex process, options for the lineage differentiation status of TILs, and sufficient trafficking of TILs to the tumor. In this review, we summarize the current advances of TIL therapy, raise problem-based optimization strategies, and provide future perspectives on next-generation TIL therapy as a potential avenue for enhancing cell-based immunotherapy.

Patient-based multilevel transcriptome exploration highlights relevant chemokines and chemokine receptor axes in glioblastoma

Chemokines and their receptors form a complex interaction network, crucial for precise leukocyte positioning and trafficking. In cancer, they promote malignant cell proliferation and survival but are also critical for immune cell infiltration in the tumor microenvironment. Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and lethal brain tumor, characterized by an immunosuppressive TME, with restricted immune cell infiltration. A better understanding of chemokine-receptor interactions is therefore essential for improving tumor immunogenicity. In this study, we assessed the expression of all human chemokines in adult-type diffuse gliomas, with particular focus on GBM, based on patient-derived samples. Publicly available bulk RNA sequencing datasets allowed us to identify the chemokines most abundantly expressed in GBM, with regard to disease severity and across different tumor subregions. To gain insight into the chemokines-receptor network at the single cell resolution, we explored GBmap, a curated resource integrating multiple scRNAseq datasets from different published studies. Our study constitutes the first patient-based handbook highlighting the relevant chemokine-receptor crosstalks, which are of significant interest in the perspective of a therapeutic modulation of the TME in GBM.

Gynecological cancer tumor Microenvironment: Unveiling cellular complexity and therapeutic potential

Gynecological cancers, including ovarian, cervical, endometrial, and vulvar cancers, present significant challenges in diagnosis and treatment globally. The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a pivotal role in cancer progression and therapy response, necessitating a deeper understanding of its composition and dynamics. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the gynecological cancer tumor microenvironment, emphasizing its cellular complexity and therapeutic potential. The diverse cellular components of the TME, including cancer cells, immune cells, stromal cells, and extracellular matrix elements, are explored, elucidating their interplay in shaping tumor behavior and treatment outcomes. Across various stages of cancer progression, the TME exerts profound effects on tumor heterogeneity, immune modulation, angiogenesis, and metabolic reprogramming. The urgency for novel therapeutic strategies is underscored by understanding immune evasion mechanisms within the TME. Emerging approaches such as immunotherapy, stromal-targeting therapies, anti-angiogenic agents, and metabolic inhibitors are discussed, offering promising avenues for improving patient outcomes. Interdisciplinary collaborations and translational research are emphasized, aiming to advance precision oncology and enhance therapeutic efficacy in gynecological cancers.

Prognostic prediction signature and molecular subtype for liver cancer: A CTC/CTM‑related gene prediction model and independent external validation

Liver cancer is the second leading cause of tumor-related death worldwide, and a serious threat to lives and health. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) facilitate the progression of various cancers, including liver cancer. The relationship between CTC/circulating tumor microemboli-related genes (CRGs) and the prognosis of liver cancer is unclear. The aim of the present study was to identify CTC/circulating tumour microemboli-related genes (CRGs) in hepatocellular carcinoma and to investigate their clinical significance. Transcriptomic data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) and GSE117623 databases were combined, and differentially expressed CRGs were identified. These were subsequently analyzed via least absolute shrinkage and selection operator and multivariate Cox analyses, and a five-gene risk signature was constructed. The signature was validated in the ICGC and GSE14520 dataset with survival analysis and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Immunocyte infiltration, tumor mutation burden (TMB), tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion (TIDE), and the somatic mutation rate were also compared between high- and low-risk groups, based on the median predictive index, to further evaluate the immunotherapeutic value of the model. Molecular subtypes of liver cancer were characterized by the non-negative matrix factorization method and potential therapeutic compounds were evaluated for different subtypes. Nomograms were utilized to predict the prognosis of patients, and the signature was compared with previous literature models. Additionally, the biological function of one of the CRGs, tumor protein p53 inducible protein 3 (TP53I3), in liver cancer was further explored through in vitro experiments. Analysis of the prognostic characteristics of the five CRGs led to the identification of two liver cancer subtypes. Patients in the low-risk group had a longer survival compared with those in the high-risk group, and patients in the latter group were associated with a higher TMB, immunocyte infiltration and somatic mutation rate, and lower TIDE scores. The prognostic profile was validated in the ICGC and GSE14520 datasets and exhibited a good predictive performance. In vitro analysis showed that the knockdown of TP53I3 suppressed liver cancer cell proliferation. In summary, CRGs were used to develop a new prognostic signature to predict the prognosis of patients with liver cancer. This signature may be used to assess the prognosis of patients and may provide new insights for clinical management strategies. In addition, TP53I3 is potentially a therapeutic target for liver cancer.

Modeling 3D Tumor Invasiveness to Modulate Macrophage Phenotype in a Human-Based Hydrogel Platform

The immune system is a pivotal player in determining tumor fate, contributing to the immunosuppressive microenvironment that supports tumor progression. Considering the emergence of biomaterials as promising platforms to mimic the tumor microenvironment, human platelet lysate (PLMA)-based hydrogel beads are proposed as 3D platforms to recapitulate the tumor milieu and recreate the synergistic tumor-macrophage communication. Having characterized the biomaterial-mediated pro-regenerative macrophage phenotype, an osteosarcoma spheroid encapsulated into a PLMA hydrogel bead is explored to study macrophage immunomodulation through paracrine signaling. The culture of PLMA-Tumor beads on the top of a 2D monolayer of macrophages reveals that tumor cells triggered morphologic and metabolic adaptations in macrophages. The cytokine profile, coupled with the upregulation of gene and protein anti-inflammatory biomarkers clearly indicates macrophage polarization toward an M2-like phenotype. Moreover, the increased gene expression of chemokines identified as pro-tumoral environmental regulators suggest a tumor-associated macrophage phenotype, exclusively stimulated by tumor cells. This pro-tumoral microenvironment is also found to enhance tumor invasiveness ability and proliferation. Besides providing a robust in vitro immunomodulatory tumor model that faithfully recreates the tumor-macrophage interplay, this human-based platform has the potential to provide fundamental insights into immunosuppressive signaling and predict immune-targeted response.

Bacterial Lysate-Based Bifunctional mRNA Nanoformulation for Efficient Colon Cancer Immunogene Therapy

mRNA-based nonviral gene therapy has played an important role in cancer therapy, however, the limited delivery efficiency and therapeutic capacity still require further exploration and enhancement. Immunogene therapy provides a strategy for cancer treatment. Bacteria are tiny single-celled living organisms, many of which can be found in and on the human body and are beneficial to humans. Lactobacillus reuteri is a bacterial member of the gut flora, and recent research has shown that it can reduce intestinal inflammation by stimulating an immunomodulatory response. L. reuteri lysate represents an ideal resource for constructing advanced mRNA delivery systems with immune stimulation potential. Here, we prepared a bifunctional mRNA delivery system DMP-Lac (DOTAP-mPEG-PCL-L. reuteri lysate), which successfully codelivered L. reuteri lysate and IL-23A mRNA, exhibited a high mRNA delivery efficiency of 75.56% ± 0.85%, and strongly promoted the maturation and activation of the immune system in vivo. Both the CT26 abdominal metastasis model and the lung metastasis model also exhibited a good therapeutic effect, and the tumor inhibition rate of DMP-Lac/IL-23A group reached 97.92%. Protein chip technology verified that DMP acted as an immune adjuvant, demonstrating that the L. reuteri lysate could regulate the related immune cells, while IL-23 mRNA caused changes in downstream factors, thus producing the corresponding tumor treatment effect. The DMP-Lac/IL-23A complex exhibited strong anticancer immunotherapeutic effects. Our results demonstrated that this bifunctional mRNA formulation served as a tumor-specific nanomedicine, providing an advanced strategy for colon cancer immunogene therapy.

Role of T Lymphocytes in Glioma Immune Microenvironment: Two Sides of a Coin

Glioma is known for its immunosuppressive microenvironment, which makes it challenging to target through immunotherapies. Immune cells like macrophages, microglia, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and T lymphocytes are known to infiltrate the glioma tumor microenvironment and regulate immune response distinctively. Among the variety of immune cells, T lymphocytes have highly complex and multifaceted roles in the glioma immune landscape. T lymphocytes, which include CD4+ helper and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, are known for their pivotal roles in anti-tumor responses. However, these cells may behave differently in the highly dynamic glioma microenvironment, for example, via an immune invasion mechanism enforced by tumor cells. Therefore, T lymphocytes play dual roles in glioma immunity, firstly by their anti-tumor responses, and secondly by exploiting gliomas to promote immune invasion. As an immunosuppression strategy, glioma induces T-cell exhaustion and suppression of effector T cells by regulatory T cells (Tregs) or by altering their signaling pathways. Further, the expression of immune checkpoint inhibitors on the glioma cell surface leads to T cell anergy and dysfunction. Overall, this dynamic interplay between T lymphocytes and glioma is crucial for designing more effective immunotherapies. The current review provides detailed knowledge on the roles of T lymphocytes in the glioma immune microenvironment and helps to explore novel therapeutic approaches to reinvigorate T lymphocytes.

Unlocking the dual role of LSD1 in tumor immunity: innate and adaptive pathways

The roles of innate and adaptive immunity are crucial in both the development of cancer and its response to treatment. Numerous studies have demonstrated that histone lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) is overexpressed in various cancers. Elevated levels of LSD1 intricately modulate immune checkpoints, the function of immune cells, and the expression of immunomodulators, impacting both innate and adaptive immunity. Moreover, compelling evidence suggests that inhibiting LSD1 enhances tumor immunity, suppresses tumor growth, and improves the effectiveness of immunotherapy. However, a comprehensive classification of LSD1's role in both innate and adaptive immunity is lacking. In this review, we outline the role of LSD1 in tumor immunity in terms of both innate and adaptive immunity, summarizing the mechanisms associated with LSD1-mediated tumor immunity and its potential regulatory capacity in tumor immune escape. Finally, we summarize the research status of LSD1 inhibitors in tumor immunotherapy, which be valuable for promoting the development of effective LSD1-targeted agents used as combination immunotherapy drugs.

Intratumoral Escherichia Is Associated With Improved Survival to Single-Agent Immune Checkpoint Inhibition in Patients With Advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

PURPOSEThe impact of the intratumoral microbiome on immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) efficacy in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is unknown. Preclinically, intratumoral Escherichia is associated with a proinflammatory tumor microenvironment and decreased metastases. We sought to determine whether intratumoral Escherichia is associated with outcome to ICI in patients with NSCLC.PATIENTS AND METHODSWe examined the intratumoral microbiome in 958 patients with advanced NSCLC treated with ICI by querying unmapped next-generation sequencing reads against a bacterial genome database. Putative environmental contaminants were filtered using no-template controls (n = 2,378). The impact of intratumoral Escherichia detection on overall survival (OS) was assessed using univariable and multivariable analyses. The findings were further validated in an external independent cohort of 772 patients. Escherichia fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and transcriptomic profiling were performed.RESULTSIn the discovery cohort, read mapping to intratumoral Escherichia was associated with significantly longer OS (16 v 11 months; hazard ratio, 0.73 [95% CI, 0.59 to 0.92]; P = .0065) in patients treated with single-agent ICI, but not combination chemoimmunotherapy. The association with OS in the single-agent ICI cohort remained statistically significant in multivariable analysis adjusting for prognostic features including PD-L1 expression (P = .023). Analysis of an external validation cohort confirmed the association with improved OS in univariable and multivariable analyses of patients treated with single-agent ICI, and not in patients treated with chemoimmunotherapy. Escherichia localization within tumor cells was supported by coregistration of FISH staining and serial hematoxylin and eosin sections. Transcriptomic analysis correlated Escherichia-positive samples with expression signatures of immune cell infiltration.CONCLUSIONRead mapping to potential intratumoral Escherichia was associated with survival to single-agent ICI in two independent cohorts of patients with NSCLC.

Pan-cancer analysis reveals that TK1 promotes tumor progression by mediating cell proliferation and Th2 cell polarization

BACKGROUND

TK1 (Thymidine kinase 1) is a member of the thymidine kinase family and has been observed to be significantly upregulated in a variety of cancer types. However, the exact roles of TK1 in tumor progression and the tumor immune microenvironment are not fully understood. This study aims to investigate the comprehensive involvement of TK1 in pan-cancer through the utilization of bioinformatics analysis, validation of pathological tissue samples, and in vitro experimental investigations.

METHODS

The expression profiles together with diagnostic and prognostic role of TK1 in pan-cancer were investigated though TCGA, TARGET, GTEx, and CPTAC databases. The single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) and single-cell sequencing datasets were used to examine the relationship between TK1 and immune infiltration. The expression of TK1 were verified in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through qPCR, western blotting and immunohistochemical assays. The proliferative capacity of HCC cell lines was assessed through CCK-8 and colony formation assays, while cytokine levels were measured via ELISA. Furthermore, flow cytometry was utilized to analyze cell cycle distribution and the proportions of Th2 cells.

RESULTS

TK1 was overexpressed in most cancers and demonstrated significant diagnostic and prognostic value. Among the various immune cells in pan-cancer, Th2 cells exhibited the closest association with TK1. Furthermore, the single-cell atlas provided insights into the distribution and proportion of TK1 in immune cells of HCC. In vitro experiments revealed an elevated expression of TK1 in HCC tissue and cell lines, and its role in influencing HCC cell proliferation by regulating G0/G1 phase arrest. Additionally, TK1 in cancer cells was found to potentially modulate Th2 cell polarization through the chemokine CCL5.

CONCLUSION

TK1 holds immense potential as a biomarker for pan-cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Additionally, targeting the expression of TK1 represents a promising therapeutic approach that can enhance the efficacy of current anti-tumor immunotherapy by modulating Th2 cell polarization and multiple mechanisms.

Functional gene signature offers a powerful tool for characterizing clinicopathological features and depicting tumor immune microenvironment of colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer, a prevalent malignancy worldwide, poses a significant challenge due to the lack of effective prognostic tools. In this study, we aimed to develop a functional gene signature to stratify colorectal cancer patients into different groups with distinct characteristics, which will greatly facilitate disease prediction.

RESULTS

Patients were stratified into high- and low-risk groups using a prediction model built based on the functional gene signature. This innovative approach not only predicts clinicopathological features but also reveals tumor immune microenvironment types and responses to immunotherapy. The study reveals that patients in the high-risk group exhibit poorer pathological features, including invasion depth, lymph node metastasis, and distant metastasis, as well as unfavorable survival outcomes in terms of overall survival and disease-free survival. The underlying mechanisms for these observations are attributed to upregulated tumor-related signaling pathways, increased infiltration of pro-tumor immune cells, decreased infiltration of anti-tumor immune cells, and a lower tumor mutation burden. Consequently, patients in the high-risk group exhibit a diminished response to immunotherapy. Furthermore, the high-risk group demonstrates enrichment in extracellular matrix-related functions and significant infiltration of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Single-cell transcriptional data analysis identifies CAFs as the primary cellular type expressing hub genes, namely ACTA2, TPM2, MYL9, and TAGLN. This finding is further validated through multiple approaches, including multiplex immunohistochemistry (mIHC), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and western blot analysis. Notably, TPM2 emerges as a potential biomarker for identifying CAFs in colorectal cancer, distinguishing them from both colorectal cancer cell lines and normal colon epithelial cell lines. Co-culture of CAFs and colorectal cancer cells revealed that CAFs could enhance the tumorigenic biofunctions of cancer cells indirectly, which could be partially inhibited by knocking down CAF original TPM2 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

This study introduces a functional gene signature that effectively and reliably predicts clinicopathological features and the tumor immune microenvironment in colorectal cancer. Moreover, the identification of TPM2 as a potential biomarker for CAFs holds promising implications for future research and clinical applications in the field of colorectal cancer.

Identification of predictive models including polymorphisms in cytokines genes and clinical variables associated with post-transplant complications after identical HLA-allogeneic stem cell transplantation

Backgrounds

Although allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is a potentially curative therapy for hematological malignancies, it can be associated with relevant post-transplant complications. Several reports have shown that polymorphisms in immune system genes are correlated with the development of post-transplant complications. Within this context, this work focuses on identifying novel polymorphisms in cytokine genes and developing predictive models to anticipate the risk of developing graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), transplantation-related mortality (TRM), relapse and overall survival (OS).

Methods

Our group developed a 132-cytokine gene panel which was tested in 90 patients who underwent an HLA-identical sibling-donor allo-HSCT. Bayesian logistic regression (BLR) models were used to select the most relevant variables. Based on the cut-off points selected for each model, patients were classified as being at high or low-risk for each of the post-transplant complications (aGVHD II-IV, aGVHD III-IV, cGVHD, mod-sev cGVHD, TRM, relapse and OS).

Results

A total of 737 polymorphisms were selected from the custom panel genes. Of these, 41 polymorphisms were included in the predictive models in 30 cytokine genes were selected (17 interleukins and 13 chemokines). Of these polymorphisms, 5 (12.2%) were located in coding regions, and 36 (87.8%) in non-coding regions. All models had a statistical significance of p<0.0001.

Conclusion

Overall, genomic polymorphisms in cytokine genes make it possible to anticipate the development all complications studied following allo-HSCT and, consequently, to optimize the clinical management of patients.

[Research Progresses on the Effects of CCL4 on Immune Escape in Tumor Microenvironment]

Immunotherapy has become the cornerstone of current malignant tumor treatment. However, the response of different patients to immunotherapy is highly heterogeneous, and not all patients can benefit from it. There is an urgent need to find biomarkers that can effectively predict the efficacy of immunotherapy. C-C chemokine ligand 4 (CCL4) is a cytokine, belonging to the inflammatory CCL subfamily. It is mainly secreted by immune cells and tumor cells and shows low or no expression in normal tissues but abnormally high expression in various malignant tumor tissues. After binding to CCL4 and its receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), it can recruit and mediate immune cell migration, destroy the stability of the tumor microenvironment (TME), participate in carcinogenesis and promote the development of tumors. In the tumor immune microenvironment, CCL4 can mediate and recruit the directed migration of key immune cells such as monocytes, macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and T cells, which makes it a potentially important element affecting the efficacy of immunotherapy and has specific value. This paper reviews the research progresses of CCL4's effects on immune escape in TME, in order to provide clues and references for basic research and clinical diagnosis and treatment.
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Disruption of Circadian Clock Induces Abnormal Mammary Morphology and Aggressive Basal Tumorigenesis by Enhancing LILRB4 Signaling

Epidemiological studies have shown that circadian rhythm disruption (CRD) is associated with the risk of breast cancer. However, the role of CRD in mammary gland morphology and aggressive basal mammary tumorigenesis and the molecular mechanisms underlying CRD and cancer risk remain unknown. To investigate the effect of CRD on aggressive tumorigenesis, a genetically engineered mouse model that recapitulates the human basal type of breast cancer was used for this study. The effect of CRD on mammary gland morphology was investigated using wild-type mice model. The impact of CRD on the tumor microenvironment was investigated using the tumors from LD12:12 and CRD mice via scRNA seq. ScRNA seq was substantiated by multiplexing immunostaining, flow cytometry, and realtime PCR. The effect of LILRB4 immunotherapy on CRD-induced tumorigenesis was also investigated. Here we identified the impact of CRD on basal tumorigenesis and mammary gland morphology and identified the role of LILRB4 on CRD-induced lung metastasis. We found that chronic CRD disrupted mouse mammary gland morphology and increased tumor burden, and lung metastasis and induced an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment by enhancing LILRB4a expression. Moreover, CRD increased the M2-macrophage and regulatory T-cell populations but decreased the M1-macrophage, and dendritic cell populations. Furthermore, targeted immunotherapy against LILRB4 reduced CRD-induced immunosuppressive microenvironment and lung metastasis. These findings identify and implicate LILRB4a as a link between CRD and aggressive mammary tumorigenesis. This study also establishes the potential role of the targeted LILRB4a immunotherapy as an inhibitor of CRD-induced lung metastasis.

A comprehensive prognostic and immune infiltration analysis of UBA1 in pan-cancer: A computational analysis and in vitro experiments

Ubiquitin like modifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) plays an important role in immune regulation and cellular function. However, the functional mechanism and role of UBA1 in pan-cancer have not been fully elucidated and its value in haematological tumours (diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBC/DLBCL) and acute myeloid leukaemia (AML/LAML)) has not been explored. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of the functional mechanism and role of UBA1 in pan-cancer using multiple databases, including differential expression analysis, clinical pathological staging analysis, prognosis analysis and immune analysis. Then, we confirmed the function of UBA1 in haematological tumours through cell experiments. The results showed that the expression of UBA1 was significantly increased in most cancers and the differential expression of UBA1 was mainly concentrated in digestive tumours, haematological tumours and brain tumours. Moreover, the high expression of UBA1 had poor prognosis in most tumours, which may be related to its involvement in various cancer-related pathways such as cell cycle, as well as its methylation level, protein phosphorylation level, immune cell infiltration and immune therapy response. Cell experiments have confirmed that UBA1 can significantly regulate the cycle progression and apoptosis of DLBCL cells and AML cells. Therefore, UBA1 may be a potential therapeutic target for haematological tumours. In summary, our study not only comprehensively analysed the functional mechanisms and clinical value of UBA1 in pan-cancer, but also validated for the first time the regulatory role of UBA1 in haematological tumours.

The reactive stroma response regulates the immune landscape in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer remains the most commonly diagnosed and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men in the United States. The neoplastic transformation of prostate epithelia, concomitant with modulations in the stromal compartment, known as reactive stromal response, is critical for the growth, development, and progression of prostate cancer. Reactive stroma typifies an emergent response to disrupted tissue homeostasis commonly observed in wound repair and pathological conditions such as cancer. Despite the significance of reactive stroma in prostate cancer pathobiology, our understanding of the ontogeny, phenotypic and functional heterogeneity, and reactive stromal regulation of the immune microenvironment in prostate cancer remains limited. Traditionally characterized to have an immunologically "cold" tumor microenvironment, prostate cancer presents significant challenges for advancing immunotherapy compared to other solid tumors. This review explores the detrimental role of reactive stroma in prostate cancer, particularly its immunomodulatory function. Understanding the molecular characteristics and dynamic transcriptional program of the reactive stromal populations in tandem with tumor progression could offer insights into enhancing immunotherapy efficacy against prostate cancer.

Chemokines in the tumor microenvironment: implications for lung cancer and immunotherapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex interconnected network of immune cells, fibroblasts, blood vessels, and extracellular matrix surrounding the tumor. Because of its immunosuppressive nature, the TME can pose a challenge for cancer immunotherapies targeting solid tumors. Chemokines have emerged as a crucial element in enhancing the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, playing a direct role in immune cell signaling within the TME and facilitating immune cell migration towards cancer cells. However, chemokine ligands and their receptors exhibit context-dependent diversity, necessitating evaluation of their tumor-promoting or inhibitory effects based on tumor type and immune cell characteristics. This review explores the role of chemokines in tumor immunity and metastasis in the context of the TME. We also discuss current chemokine-related advances in cancer immunotherapy research, with a particular focus on lung cancer, a common cancer with a low survival rate and limited immunotherapy options.

Single-cell landscape of functionally cured chronic hepatitis B patients reveals activation of innate and altered CD4-CTL-driven adaptive immunity

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss or functional cure (FC) is considered the optimal therapeutic outcome for patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). However, the immune-pathological biomarkers and underlying mechanisms of FC remain unclear. In this study we comprehensively interrogate disease-associated cell states identified within intrahepatic tissue and matched PBMCs (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) from patients with CHB or after FC, at the resolution of single cells, to provide novel insights into putative mechanisms underlying FC.

METHODS

We combined single-cell transcriptomics (single-cell RNA sequencing) with multiparametric flow cytometry-based immune phenotyping, and multiplexed immunofluorescence to elucidate the immunopathological cell states associated with CHB vs. FC.

RESULTS

We found that the intrahepatic environment in CHB and FC displays specific cell identities and molecular signatures that are distinct from those found in matched PBMCs. FC is associated with the emergence of an altered adaptive immune response marked by CD4 cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and an activated innate response represented by liver-resident natural killer cells, specific Kupffer cell subtypes and marginated neutrophils. Surprisingly, we found MHC class II-expressing hepatocytes in patients achieving FC, as well as low but persistent levels of covalently closed circular DNA and pregenomic RNA, which may play an important role in FC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides conceptually novel insights into the immuno-pathological control of HBV cure, and opens exciting new avenues for clinical management, biomarker discovery and therapeutic development. We believe that the discoveries from this study, as it relates to the activation of an innate and altered immune response that may facilitate sustained, low-grade inflammation, may have broader implications in the resolution of chronic viral hepatitis.

IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

This study dissects the immuno-pathological cell states associated with functionally cured chronic hepatitis B (defined by the loss of HBV surface antigen or HBsAg). We identified the sustained presence of very low viral load, accessory antigen-presenting hepatocytes, adaptive-memory-like natural killer cells, and the emergence of helper CD4 T cells with cytotoxic or effector-like signatures associated with functional cure, suggesting previously unsuspected alterations in the adaptive immune response, as well as a key role for the innate immune response in achieving or maintaining functional cure. Overall, the insights generated from this study may provide new avenues for the development of alternative therapies as well as patient surveillance for better clinical management of chronic hepatitis B.

Dual roles of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in various diseases: a review

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of cells that originate from bone marrow stem cells. In pathological conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, allergies, infections, and cancer, normal myelopoiesis is altered to facilitate the formation of MDSCs. MDSCs were first shown to promote cancer initiation and progression by immunosuppression with the assistance of various chemokines and cytokines. Recently, various studies have demonstrated that MDSCs play two distinct roles depending on the physiological and pathological conditions. MDSCs have protective roles in autoimmune disorders (such as uveoretinitis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, type 1 diabetes, autoimmune hepatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, alopecia areata, and systemic lupus erythematosus), allergies, and organ transplantation. However, they play negative roles in infections and various cancers. Several immunosuppressive functions and mechanisms of MDSCs have been determined in different disease conditions. This review comprehensively discusses the associations between MDSCs and various pathological conditions and briefly describes therapeutic approaches.

Targeting Hdm2 and Hdm4 in Anticancer Drug Discovery: Implications for Checkpoint Inhibitor Immunotherapy

Hdm2 and Hdm4 are structural homologs that regulate the tumor suppressor protein, p53. Since some tumors express wild-type p53, Hdm2 and Hdm4 are plausible targets for anticancer drugs, especially in tumors that express wild-type p53. Hdm4 can enhance and antagonize the activity of Tp53, thereby playing a critical role in the regulation of p53's activity and stability. Moreover, Hdm2 and Hdm4 are overexpressed in many cancers, some expressing wild-type Tp53. Due to experimental evidence suggesting that the activation of wild-type Tp53 can augment the antitumor activity by some checkpoint inhibitors, drugs targeting Hdm2 and Hdm4 may be strong candidates for combining with checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy. However, other evidence suggests that the overexpression of Hdm2 and Hdm4 may indicate poor response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. These findings require careful examination and scrutiny. In this article, a comprehensive analysis of the Hdm2/Hdm4 partnership will be conducted. Furthermore, this article will address the current progress of drug development regarding molecules that target the Hdm2/Hdm4/Tp53 partnership.

Tuning cellular metabolism for cancer virotherapy

Oncolytic viruses (OVs) represent an emerging immunotherapeutic strategy owing to their capacity for direct tumor lysis and induction of antitumor immunity. However, hurdles like transient persistence and moderate efficacy necessitate innovative approaches. Metabolic remodeling has recently gained prominence as a strategic intervention, wherein OVs or combination regimens could reprogram tumor and immune cell metabolism to enhance viral replication and oncolysis. In this review, we summarize recent advances in strategic reprogramming of tumor and immune cell metabolism to enhance OV-based immunotherapies. Specific tactics include engineering viruses to target glycolytic, glutaminolytic, and nucleotide synthesis pathways in cancer cells, boosting viral replication and tumor cell death. Additionally, rewiring T cell and NK cell metabolism of lipids, amino acids, and carbohydrates shows promise to enhance antitumor effects. Further insights are discussed to pave the way for the clinical implementation of metabolically enhanced oncolytic platforms, including balancing metabolic modulation to limit antiviral responses while promoting viral persistence and tumor clearance.

Effect of Isoscopoletin on Cytokine Expression in HaCaT Keratinocytes and RBL-2H3 Basophils: Preliminary Study

Isoscopoletin is a compound derived from various plants traditionally used for the treatment of skin diseases. However, there have been no reported therapeutic effects of isoscopoletin on atopic dermatitis (AD). AD is a chronic inflammatory skin disease, and commonly used treatments have side effects; thus, there is a need to identify potential natural candidate substances. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether isoscopoletin regulates the inflammatory mediators associated with AD in TNF-α/IFN-γ-treated HaCaT cells and PMA/ionomycin treated RBL-2H3 cells. We determined the influence of isoscopoletin on cell viability through an MTT assay and investigated the production of inflammatory mediators using ELISA and RT-qPCR. Moreover, we analyzed the transcription factors that regulate inflammatory mediators using Western blots and ICC. The results showed that isoscopoletin did not affect cell viability below 40 μM in either HaCaT or RBL-2H3 cells. Isoscopoletin suppressed the production of TARC/CCL17, MDC/CCL22, MCP-1/CCL2, IL-8/CXCL8, and IL-1β in TNF-α/IFN-γ-treated HaCaT cells and IL-4 in PMA/ionomycin-treated RBL-2H3 cells. Furthermore, in TNF-α/IFN-γ-treated HaCaT cells, the phosphorylation of signaling pathways, including MAPK, NF-κB, STAT, and AKT/PKB, increased but was decreased by isoscopoletin. In PMA/ionomycin-treated RBL-2H3 cells, the activation of signaling pathways including PKC, MAPK, and AP-1 increased but was decreased by isoscopoletin. In summary, isoscopoletin reduced the production of inflammatory mediators by regulating upstream transcription factors in TNF-α/IFN-γ-treated HaCaT cells and PMA/ionomycin-treated RBL-2H3 cells. Therefore, we suggest that isoscopoletin has the potential for a therapeutic effect, particularly in skin inflammatory diseases such as AD, by targeting keratinocytes and basophils.

TTK inhibitor OSU13 promotes immunotherapy responses by activating tumor STING

TTK spindle assembly checkpoint kinase is an emerging cancer target. This preclinical study explored the antitumor mechanism of TTK inhibitor OSU13 to define a strategy for clinical development. We observed prominent antitumor activity of OSU13 in melanoma, colon and breast cancer cells, organoids derived from patients with melanoma, and mice bearing colon tumors associated with G2 cell cycle arrest, senescence, and apoptosis. OSU13-treated cells displayed DNA damage and micronuclei that triggered the cytosolic DNA-sensing cGAS/STING pathway. STING was required for the induction of several proteins involved in T cell recruitment and activity. Tumors from OSU13-treated mice showed an increased proportion of T and NK cells and evidence of PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint activation. Combining a low-toxicity dose of OSU13 with anti-PD-1 checkpoint blockade resulted in prominent STING- and CD8+ T cell-dependent tumor inhibition and improved survival. These findings provide a rationale for utilizing TTK inhibitors in combination with immunotherapy in STING-proficient tumors.

Quantifying spatial CXCL9 distribution with image analysis predicts improved prognosis of triple-negative breast cancer

Background: The C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9) plays a pivotal role in tumor immunity by recruiting and activating immune cells. However, the relationship between CXCL9 expression and prognosis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is unclear. Methods: We investigated CXCL9 mRNA expression, clinicopathological features, and prognosis in TNBC patients. We also used computational image analysis to quantify and assess the distribution of CXCL9 protein in the tumor core (TC) and invasive margin (IM). Results: CXCL9 mRNA expression was significantly higher in TNBC tumors compared to normal tissue (p < 0.001) and was associated with smaller tumors (p = 0.022) and earlier stages (p = 0.033). High CXCL9 mRNA expression was correlated with improved overall survival (OS) in three independent cohorts (all p < 0.05). In a separate analysis, low CXCL9 protein expression was associated with increased lymph node metastasis (p = 0.018 and p = 0.036). High CXCL9 protein expression in the TC, IM, or both was associated with prolonged OS (all p < 0.001). Conclusion: High CXCL9 expression, at both the mRNA and protein levels, is associated with improved prognosis in TNBC patients. CXCL9 expression in the TC and/or IM may be an independent prognostic factor.

Immunotherapy-activated T cells recruit and skew late-stage activated M1-like macrophages that are critical for therapeutic efficacy

Total tumor clearance through immunotherapy is associated with a fully coordinated innate and adaptive immune response, but knowledge on the exact contribution of each immune cell subset is limited. We show that therapy-induced intratumoral CD8+ T cells recruited and skewed late-stage activated M1-like macrophages, which were critical for effective tumor control in two different murine models of cancer immunotherapy. The activated CD8+ T cells summon these macrophages into the tumor and their close vicinity via CCR5 signaling. Exposure of non-polarized macrophages to activated T cell supernatant and tumor lysate recapitulates the late-stage activated and tumoricidal phenotype in vitro. The transcriptomic signature of these macrophages is also detected in a similar macrophage population present in human tumors and coincides with clinical response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. The requirement of a functional co-operation between CD8+ T cells and effector macrophages for effective immunotherapy gives warning to combinations with broad macrophage-targeting strategies.

Pluronic-Based Nanoparticles for Delivery of Doxorubicin to the Tumor Microenvironment by Binding to Macrophages

The active targeting drug delivery system based on special types of endogenous cells such as macrophages has emerged as a promising strategy for tumor therapy, owing to its tumor homing property and biocompatibility. In this work, the active tumor-targeting drug delivery system carrying doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles (DOX@MPF127-MCP-1, DMPM) on macrophage (RAW264.7) surfaces via the mediation of interaction with the CCR2/MCP-1 axis was exploited. Initially, the amphiphilic block copolymer Pluronic F127 (PF127) was carboxylated to MPF127 at the hydroxyl terminus. Subsequently, MPF127 was modified with MCP-1 peptide to prepare MPF127-MCP-1 (MPM). The DOX was wrapped in MPM to form DMPM nanomicelles (approximately 100 nm) during the self-assembly process of MPM. The DMPM spontaneously bound to macrophages (RAW264.7), which resulted in the construction of an actively targeting delivery system (macrophage-DMPM, MA-DMPM) in vitro and in vivo. The DOX in MA-DMPM was released in the acidic tumor microenvironment (TME) in a pH-responsive manner to increase DOX accumulation and enhance the tumor treatment effect. The ratio of MA-DMPM homing reached 220% in vitro compared with the control group, indicating that the MA-DMPM was excellently capable of tumor-targeting delivery. In in vivo experiments, nonsmall cell lung cancer cell (NCI-H1299) tumor models were established. The results of the fluorescence imaging system (IVIS) showed that MA-DMPM demonstrated tremendous tumor-targeting ability in vivo. The antitumor effects of MA-DMPM in vivo indicated that the proportion of tumor cell apoptosis in the DMPM-treated group was 63.33%. The findings of the tumor-bearing mouse experiment proved that MA-DMPM significantly suppressed tumor cell growth, which confirmed its immense potential and promising applications in tumor therapy.

CCL2 regulated by the CTBP1-AS2/miR-335-5p axis promotes hemangioma progression and angiogenesis

CONTEXT

Hemangioma (HA) is a benign vascular neoplasm that can lead to permanent scarring. C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) plays a crucial role in facilitating growth and angiogenesis during HA progression. However, the mechanism regulating CCL2 in HA remains poorly elucidated.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the mechanism regulating CCL2 in HA.

METHODS

Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was employed to determine the expression levels of CCL2, long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) CTBP1 divergent transcript (CTBP1-AS2), and microRNAs (miRNAs). Proliferation, migration, invasion, and angiogenic abilities of human HA endothelial cells (HemECs) were assessed using cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), colony formation, flow cytometry, transwell, and tube formation assays. Bioinformatics analysis, RNA pull-down, and luciferase reporter assays were conducted to investigate whether CCL2 targets miR-335-5p. Additionally, rescue experiments were performed in this study.

RESULTS

CCL2 expression was markedly upregulated in HemECs. CCL2 promoted HA cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis while inhibiting apoptosis. CCL2 was directly targeted by miR-335-5p. Additionally, we found that CTBP1-AS2 could function as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) to sponge miR-335-5p, thereby upregulating CCL2.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that targeting the CTBP1-AS2/miR-335-5p/CCL2 axis may hold promise as a therapeutic strategy for HA.