Interleukin-17 in Chronic Inflammatory Neurological Diseases

The role of reactive oxygen species in the regulation of the blood-brain barrier

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulates the exchange of metabolites and cells between the blood and brain, and maintains central nervous system homeostasis. Various factors affect BBB barrier functions, including reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS can act as stressors, damaging biological molecules, but they also serve as secondary messengers in intracellular signaling cascades during redox signaling. The impact of ROS on the BBB has been observed in multiple sclerosis, stroke, trauma, and other neurological disorders, making blocking ROS generation a promising therapeutic strategy for BBB dysfunction. However, it is important to consider ROS generation during normal BBB functioning for signaling purposes. This review summarizes data on proteins expressed by BBB cells that can be targets of redox signaling or oxidative stress. It also provides examples of signaling molecules whose impact may cause ROS generation in the BBB, as well as discusses the most common diseases associated with BBB dysfunction and excessive ROS generation, open questions that arise in the study of this problem, and possible ways to overcome them.

Periodic heat waves-induced neuronal etiology in the elderly is mediated by gut-liver-brain axis: a transcriptome profiling approach

Heat stress exposure in intermittent heat waves and subsequent exposure during war theaters pose a clinical challenge that can lead to multi-organ dysfunction and long-term complications in the elderly. Using an aged mouse model and high-throughput sequencing, this study investigated the molecular dynamics of the liver-brain connection during heat stress exposure. Distinctive gene expression patterns induced by periodic heat stress emerged in both brain and liver tissues. An altered transcriptome profile showed heat stress-induced altered acute phase response pathways, causing neural, hepatic, and systemic inflammation and impaired synaptic plasticity. Results also demonstrated that proinflammatory molecules such as S100B, IL-17, IL-33, and neurological disease signaling pathways were upregulated, while protective pathways like aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling were downregulated. In parallel, Rantes, IRF7, NOD1/2, TREM1, and hepatic injury signaling pathways were upregulated. Furthermore, current research identified Orosomucoid 2 (ORM2) in the liver as one of the mediators of the liver-brain axis due to heat exposure. In conclusion, the transcriptome profiling in elderly heat-stressed mice revealed a coordinated network of liver-brain axis pathways with increased hepatic ORM2 secretion, possibly due to gut inflammation and dysbiosis. The above secretion of ORM2 may impact the brain through a leaky blood-brain barrier, thus emphasizing intricate multi-organ crosstalk.

Immune System Dysregulation in the Progression of Multiple Sclerosis: Molecular Insights and Therapeutic Implications

Multiple sclerosis (MS), a prevalent neurological disorder, predominantly affects young adults and is characterized by chronic autoimmune activity. The study explores the immune system dysregulation in MS, highlighting the crucial roles of immune and non-neuronal cells in the disease's progression. This review examines the dual role of cytokines, with some like IL-6, TNF-α, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) promoting inflammation and CNS tissue injury, and others such as IL-4, IL-10, IL-37, and TGF-β fostering remyelination and protecting against MS. Elevated chemokine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), including CCL2, CCL5, CXCL10, CXCL13, and fractalkine, are analyzed for their role in facilitating immune cell migration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), worsening inflammation and neurodegeneration. The study also delves into the impact of auto-antibodies targeting myelin components like MOG and AQP4, which activate complement cascades leading to further myelin destruction. The article discusses how compromised BBB integrity allows immune cells and inflammatory mediators to infiltrate the CNS, intensifying MS symptoms. It also examines the involvement of astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes in the disease's progression. Additionally, the effectiveness of immunomodulatory drugs such as IFN-β and CD20-targeting monoclonal antibodies (e.g., rituximab) in modulating immune responses is reviewed, highlighting their potential to reduce relapse rates and delaying MS progression. These insights emphasize the importance of immune system dysfunction in MS development and progression, guiding the development of new therapeutic strategies. The study underscores recent advancements in understanding MS's molecular pathways, opening avenues for more targeted and effective treatments.

Increased levels and activation of the IL-17 receptor in microglia contribute to enhanced neuroinflammation in cerebellum of hyperammonemic rats

BACKGROUND

Patients with liver cirrhosis may show minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) with mild cognitive impairment and motor incoordination. Rats with chronic hyperammonemia reproduce these alterations. Motor incoordination in hyperammonemic rats is due to increased GABAergic neurotransmission in cerebellum, induced by neuroinflammation, which enhances TNFα-TNFR1-S1PR2-CCL2-BDNF-TrkB pathway activation. The initial events by which hyperammonemia triggers activation of this pathway remain unclear. MHE in cirrhotic patients is triggered by a shift in inflammation with increased IL-17. The aims of this work were: (1) assess if hyperammonemia increases IL-17 content and membrane expression of its receptor in cerebellum of hyperammonemic rats; (2) identify the cell types in which IL-17 receptor is expressed and IL-17 increases in hyperammonemia; (3) assess if blocking IL-17 signaling with anti-IL-17 ex-vivo reverses activation of glia and of the TNFα-TNFR1-S1PR2-CCL2-BDNF-TrkB pathway.

RESULTS

IL-17 levels and membrane expression of the IL-17 receptor are increased in cerebellum of rats with hyperammonemia and MHE, leading to increased activation of IL-17 receptor in microglia, which triggers activation of STAT3 and NF-kB, increasing IL-17 and TNFα levels, respectively. TNFα released from microglia activates TNFR1 in Purkinje neurons, leading to activation of NF-kB and increased IL-17 and TNFα also in these cells. Enhanced TNFR1 activation also enhances activation of the TNFR1-S1PR2-CCL2-BDNF-TrkB pathway which mediates microglia and astrocytes activation.

CONCLUSIONS

All these steps are triggered by enhanced activation of IL-17 receptor in microglia and are prevented by ex-vivo treatment with anti-IL-17. IL-17 and IL-17 receptor in microglia would be therapeutic targets to treat neurological impairment in patients with MHE.

Hsa-miR-877-5p Expression in Acute Ischemic Stroke Based on Bioinformatics Analysis and Clinical Validation

Inflammation and immunity play important roles in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. This study aimed to explore key regulatory genes in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and their underlying mechanisms to provide new research targets for the diagnosis and treatment of ischemic stroke. We searched for differentially expressed mRNAs and miRNAs in patients with AIS and healthy populations in GEO databases, constructed a miRNA-mRNA network, and screened key miRNAs using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression and the support vector machine-recursive feature elimination model. Correlations between key miRNAs and infiltrating immune cells and inflammatory factors were analyzed using CIBERSORT and immunoassays and verified using clinical experiments. Bioinformatics analysis identified hsa-miR-877-5p as a key regulatory miRNA in AIS that can modulate immune and inflammatory responses. In clinical studies, it was verified by quantitative PCR analysis that the expression of hsa-miR-877-5p in the blood of AIS patients was higher than that of the healthy group. Then, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed that the expression of IL-23 and TNF-α related to inflammation in AIS patients was higher than that of the healthy. Quantitative PCR further found that the relative mRNA expression of IL-23, CXCR3, and TNF-α in AIS group was higher than that of the healthy group. This study may provide a basis for a more comprehensive understanding of the potential mechanism of the occurrence and development of AIS, and hsa-miR-877-5p and its downstream effectors IL-23, CXCR3, and TNF-α may be potential intervention targets in AIS.

Oleuropein Has Modulatory Effects on Systemic Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Neuroinflammation in Male Rats

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation induced by systemic inflammation is a risk factor for developing chronic neurologic disorders. Oleuropein (OLE) has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties; however, its effect on systemic inflammation-related neuroinflammation is unknown.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine whether OLE protects against systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation in rats.

METHODS

Six-wk-old Wistar rats were randomly assigned to 1 of the following 5 groups: 1) control, 2) OLE-only, 3) LPS + vehicle, 4) OLE+LPS (O-LPS), and 5) a single-dose OLE + LPS (SO-LPS group). OLE 200 mg/kg or saline as a vehicle was administered via gavage for 7 d. On the seventh day, 2.5 mg/kg LPS was intraperitoneally administered. The rats were decapitated after 24 h of LPS treatment, and serum collection and tissue dissection were performed. The study assessed astrocyte and microglial activation using glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and CD11b immunohistochemistry, nod-like receptor protein-3, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-17A, and IL-4 concentrations in prefrontal and hippocampal tissues via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and total antioxidant/oxidant status (TAS/TOS) in serum and tissues via spectrophotometry.

RESULTS

In both the O-LPS and SO-LPS groups, LPS-related activation of microglia and astrocytes was suppressed in the cortex and hippocampus (P < 0.001), excluding cortical astrocyte activation, which was suppressed only in the SO-LPS group (P < 0.001). Hippocampal GFAP immunoreactivity and IL-17A concentrations in the dentate gyrus were higher in the OLE group than those in the control group, but LPS-related increases in these concentrations were suppressed in the O-LPS group. The O-LPS group had higher cortical TAS and IL-4 concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

OLE suppressed LPS-related astrocyte and microglial activation in the hippocampus and cortex. The OLE-induced increase in cortical IL-4 concentrations indicates the induction of an anti-inflammatory phenotype of microglia. OLE may also modulate astrocyte and IL-17A functions, which could explain its opposing effects on hippocampal GFAP immunoreactivity and IL-17A concentrations when administered with or without LPS.

Bridging the gender gap in autoimmunity with T-cell-targeted biomaterials

Autoimmune diseases are caused by malfunctions of the immune system and generally impact women at twice the frequency of men. Many of the most serious autoimmune diseases are accompanied by a dysregulation of T-cell phenotype, both regarding the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ T-cells and proinflammatory versus regulatory phenotypes. Biomaterials, in the form of particles and hydrogels, have shown promise in ameliorating this dysregulation both in vivo and ex vivo. In this review, we explore the role of T-cells in autoimmune diseases, particularly those with high incidence rates in women, and evaluate the promise and efficacy of innovative biomaterial-based approaches for targeting T-cells.

Plasma proteomic profiles of UK Biobank participants with multiple sclerosis

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to describe plasma protein biomarkers of multiple sclerosis risk and to explore protein biomarkers of disease severity using radiological outcome measures.

METHODS

Multiple sclerosis cases and controls were identified in UK Biobank, a longitudinal cohort study of ~500,000 British adults. Plasma proteins were assayed in ~50,000 UK Biobank participants using the Olink proximity extension assay. We performed case-control association testing to examine the association between 2911 proteins and multiple sclerosis, using linear models adjusted for confounding covariates. Associations with radiological lesion burden and brain volume were determined in a subset of the cohort with available magnetic resonance imaging, using normalized T2-hyperintensity volume or whole brain volume as the outcome measure.

RESULTS

In total, 407 prevalent multiple sclerosis cases and 39,979 healthy controls were included. We discovered 72 proteins associated with multiple sclerosis at a Bonferroni-adjusted p value of 0.05, including established markers such as neurofilament light chain and glial fibrillary acidic protein. We observed a decrease in plasma Granzyme A, a marker of T cell and NK cell degranulation, which was specific to multiple sclerosis. Higher levels of plasma proteins involved in coagulation were associated with lower T2 lesion burden and preserved brain volume.

INTERPRETATION

We report the largest plasma proteomic screen of multiple sclerosis, replicating important known associations and suggesting novel markers, such as the reduction in granzyme A. While these findings require external validation, they demonstrate the power of biobank-scale datasets for discovering new biomarkers for multiple sclerosis.

IL-17 and IL-21: Their Immunobiology and Therapeutic Potentials

Studies over the last 2 decades have identified IL-17 and IL-21 as key cytokines in the modulation of a wide range of immune responses. IL-17 serves as a critical defender against bacterial and fungal pathogens, while maintaining symbiotic relationships with commensal microbiota. However, alterations in its levels can lead to chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. IL-21, on the other hand, bridges the adaptive and innate immune responses, and its imbalance is implicated in autoimmune diseases and cancer, highlighting its important role in both health and disease. Delving into the intricacies of these cytokines not only opens new avenues for understanding the immune system, but also promises innovative advances in the development of therapeutic strategies for numerous diseases. In this review, we will discuss an updated view of the immunobiology and therapeutic potential of IL-17 and IL-21.

Cytokines, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors, and PlGF in Autoimmunity: Insights From Rheumatoid Arthritis to Multiple Sclerosis

In this review, we will explore the intricate roles of cytokines and vascular endothelial growth factors in autoimmune diseases (ADs), with a particular focus on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and multiple sclerosis (MS). AD is characterized by self-destructive immune responses due to auto-reactive T lymphocytes and Abs. Among various types of ADs, RA and MS possess inflammation as a central role but in different sites of the patients. Other common aspects among these two ADs are their chronicity and relapsing-remitting symptoms requiring continuous management. First factor inducing these ADs are cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17, which play significant roles in the pathogenesis by contributing to inflammation, immune cell activation, and tissue damage. Secondly, vascular endothelial growth factors, including VEGF and angiopoietins, are crucial in promoting angiogenesis and inflammation in these two ADs. Finally, placental growth factor (PlGF), an emerging factor with bi-directional roles in angiogenesis and T cell differentiation, as we introduce as an "angio-lymphokine" is another key factor in ADs. Thus, while angiogenesis recruits more inflammatory cells into the peripheral sites, cytokines secreted by effector cells play critical roles in the pathogenesis of ADs. Various therapeutic interventions targeting these soluble molecules have shown promise in managing autoimmune pathogenic conditions. However, delicate interplay between cytokines, angiogenic factors, and PlGF has more to be studied when considering their complementary role in actual pathogenic conditions. Understanding the complex interactions among these factors provides valuable insights for the development of innovative therapies for RA and MS, offering hope for improved patient outcomes.

The brain cytokine orchestra in multiple sclerosis: from neuroinflammation to synaptopathology

The central nervous system (CNS) is finely protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Immune soluble factors such as cytokines (CKs) are normally produced in the CNS, contributing to physiological immunosurveillance and homeostatic synaptic scaling. CKs are peptide, pleiotropic molecules involved in a broad range of cellular functions, with a pivotal role in resolving the inflammation and promoting tissue healing. However, pro-inflammatory CKs can exert a detrimental effect in pathological conditions, spreading the damage. In the inflamed CNS, CKs recruit immune cells, stimulate the local production of other inflammatory mediators, and promote synaptic dysfunction. Our understanding of neuroinflammation in humans owes much to the study of multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common autoimmune and demyelinating disease, in which autoreactive T cells migrate from the periphery to the CNS after the encounter with a still unknown antigen. CNS-infiltrating T cells produce pro-inflammatory CKs that aggravate local demyelination and neurodegeneration. This review aims to recapitulate the state of the art about CKs role in the healthy and inflamed CNS, with focus on recent advances bridging the study of adaptive immune system and neurophysiology.

Targeting IL-17A enhances imatinib efficacy in Philadelphia chromosome-positive B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Dysregulated hematopoietic niches remodeled by leukemia cells lead to imbalances in immunological mediators that support leukemogenesis and drug resistance. Targeting immune niches may ameliorate disease progression and tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) resistance in Philadelphia chromosome-positive B-ALL (Ph+ B-ALL). Here, we show that T helper type 17 (Th17) cells and IL-17A expression are distinctively elevated in Ph+ B-ALL patients. IL-17A promotes the progression of Ph+ B-ALL. Mechanistically, IL-17A activates BCR-ABL, IL6/JAK/STAT3, and NF-kB signalling pathways in Ph+ B-ALL cells, resulting in robust cell proliferation and survival. In addition, IL-17A-activated Ph+ B-ALL cells secrete the chemokine CXCL16, which in turn promotes Th17 differentiation, attracts Th17 cells and forms a positive feedback loop supporting leukemia progression. These data demonstrate an involvement of Th17 cells in Ph+ B-ALL progression and suggest potential therapeutic options for Ph+ B-ALL with Th17-enriched niches.

Effects of Exercise Training on Immune-Related Genes and Pathways in the Cortex of Animal Models of Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that affects the immune system due to the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau associated molecular pathology and other pathogenic processes. To address AD pathogenesis, various approaches had been conducted from drug development to lifestyle modification to reduce the prevalence of AD. Exercise is considered a prominent lifestyle modification to combat AD.

Objective

This observation prompted us to review the literature on exercise related to immune genes in the cortex of animal models of AD. We focused on animal model studies due to their prevalence in this domain.

Methods

The systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA standards using Web of Science (WoS) and PubMed databases. Any kind of genes, proteins, and molecular molecules were included in this systematic review. The list of these immune-related molecules was analyzed in the STRING database for functional enrichment analysis.

Results

We found that 17 research studies discussed immune-related molecules and 30 immune proteins. These studies showed that exercise had the ability to ameliorate dysfunction in AD-related pathways, which led to decreasing the expression of microglia-related pathways and Th17-related immune pathways. As a result of decreasing the expression of immune-related pathways, the expression of apoptosis-related pathways was also decreasing, and neuronal survival was increased by exercise activity.

Conclusions

Based on functional enrichment analysis, exercise not only could reduce apoptotic factors and immune components but also could increase cell survival and Aβ clearance in cortex samples. PROSPERO ID: CRD42022326093.

Effect of Oral Chondroitin Sulfate Supplementation on Acute Brain Injury in a Murine Necrotizing Enterocolitis Model

BACKGROUND

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a devastating condition where inflammatory changes and necrosis in the gut results in activation of brain microglia and subsequent neurodevelopmental impairment. Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a glycosaminoglycan in human breast milk that is absent in conventional formulas. We hypothesized that oral formula supplementation with CS during a murine model of experimental NEC would not only attenuate intestinal injury, but also brain injury.

STUDY DESIGN

NEC was induced in mouse pups on postnatal days (PNDs) 5 to 8. Three conditions were studied: (1) breastfed controls, (2) NEC, and (3) NEC+enteral CS (formula+200 mg/kg/d of CS). Pups were euthanized on PND 9 or reunited with dams by the evening of PND 8. Intestinal segments were H&E stained, and immunohistochemistry was performed on brain tissue for Iba-1 to assess for microglial morphology and cortical changes. Neurodevelopmental assays were performed on mice reunited with foster dams on PND 9. Single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis was performed on human intestinal epithelial cells exposed to (1) nothing, (2) hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) alone, or (3) H 2 O 2 + CS to look at the differential gene expression between groups. Groups were compared with ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis tests as appropriate with p < 0.05 considered significant.

RESULTS

Compared with NEC, mice treated with oral CS showed improved clinical outcomes, decreased intestinal injury, and attenuated microglial activation and deleterious cortical change. Mice with CS performed better on early neurodevelopmental assays when compared with NEC alone. Single-cell analysis of HIEC-6 cells demonstrated that CS treatment down regulated several inflammatory pathways including nuclear factor κB-suggesting an explanation for the improved Th17 intestinal cytokine profile.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral CS supplementation improved both physiological, clinical, and developmental outcomes. These data suggest that CS is a safe compound for formula supplementation for the prevention of NEC.

Novel liposomal glatiramer acetate: Preparation and immunomodulatory evaluation in murine model of multiple sclerosis

The frequent administration rate required for Glatiramer acetate (GA), a first-line therapy for Multiple sclerosis (MS), poses patient compliance issues. Only a small portion of the subcutaneously administered GA is available for phagocytosis by macrophages, as most of it is hydrolyzed at its administration site or excreted renally. To unravel these hurdles, we have prepared liposomal formulations of GA through thin film-hydration method plus extrusion. The clinical and histopathological efficacy of GA-loaded liposomes were assessed in prophylactic and therapeutic manners on murine model of MS (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)). The selected GA liposomal formulation showed favorable size (275 nm on average), high loading efficiency, and high macrophage localization. Moreover, administration of GA-liposomes in mice robustly suppressed the inflammatory responses and decreased the inflammatory and demyelinated lesion regions in CNS compared to the free GA with subsequent reduction of the EAE clinical score. Our study indicated that liposomal GA could be served as a reliable nanomedicine-based platform to hopefully curb MS-related aberrant autoreactive immune responses with higher efficacy, longer duration of action, fewer administration frequencies, and higher delivery rate to macrophages. This platform has the potential to be introduced as a vaccine for MS after clinical translation and merits further investigations.

Kynurenine pathway and its role in neurologic, psychiatric, and inflammatory bowel diseases

Tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway is of central importance for the immune function. It prevents hyperinflammation and induces long-term immune tolerance. Accumulating evidence also demonstrates cytoprotective and immunomodulatory properties of kynurenine pathway in conditions affecting either central or peripheral nervous system as well as other conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Although multilevel association exists between the inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and various neurologic (e.g., neurodegenerative) disorders, it is believed that the kynurenine pathway plays a pivotal role in the development of both IBD and neurodegenerative disorders. In this setting, there is strong evidence linking the gut-brain axis with intestinal dysfunctions including IBD which is consistent with the fact that the risk of neurodegenerative diseases is higher in IBD patients. This review aims to highlight the role of kynurenine metabolic pathway in various neurologic and psychiatric diseases as well as relationship between IBD and neurodegenerative disorders in the light of the kynurenine metabolic pathway.

The Role of the Intestinal Microbiome in Multiple Sclerosis-Lessons to Be Learned from Hippocrates

Based on recent advances in research of chronic inflammatory conditions, there is a growing body of evidence that suggests a close correlation between the microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract and the physiologic activity of the immune system. This raises the idea that disturbances of the GI ecosystem contribute to the unfolding of chronic diseases including neurodegenerative pathologies. Here, we overview our current understanding on the putative interaction between the gut microbiota and the immune system from the aspect of multiple sclerosis, one of the autoimmune conditions accompanied by severe chronic neuroinflammation that affects millions of people worldwide.

A glance through the effects of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and cytokines on Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. Unfortunately, despite numerous studies, an effective treatment for AD has not yet been established. There is remarkable evidence indicating that the innate immune mechanism and adaptive immune response play significant roles in the pathogenesis of AD. Several studies have reported changes in CD8+ and CD4+ T cells in AD patients. This mini-review article discusses the potential contribution of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells reactivity to amyloid β (Aβ) protein in individuals with AD. Moreover, this mini-review examines the potential associations between T cells, heme oxygenase (HO), and impaired mitochondria in the context of AD. While current mathematical models of AD have not extensively addressed the inclusion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, there exist models that can be extended to consider AD as an autoimmune disease involving these T cell types. Additionally, the mini-review covers recent research that has investigated the utilization of machine learning models, considering the impact of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.

Characterizing the neuroimmune environment of offspring in a novel model of maternal allergic asthma and particulate matter exposure

Inflammation during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk for neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD). Increased gestational inflammation can be a result of an immune condition/disease, exposure to infection, and/or environmental factors. Epidemiology studies suggest that cases of NDD are on the rise. Similarly, rates of asthma are increasing, and the presence of maternal asthma during pregnancy increases the likelihood of a child being later diagnosed with NDD such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Particulate matter (PM), via air pollution, is an environmental factor known to worsen the symptoms of asthma, but also, PM has been associated with increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders. Despite the links between asthma and PM with neuropsychiatric disorders, there is a lack of laboratory models investigating combined prenatal exposure to asthma and PM on offspring neurodevelopment. Thus, we developed a novel mouse model that combines exposure to maternal allergic asthma (MAA) and ultrafine iron-soot (UIS), a common component of PM. In the current study, female BALB/c mice were sensitized for allergic asthma with ovalbumin (OVA) prior to pregnancy. Following mating and beginning on gestational day 2 (GD2), dams were exposed to either aerosolized OVA to induce allergic asthma or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 1 h. Following the 1-h exposure, pregnant females were then exposed to UIS with a size distribution of 55 to 169 nm at an average concentration of 176 ± 45 μg/m3) (SD), or clean air for 4 h, over 8 exposure sessions. Offspring brains were collected at postnatal days (P)15 and (P)35. Cortices and hippocampal regions were then isolated and assessed for changes in cytokines using a Luminex bead-based multiplex assay. Analyses identified changes in many cytokines across treatment groups at both timepoints in the cortex, including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and IL-17, which remained elevated from P15 to P35 in all treatment conditions compared to controls. There was a suppressive effect of the combined MAA plus UIS on the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Potentially shifting the cytokine balance towards more neuroinflammation. In the hippocampus at P15, elevations in cytokines were also identified across the treatment groups, namely IL-7. The combination of MAA and UIS exposure (MAA-UIS) during pregnancy resulted in an increase in microglia density in the hippocampus of offspring, as identified by IBA-1 staining. Together, these data indicate that exposure to MAA, UIS, and MAA-UIS result in changes in the neuroimmune environment of offspring that persist into adulthood.

A blunted TH17 cytokine signature in women with mild cognitive impairment: insights from inflammatory profiling of a community-based cohort of older adults

People with dementia have an increase in brain inflammation, caused in part by innate and adaptive immune cells. However, it remains unknown whether dementia-associated diseases alter neuro-immune reflex arcs to impact the systemic immune system. We examined peripheral immune cells from a community-based cohort of older adults to test if systemic inflammatory cytokine signatures associated with early stages of cognitive impairment. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were cultured with monocyte or T-cell-targeted stimuli, and multiplex assays quantitated cytokines in the conditioned media. Following T-cell-targeted stimulation, cells from women with cognitive impairment produced lower amounts of TH17 cytokines compared with cells from cognitively healthy women, while myeloid-targeted stimuli elicited similar amounts of cytokines from cells of both groups. This TH17 signature correlated with the proportion of circulating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and plasma glial fibrillary acidic protein and neurofilament light concentrations. These results suggest that decreases in TH17 cytokines could be an early systemic change in women at risk for developing dementia. Amelioration of TH17s cytokines in early cognitive impairment could, in part, explain the compromised ability of older adults to respond to vaccines or defend against infection.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines mediating senescence of vascular endothelial cells in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory vascular disease, and aging is a major risk factor. The accumulation of senescent vascular endothelial cells (VECs) often leads to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress and induces endothelial dysfunction, contributing to the occurrence and development of AS. Senescent cells can secrete a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines to induce the senescence of adjacent cells in a paracrine manner, leading to the transmission of signaling of cellular senescence to neighboring cells and the accumulation of senescent cells. Recent studies have demonstrated that several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-17, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, can induce the senescence of VECs. This review summarizes and focuses on the pro-inflammatory cytokines that often induce the senescence of VECs and the molecular mechanisms of these pro-inflammatory cytokines inducing senescence of VECs. Targeting the senescence of VECs induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines may provide a potential and novel strategy for the prevention and treatment of AS.

Aureane-type sesquiterpene tetraketides as a novel class of immunomodulators with interleukin-17A inhibitory activity

Interleukin (IL)-17A, a pro-inflammatory cytokine, is a fundamental function in the onset and advancement of multiple immune diseases. To uncover the primary compounds with IL-17A inhibitory activity, a large-scale screening of the library of traditional Chinese medicine constituents and microbial secondary metabolites was conducted using splenic cells from IL-17A-GFP reporter mice cultured under Th17-priming conditions. Our results indicated that some aureane-type sesquiterpene tetraketides isolated from a wetland mud-derived fungus, Myrothecium gramineum, showed remarkable IL-17A inhibitory activity. Nine new aureane-type sesquiterpene tetraketides, myrogramins A-I (1, 4-11), and two known ones (2 and 3) were isolated and identified from the strain. Compounds 1, 3, 4, 10, and 11 exhibited significant IL-17A inhibitory activity. Among them, compound 3, with a high fermentation yield dose-dependently inhibited the generation of IL-17A and suppressed glycolysis in splenic cells under Th17-priming conditions. Strikingly, compound 3 suppressed immunopathology in both IL-17A-mediated animal models of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and pulmonary hypertension. Our results revealed that aureane-type sesquiterpene tetraketides are a novel class of immunomodulators with IL-17A inhibitory activity, and hold great promise applications in treating IL-17A-mediated immune diseases.

Atherosclerosis Associated With COVID-19: Acute, Tends to Severely Involve Peripheral Arteries, and May be Reversible

Arterial stiffness was reported with corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We studied atherosclerosis in COVID-19 directly through duplex ultrasound measurements and their relation to co-morbidities, clinical and laboratory severity markers, and serum interleukin (IL) 6 and 17. Serum IL 6 and 17, average carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT), diameter and peak systolic velocities (PSV) of tibial, ulnar, radial arteries, and ankle brachial index (ABI) were measured in 44 COVID-19 patients and 44 healthy controls. Serum IL6, IL17, PSV, and cIMT were higher while diameter was lower (P ≤ .01) in cases. Clinical severity index correlated positively with age, co-morbidities, ferritin, IL6, IL17, cIMT, and PSV (P ≤ .04) and negatively with diameter and ABI (P = .04). Patients with severe lymphopenia had higher PSV, IL6, and IL17 and lower diameter (P < .00001). Ferritin positively correlated with PSV and negatively with diameter and ABI (P ≤ .01). Those who received an IL6 inhibitor (tocilizumab) showed lower PSV and higher diameter (P ≤ .01). In multiple regression analysis, IL17 and (age, co-morbidities) were related to (PSV, diameter) and cIMT (P ≤ .001, ≤0.02), respectively. COVID-19 may be associated with subclinical acute and may be reversible atherosclerosis severely involving peripheral arteries.

Golden berry leaf extract containing withanolides suppresses TNF-α and IL-17 induced IL-6 expression in HeLa Cells

Inflammation, characterized by the overexpression of IL-6 in various tissues, has been reported as a symptom of coronavirus disease 2019. In this study, we established an experimental system for overexpression of IL-6 in HeLa cells stimulated by TNF-α and IL-17, along with identification of anti-inflammatory materials and components from local agricultural, forestry, and fishery resources. We constructed a library of extracts from natural sources, of which 111 samples were evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activities. The MeOH extract of Golden Berry (Physalis peruviana L) leaf was found to exhibit strong anti-inflammatory properties (IC50 = 4.97 µg/mL). Preparative chromatography identified two active constituents, 4β-hydroxywithanolide E (4β-HWE) (IC50 = 183 nM) and withanolide E (WE) (IC50 = 65.1 nM). Withanolides are known anti-inflammatory ingredients of Withania somnifera, an Ayurvedic herbal medicine. P. peruviana leaves containing 4β-HWE and WE should be considered as useful natural resources for anti-inflammatory products.

Dihydromyricetin supplementation improves ethanol-induced lipid accumulation and inflammation

Introduction

Excessive alcohol consumption leads to a myriad of detrimental health effects, including alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD). Unfortunately, no available treatments exist to combat the progression of ALD beyond corticosteroid administration and/or liver transplants. Dihydromyricetin (DHM) is a bioactive polyphenol and flavonoid that has traditionally been used in Chinese herbal medicine for its robust antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. It is derived from many plants, including Hovenia dulcis and is found as the active ingredient in a variety of popular hangover remedies. Investigations utilizing DHM have demonstrated its ability to alleviate ethanol-induced disruptions in mitochondrial and lipid metabolism, while demonstrating hepatoprotective activity.

Methods

Female c57BL/6J mice (n = 12/group) were treated using the Lieber DeCarli forced-drinking and ethanol (EtOH) containing liquid diet, for 5 weeks. Mice were randomly divided into three groups: (1) No-EtOH, (2) EtOH [5% (v/v)], and (3) EtOH [5% (v/v)] + DHM (6 mg/mL). Mice were exposed to ethanol for 2 weeks to ensure the development of ALD pathology prior to receiving dihydromyricetin supplementation. Statistical analysis included one-way ANOVA along with Bonferroni multiple comparison tests, where p ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Dihydromyricetin administration significantly improved aminotransferase levels (AST/ALT) and reduced levels of circulating lipids including LDL/VLDL, total cholesterol (free cholesterol), and triglycerides. DHM demonstrated enhanced lipid clearance by way of increased lipophagy activity, shown as the increased interaction and colocalization of p62/SQSTM-1, LC3B, and PLIN-1 proteins. DHM-fed mice had increased hepatocyte-to-hepatocyte lipid droplet (LD) heterogeneity, suggesting increased neutralization and sequestration of free lipids into LDs. DHM administration significantly reduced prominent pro-inflammatory cytokines commonly associated with ALD pathology such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-17.

Discussion

Dihydromyricetin is commercially available as a dietary supplement. The results of this proof-of-concept study demonstrate its potential utility and functionality as a cost-effective and safe candidate to combat inflammation and the progression of ALD pathology.

Characterizing the Neuroimmune Environment of Offspring in a Novel Model of Maternal Allergic Asthma and Particulate Matter Exposure

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by the presence of decreased social interactions and an increase in stereotyped and repetitive behaviors. Epidemiology studies suggest that cases of ASD are on the rise. Similarly, rates of asthma are increasing, and the presence of maternal asthma during pregnancy increases the likelihood of a child being later diagnosed with ASD. Particulate matter (PM), via air pollution, is an environmental factor known to worsen the symptoms of asthma, but also, PM has been associated with increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders including ASD. Despite the links between asthma and PM with neuropsychiatric disorders, there is a lack of laboratory models investigating combined prenatal exposure to asthma and PM on offspring neurodevelopment. Thus, we developed a novel mouse model that combines exposure to maternal allergic asthma (MAA) and ultrafine iron-soot (UIS), a common component of PM. In the current study, female BALB/c mice were primed for allergic asthma with ovalbumin (OVA) prior to pregnancy. Following mating and beginning on gestational day 2 (GD2), dams were exposed to either aerosolized OVA or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 1 hour. Following the 1-hour exposure, pregnant females were then exposed to UIS or clean air for 4 hours. Offspring brains were collected at postnatal days (P)15 and (P)35. Cortices and hippocampal regions were then isolated and assessed for changes in cytokines using a Luminex bead-based multiplex assay. Analyses identified changes in many cytokines across treatment groups at both timepoints in the cortex, including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), IL-2, IL-13, and IL-17, which remained elevated from P15 to P35 in all treatment conditions compared to controls. In the hippocampus at P15, elevations in cytokines were also identified across the treatment groups, namely interferon gamma (IFNγ) and IL-7. The combination of MAA and UIS exposure (MAA-UIS) during pregnancy resulted in an increase in microglia density in the hippocampus of offspring, as identified by IBA-1 staining. Together, these data indicate that exposure to MAA, UIS, and MAA-UIS result in changes in the neuroimmune environment of offspring that persist into adulthood.

Systems pharmacology-based mechanism exploration of Acanthopanax senticosusin for Alzheimer's disease using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS, network analysis, and experimental validation

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease, characterized by progressive cognitive dysfunction and memory loss. However, the disease-modifying treatments for AD are still lacking. Traditional Chinese herbs, have shown their potentials as novel treatments for complex diseases, such as AD.

PURPOSE

This study was aimed at investigating the mechanism of action (MOA) of Acanthopanax senticosusin (AS) for treatment of AD.

METHODS

In this study, we firstly identified the chemical constituents in Acanthopanax senticosusin (AS) utilizing ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-TOF-mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS), and next built the drug-target network of these compounds. We next performed the systems pharmacology-based analysis to preliminary explore the MOA of AS against AD. Moreover, we applied the network proximity approach to identify the potential anti-AD components in AS. Finally, experimental validations, including animal behavior test, ELISA and TUNEL staining, were conducted to verify our systems pharmacology-based analysis.

RESULTS

60 chemical constituents in AS were identified via the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS approach. The systems pharmacology-based analysis indicated that AS might exert its therapeutic effects on AD via acetylcholinesterase and apoptosis signaling pathway. To explore the material basis of AS against AD, we further identified 15 potential anti-AD components in AS. Consistently, in vivo experiments demonstrated that AS could protect cholinergic nervous system damage and decrease neuronal apoptosis caused by scopolamine.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study applied systems pharmacology approach, via UPLC-Q-TOF-MS, network analysis, and experimental validation to decipher the potential molecular mechanism of AS against AD.

The Role of IL-17 in the Pathogenesis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Elucidating the inflammatory mechanisms underlying formation and progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is crucial for discovering new targeted therapeutics. The proinflammatory cytokine IL-17 has proven roles in tumor formation, growth, and metastasis. The presence of IL-17 is demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo models, and in OSCC patients, is mostly accompanied by enhanced proliferation and invasiveness of cancer cells. Here we review the known facts regarding the role of IL-17 in OSCC pathogenesis, namely the IL-17 mediated production of proinflammatory mediators that mobilize and activate myeloid cells with suppressive and proangiogenic activities and proliferative signals that directly induce proliferation of cancer cells and stem cells. The possibility of a potential IL-17 blockade in OSCC therapy is also discussed.

Chronic stress, neuroinflammation, and depression: an overview of pathophysiological mechanisms and emerging anti-inflammatories

In a subset of patients, chronic exposure to stress is an etiological risk factor for neuroinflammation and depression. Neuroinflammation affects up to 27% of patients with MDD and is associated with a more severe, chronic, and treatment-resistant trajectory. Inflammation is not unique to depression and has transdiagnostic effects suggesting a shared etiological risk factor underlying psychopathologies and metabolic disorders. Research supports an association but not necessarily a causation with depression. Putative mechanisms link chronic stress to dysregulation of the HPA axis and immune cell glucocorticoid resistance resulting in hyperactivation of the peripheral immune system. The chronic extracellular release of DAMPs and immune cell DAMP-PRR signaling creates a feed forward loop that accelerates peripheral and central inflammation. Higher plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines, most consistently interleukin IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, are correlated with greater depressive symptomatology. Cytokines sensitize the HPA axis, disrupt the negative feedback loop, and further propagate inflammatory reactions. Peripheral inflammation exacerbates central inflammation (neuroinflammation) through several mechanisms including disruption of the blood-brain barrier, immune cellular trafficking, and activation of glial cells. Activated glial cells release cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species into the extra-synaptic space dysregulating neurotransmitter systems, imbalancing the excitatory to inhibitory ratio, and disrupting neural circuitry plasticity and adaptation. In particular, microglial activation and toxicity plays a central role in the pathophysiology of neuroinflammation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies most consistently show reduced hippocampal volumes. Neural circuitry dysfunction such as hypoactivation between the ventral striatum and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex underlies the melancholic phenotype of depression. Chronic administration of monoamine-based antidepressants counters the inflammatory response, but with a delayed therapeutic onset. Therapeutics targeting cell mediated immunity, generalized and specific inflammatory signaling pathways, and nitro-oxidative stress have enormous potential to advance the treatment landscape. Future clinical trials will need to include immune system perturbations as biomarker outcome measures to facilitate novel antidepressant development. In this overview, we explore the inflammatory correlates of depression and elucidate pathomechanisms to facilitate the development of novel biomarkers and therapeutics.

Neuroprotective effects of bornyl acetate on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via anti-inflammatory effects and maintaining blood-brain-barrier integrity

BACKGROUND

Bornyl acetate (BA), a chemical component of essential oil in the Pinus family, has yet to be actively studies in terms of its therapeutic effect on numerous diseases, including autoimmune diseases.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of BA on myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG_35-55)-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice in an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), a representative autoimmune disease in central nervous system.

METHODS

BA (100, 200, or 400 mg/kg) was orally treated to EAE mice once daily for 30 days after immunization for the behavioral test and for the 16th-18th days for the histopathological and molecular analyses, from the onset stage (8th day) of EAE symptoms.

RESULTS

BA mitigated behavioral dysfunction (motor disability) and demyelination in the spinal cord that were associated with the down-regulation of representative pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha), enzymes (cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase), and chemokines (monocyte chemotactic protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha, and regulated on activation), and decreased infiltration of microglia (CD11b⁺/CD45^+(low)) and macrophages (CD11b⁺/CD45^+(high)). The anti-inflammatory effect of BA was related to the inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor-kappa B pathways. BA also reduced the recruitment/infiltration rates of CD4⁺ T, Th1, and Th17 cells into the spinal cords of EAE mice, which was related to reduced blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption.

CONCLUSION

These findings strongly suggest that BA may alleviate EAE due to its anti-inflammatory and BSCB protective activities. This indicates that BA is a potential therapeutic agent for treating autoimmune demyelinating diseases including MS.

Interleukins, Chemokines, and Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily Ligands in the Pathogenesis of West Nile Virus Infection

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen that can lead to encephalitis and death in susceptible hosts. Cytokines play a critical role in inflammation and immunity in response to WNV infection. Murine models provide evidence that some cytokines offer protection against acute WNV infection and assist with viral clearance, while others play a multifaceted role WNV neuropathogenesis and immune-mediated tissue damage. This article aims to provide an up-to-date review of cytokine expression patterns in human and experimental animal models of WNV infections. Here, we outline the interleukins, chemokines, and tumor necrosis factor superfamily ligands associated with WNV infection and pathogenesis and describe the complex roles they play in mediating both protection and pathology of the central nervous system during or after virus clearance. By understanding of the role of these cytokines during WNV neuroinvasive infection, we can develop treatment options aimed at modulating these immune molecules in order to reduce neuroinflammation and improve patient outcomes.

Arginine vasopressin hormone receptor antagonists in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rodent models: A new approach for human multiple sclerosis treatment

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease that affects the central nervous system. MS is a heterogeneous disorder of multiple factors that are mainly associated with the immune system including the breakdown of the blood-brain and spinal cord barriers induced by T cells, B cells, antigen presenting cells, and immune components such as chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The incidence of MS has been increasing worldwide recently, and most therapies related to its treatment are associated with the development of several secondary effects, such as headaches, hepatotoxicity, leukopenia, and some types of cancer; therefore, the search for an effective treatment is ongoing. The use of animal models of MS continues to be an important option for extrapolating new treatments. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) replicates the several pathophysiological features of MS development and clinical signs, to obtain a potential treatment for MS in humans and improve the disease prognosis. Currently, the exploration of neuro-immune-endocrine interactions represents a highlight of interest in the treatment of immune disorders. The arginine vasopressin hormone (AVP) is involved in the increase in blood−brain barrier permeability, inducing the development and aggressiveness of the disease in the EAE model, whereas its deficiency improves the clinical signs of the disease. Therefore, this present review discussed on the use of conivaptan a blocker of AVP receptors type 1a and type 2 (V1a and V2 AVP) in the modulation of immune response without completely depleting its activity, minimizing the adverse effects associated with the conventional therapies becoming a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of patients with multiple sclerosis.

Activation of Mast Cells by Neuropeptides: The Role of Pro-Inflammatory and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines

Mast cells (MCs) are tissue cells that are derived from bone marrow stem cells that contribute to allergic reactions, inflammatory diseases, innate and adaptive immunity, autoimmunity, and mental disorders. MCs located near the meninges communicate with microglia through the production of mediators such as histamine and tryptase, but also through the secretion of IL-1, IL-6 and TNF, which can create pathological effects in the brain. Preformed chemical mediators of inflammation and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) are rapidly released from the granules of MCs, the only immune cells capable of storing the cytokine TNF, although it can also be produced later through mRNA. The role of MCs in nervous system diseases has been extensively studied and reported in the scientific literature; it is of great clinical interest. However, many of the published articles concern studies on animals (mainly rats or mice) and not on humans. MCs are known to interact with neuropeptides that mediate endothelial cell activation, resulting in central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory disorders. In the brain, MCs interact with neurons causing neuronal excitation with the production of neuropeptides and the release of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and chemokines. This article explores the current understanding of MC activation by neuropeptide substance P (SP), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), and neurotensin, and the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines, suggesting a therapeutic effect of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-37 and IL-38.

RNA regulation of inflammatory responses in glia and its potential as a therapeutic target in central nervous system disorders

A major hallmark of neuroinflammation is the activation of microglia and astrocytes with the induction of inflammatory mediators such as IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, and IL-6. Neuroinflammation contributes to disease progression in a plethora of neurological disorders ranging from acute CNS trauma to chronic neurodegenerative disease. Posttranscriptional pathways of mRNA stability and translational efficiency are major drivers for the expression of these inflammatory mediators. A common element in this level of regulation centers around the adenine- and uridine-rich element (ARE) which is present in the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of the mRNAs encoding these inflammatory mediators. (ARE)-binding proteins (AUBPs) such as Human antigen R (HuR), Tristetraprolin (TTP) and KH- type splicing regulatory protein (KSRP) are key nodes for directing these posttranscriptional pathways and either promote (HuR) or suppress (TTP and KSRP) glial production of inflammatory mediators. This review will discuss basic concepts of ARE-mediated RNA regulation and its impact on glial-driven neuroinflammatory diseases. We will discuss strategies to target this novel level of gene regulation for therapeutic effect and review exciting preliminary studies that underscore its potential for treating neurological disorders.

Proinflammatory IL-17 levels in serum/cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neurodegenerative diseases: a meta-analysis study

IL-17 is one of the major proinflammatory cytokine implicated in the pathophysiology of various chronic inflammatory diseases. However, a clear association between the levels of IL-17 and various neurodegenerative diseases is inconclusive due to lack of consistent results reported in several studies. Therefore, we designed and performed a meta-analysis study to assess the levels of IL-17 cytokine in various neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this meta-analysis study was to assess the level of IL-17 in cerebrospinal fluid/serum of the patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. An extensive search was performed on electronic databases including PubMed, Cochrane, and Google Scholar to find out the relevant studies for analysis. The quality of selected studies was assessed by Newcastle-Ottawa scale for cohort and case control studies. The standardized mean difference of level of IL-17 in patients with neurodegenerative diseases and control was calculated using RevMan 5 software. A significant increase in the level of serum IL-17 was found to in the patients with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (p = 0.001) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (p = 0.009), whereas IL-17 level in serum of Parkinson's disease (p = 0.22), multiple sclerosis (p = 0.09), and in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients (p = 0.34) was not found to be significant. IL-17 may be involved in regulation of neuronal inflammation during the pathogenesis of these neurodegenerative disease, and its specific inhibition could be a potential therapeutic target.

The Extract of Acanthopanacis Cortex Relieves the Depression-Like Behavior and Modulates IL-17 Signaling in Chronic Mild Stress-Induced Depressive Mice

Background

Acanthopanacis Cortex (AC) is a valuable Chinese medicine, which exerts beneficial effects on anti-fatigue, anti-stress, and inflammatory modulation in the periphery. However, the central nervous system (CNS) function of AC has not been clearly illustrated. As communication between the peripheral immune system and the CNS converges, it promotes a heightened neuroinflammatory environment that contributes to depression. We investigated the effect of AC against depression through neuroinflammatory modulation.

Methods

Network pharmacology was used to screen for target compounds and pathways. Mice with CMS-induced depression were used to evaluate the efficacy of AC against depression. Behavioral studies and detection of neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were performed. The IL-17 signaling cascade was involved to further investigate the underlying mechanism of AC against depression.

Results

Twenty-five components were screened by network pharmacology and the IL-17 mediated signaling pathway was associated with the antidepressant action of AC. This herb had a beneficial effect on CMS-induced depressive mice, including improvements in depressive behavior, modulation of neurotransmitter levels, neurotrophic factors, and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Conclusions

Our results revealed that AC exhibits effects on anti-depression and one of the mechanisms was mediated by neuroinflammatory modulation.

Therapeutic potential of targeting IL-17 and its receptor signaling in neuroinflammation

T helper 17 cells are thought to significantly contribute to the neuroinflammation process during neurogenerative diseases via their signature cytokine, interleukin (IL)-17. Recently, an emerging key role of IL-17 and its receptors has been documented in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The clinical studies conducted on patients with neurodegenerative disease have also shown an increase in IL-17 levels in serum as well as cerebrospinal fluid samples. Therapeutic targeting of either IL-17 receptors or direct IL-17 neutralizing antibodies has shown a promising preclinical and clinical proof of concept for treating chronic autoimmune neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Thus, IL-17 and its receptors have a central role in regulation of neuroinflammation and can be considered as one of the major therapeutic targets in chronic neuroinflammatory diseases.

Additive beneficial effects of aerobic training and royal jelly on hippocampal inflammation and function in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rats

BACKGROUND

Although the beneficial role of training and the use of some antioxidants in physiological and psychological disorders in autoimmune diseases has been reported, the simultaneous effect of aerobic training (AT) and royal jelly (RJ) with different doses is not well understood. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of AT and RJ on inflammatory factors in the hippocampus, as well as depression and anxiety in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats with EAE were assigned to seven groups: (1) EAE without any other intervention (EAE); (2) sham, receiving normal saline (Sh); (3) 50 mg/kg RJ (RJ50); (4) 100 mg/kg RJ (RJ100); (5) AT; (6) AT + RJ50; and (7) AT + RJ100. In addition, a healthy control group was assessed.

RESULTS

EAE significantly increased interleukin 17 (IL-17), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) gene expression and immobilization time as well as anxiety and depression indices, and significantly decreased interleukin 10 (IL-10), compared to the control group. AT decreased significantly IL-17, TGF-β gene expression and immobilization time as well as anxiety and depression indices, while it significantly increased IL-10, compared to the EAE group. RJ50 and RJ100 decreased significantly IL-17, IL-23 gene expression, anxiety and depression indices, and significantly increased IL-10 compared to the EAE group. AT + RJ50 and AT + RJ100 significantly decreased IL-17, IL-23, and TGF-β and as well as anxiety and depression indices while significantly increasing IL-10 compared to the EAE group. The effects of AT + RJ100 on significant decreasing IL-17, IL-23, anxiety and depression and increasing TGF-β, IL-10 were more favorable than RJ50.

CONCLUSION

AT and RJ improved inflammatory and regulatory factors of autoimmunity and reduced anxiety and depression. The RJ combined with AT induced additive effects while using RJ100 was more favorable than RJ50.

Effect of dexmedetomidine on postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly patients undergoing orthopaedic surgery: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

AIMS

This trial aims to assess whether dexmedetomidine can reduce the incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly orthopaedic patients and explore the specific mechanism.

BACKGROUND

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction is a common complication after orthopaedic surgery that results in poor prognosis and increases the length of hospital stays and costs. Dexmedetomidine has been confirmed as a drug that can improve postoperative cognitive dysfunction in some studies. However, to date, the specific mechanism by which dexmedetomidine improves postoperative cognitive dysfunction is still elusive.

METHODS/DESIGN

A single-centre, prospective, double-blinded, randomized controlled trial will be conducted at Hebei General Hospital. Ninety-six elderly patients who undergo total hip or knee replacement will be studied in this trial and randomly divided into two groups. Patients in the experimental group will receive a loading dose of 0.5 μg/kg dexmedetomidine for 10 min and then a maintenance dose of 0.5 μg/kg/h dexmedetomidine until 30 min before the end of the operation, and patients in the control group will be infused with an equal volume of normal saline. The incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction will be the primary outcome. Changes in the balance of T helper 17 cell and regulatory T cell; the levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9, S-100β, IL-17A, and IL-10; perioperative complications; hospitalization duration; and intraoperative blood loss will be the secondary outcomes.

DISCUSSION

The consequences of this trial will show that dexmedetomidine can improve postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly orthopaedic patients, which may be related to the balance of T helper 17/regulatory T cells.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ChiCTR2200055802 . Registered on 20 January 2022.

The Protective Role of Interleukin 17A in Acinetobacter baumannii Pneumonia Is Associated with Candida albicans in the Airway

Recent studies have found that the coexistence of fungi and bacteria in the airway may increase the risk of infection, contribute to the development of pneumonia, and increase the severity of disease. Interleukin 17A (IL-17A) plays important roles in host resistance to bacterial and fungal infections. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of IL-17A on Acinetobacter baumannii-infected rats with a previous Candida albicans airway inoculation. The incidence of A. baumannii pneumonia was higher in rats with C. albicans in the airway than in noninoculated rats, and it decreased when amphotericin B was used to clear C. albicans, which influenced IL-17A levels. IL-17A had a protective effect in A. baumannii pneumonia associated with C. albicans in the airway. Compared with A. baumannii-infected rats with C. albicans in the airway that did not receive IL-17A, recombinant IL-17A (rIL-17A) supplementation decreased the incidence of A. baumannii pneumonia (10/15 versus 5/17; P = 0.013) and the proportion of neutrophils in the lung (84 ± 3.5 versus 74 ± 4.3%; P = 0.033), reduced tissue destruction and inflammation, and decreased levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) (1.267 ± 0.15 versus 0.233 ± 0.06 U/g; P = 0.0004), reactive oxygen species (ROS) (132,333 ± 7,505 versus 64,667 ± 10,115 AU; P = 0.0007) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (2.736 ± 0.05 versus 2.1816 ± 0.29 U/g; P = 0.0313). In vitro experiments revealed that IL-17A had no significant effect on the direct migration ability and bactericidal capability of neutrophils. However, IL-17A restrained lysis cell death and increased apoptosis of neutrophils (2.9 ± 1.14 versus 7 ± 0.5%; P = 0.0048). Taken together, our results suggest that C. albicans can depress IL-17A levels, which when supplemented may have a regulatory function that limits the accumulation of neutrophils in inflammatory areas, providing inflammatory response homeostasis.

Interleukin-17 (IL-17) triggers systemic inflammation, peripheral vascular dysfunction, and related prothrombotic state in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent forms of neurodegenerative disorders. Previously, we have shown that in vivo administration of an IL-17 neutralizing antibody (IL-17Ab) rescues amyloid-β-induced neuro-inflammation and memory impairment, demonstrating the pivotal role of IL-17 in AD-derived cognitive deficit. Recently, AD has been recognized as a more intriguing pathology affecting vascular networks and platelet function. However, not much is known about peripheral vascular inflammation and how pro-inflammatory circulating cells/mediators could affect peripheral vessels' function. This study aimed to evaluate whether IL-17Ab treatment could also impact peripheral AD features, such as systemic inflammation, peripheral vascular dysfunction, and related pro-thrombotic state in a non-genetic mouse model of AD. Mice were injected intracerebroventricularly with Aβ_1-42 peptide (3 μg/3 μl). To evaluate the systemic/peripheral protective profile of IL-17Ab, we used an intranasal administration of IL-17Ab (1 μg/10 μl) at 5, 12, and 19 days after Aβ_1-42 injection. Circulating Th17/Treg cells and related cyto-chemokines, haematological parameters, vascular/endothelial reactivity, platelets and coagulation function in mice were evaluated. IL-17Ab treatment ameliorates the systemic/peripheral inflammation, immunological perturbance, vascular/endothelial impairment and pro-thrombotic state, suggesting a key role for this cytokine in fostering inflammatory processes that characterize the multifaced aspects of AD.

Autism spectrum disorder diagnosis using a new panel of immune- and inflammatory-related serum biomarkers: A case-control multicenter study

Background and objectives

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) present with distinctive clinical features. No objective laboratory assay has been developed to establish a diagnosis of ASD. Considering the known immunological associations with ASD, immunological biomarkers might enable ASD diagnosis and intervention at an early age when the immature brain has the highest degree of plasticity. This work aimed to identify diagnostic biomarkers discriminating between children with ASD and typically developing (TD) children.

Methods

A multicenter, diagnostic case-control study trial was conducted in Israel and Canada between 2014 and 2021. In this trial, a single blood sample was collected from 102 children with ASD as defined in Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [DSM)-IV (299.00) or DSM-V (299.00)], and from 97 typically developing control children aged 3-12 years. Samples were analyzed using a high-throughput, multiplexed ELISA array which quantifies 1,000 human immune/inflammatory-related proteins. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to obtain a predictor from these results using 10-fold cross validation.

Results

Twelve biomarkers were identified that provided an overall accuracy of 0.82 ± 0.09 (sensitivity: 0.87 ± 0.08; specificity: 0.77 ± 0.14) in diagnosing ASD with a threshold of 0.5. The resulting model had an area under the curve of 0.86 ± 0.06 (95% CI: 0.811-0.889). Of the 102 ASD children included in the study, 13% were negative for this signature. Most of the markers included in all models have been reported to be associated with ASD and/or autoimmune diseases.

Conclusion

The identified biomarkers may serve as the basis of an objective assay for early and accurate diagnosis of ASD. In addition, the markers may shed light on ASD etiology and pathogenesis. It should be noted that this was only a pilot, case-control diagnostic study, with a high risk of bias. The findings should be validated in larger prospective cohorts of consecutive children suspected of ASD.

Effects of Oleuropein and Hydroxytyrosol on Inflammatory Mediators: Consequences on Inflammaging

Aging is associated with a low-grade, systemic inflammatory state defined as "inflammaging", ruled by the loss of proper regulation of the immune system leading to the accumulation of pro-inflammatory mediators. Such a condition is closely connected to an increased risk of developing chronic diseases. A number of studies demonstrate that olive oil phenolic compound oleuropein and its derivative hydroxytyrosol contribute to modulating tissue inflammation and oxidative stress, thus becoming attractive potential candidates to be used in the context of nutraceutical interventions, in order to ameliorate systemic inflammation in aging subjects. In this review, we aim to summarize the available data about the anti-inflammatory properties of oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol, discussing them in the light of molecular pathways involved in the synthesis and release of inflammatory mediators in inflammaging.

Integrating network pharmacology, UPLC-Q-TOF-MS and molecular docking to investigate the effect and mechanism of Chuanxiong Renshen decoction against Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Chuanxiong Renshen decoction (CRD) is a traditional Chinese medicine compound used to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the effects and active ingredients of CRD and its mechanism have not been clarified. We aimed to determine the neuroprotective effects of CRD in a triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (3 × Tg-AD) and investigate the possible active ingredients and their mechanisms.

METHODS

Morris water maze (MWM) tests were used to determine the protective effect of CRD on learning and memory ability. Afterward, we used brain tissue staining, immunofluorescent staining and western blotting to detect the neuroprotective effects of CRD. Ultraperformance liquid-chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) was applied to determine the ingredients of CRD, and the potential AD targets were obtained from DisGeNET and the GeneCards database. The protein‒protein interaction (PPI) network was built with the additional use of STRING 11.0. Metascape was used in the pathway enrichment analysis. Discovery Studio 2016 (DS) software was used to analyze the binding ability of CRD and AD-related genes. Finally, we verified the regulatory effect of CRD on the predicted core targets EGFR and CASP3 by western blotting.

RESULTS

Our study indicated that CRD can significantly improve learning and memory, reduce the expression of Aβ and protect neurons. A total of 95 ingredients were identified in the CRD. Then, 25 ingredients were identified in serum, and 5 ingredients were identified in the brain tissue homogenate. PPI network analysis identified CASP3, EGFR, APP, CNR1, HIF1A, PTGS2 and MTOR as hub targets. KEGG and GO analyses revealed that the TNF signaling pathway and MAPK signaling pathway were enriched in multiple targets. The results of molecular docking proved that the binding of the ingredients with potential key targets was excellent. The western blotting results showed that CRD could significantly reduce the expression of CASP3 and EGFR in the hippocampus of 3 × Tg-AD mice. Combined with literature analysis, we assumed the neuroprotective effect of CRD on AD may occur through regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

CRD significantly alleviated injury in 3 × Tg-AD mice. The possible active ingredients are ferulic acid, rutin, ginsenoside Rg1 and panaxydol. The therapeutic effect of CRD on AD is achieved through the downregulation of CASP3 and EGFR. The neuroprotective effect of CRD on AD may occur through regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway.

CCL20/CCR6 Mediated Macrophage Activation and Polarization Can Promote Adenoid Epithelial Inflammation in Adenoid Hypertrophy

Background

Adenoid hypertrophy (AH) is a chronic or acute obstruction-related ailment of the upper respiratory tract that arises as an inflammatory response to exposure of bacteria, viruses or allergies. Activation and polarization of macrophages are key processes in inflammation-related disorders like AH and CCL20/CCR6 axis is a critical therapeutic target.

Purpose

To determine that CCL20/CCR6 mediated macrophage activation and polarization can promote adenoid epithelial inflammation in AH.

Methods

To support this claim, CCL20 and CCR6 expressions were studied in clinical AH samples. In addition, the expressions of cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, IL-10 and TGF-β were analysed. In vitro, human adenoid epithelial cells were co-cultured with polarized THP-1 and T lymphocyte H9 cells to study the expressions of several inflammatory markers.

Results

The expressions of M1 macrophage markers CD86 and IL-17 were significantly increased, whereas the expressions of M2 macrophage markers CD206 and FOXP3 were significantly decreased. The THP-1 cells were successfully polarized to M0, M1 and M2 macrophages. The survival of macrophages improved after 24 hr of induction and enhanced TGF-β expression was observed. The expressions of the inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β and CCL20 increased significantly.

Conclusion

Collectively, these results suggest that the CCL20/CCR6 mediated macrophage activation and polarization into M1-type macrophages can promote adenoid epithelial inflammation in AH. Further studies are warranted to determine the roles of inflammatory markers in the pathophysiology of AH and identifying potential targets.

Systemic maternal inflammation promotes ASD via IL-6 and IFN-γ

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder that manifests during early development, impacting individuals through their ways of communicating, social behaviors, and their ability to perform day-to-day activities. There have been different proposed mechanisms on how ASD precipitates within a patient, one of which being the impact cytokines have on fetal development once a mother's immune system has been activated (referred to as maternal immune activation, MIA). The occurrence of ASD has long been associated with elevated levels of several cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). These proinflammatory cytokines can achieve high systemic levels in response to immune activating pathogens from various extrinsic sources. Transfer of cytokines such as IL-6 across the placental barrier allows accumulation in the fetus, potentially inducing neuroinflammation and consequently altering neurodevelopmental processes. Individuals who have been later diagnosed with ASD have been observed to have elevated levels of IL-6 and other proinflammatory cytokines during gestation. Moreover, the outcome of MIA has been associated with neurological effects such as impaired social interaction and an increase in repetitive behavior in animal models, supporting a mechanistic link between gestational inflammation and development of ASD-like characteristics. The present review attempts to provide a concise overview of the available preclinical and clinical data that suggest cross-talk between IL-6 and IFN-γ through both extrinsic and intrinsic factors as a central mechanism of MIA that may promote the development of ASD.

An integrated cytokine and kynurenine network as the basis of neuroimmune communication

Two of the molecular families closely associated with mediating communication between the brain and immune system are cytokines and the kynurenine metabolites of tryptophan. Both groups regulate neuron and glial activity in the central nervous system (CNS) and leukocyte function in the immune system, although neither group alone completely explains neuroimmune function, disease occurrence or severity. This essay suggests that the two families perform complementary functions generating an integrated network. The kynurenine pathway determines overall neuronal excitability and plasticity by modulating glutamate receptors and GPR35 activity across the CNS, and regulates general features of immune cell status, surveillance and tolerance which often involves the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR). Equally, cytokines and chemokines define and regulate specific populations of neurons, glia or immune system leukocytes, generating more specific responses within restricted CNS regions or leukocyte populations. In addition, as there is a much larger variety of these compounds, their homing properties enable the superimposition of dynamic variations of cell activity upon local, spatially limited, cell populations. This would in principle allow the targeting of potential treatments to restricted regions of the CNS. The proposed synergistic interface of 'tonic' kynurenine pathway affecting baseline activity and the superimposed 'phasic' cytokine system would constitute an integrated network explaining some features of neuroimmune communication. The concept would broaden the scope for the development of new treatments for disorders involving both the CNS and immune systems, with safer and more effective agents targeted to specific CNS regions.

Changes in interstitial fluid flow, mass transport and the bone cell response in microgravity and normogravity

In recent years, our scientific interest in spaceflight has grown exponentially and resulted in a thriving area of research, with hundreds of astronauts spending months of their time in space. A recent shift toward pursuing territories farther afield, aiming at near-Earth asteroids, the Moon, and Mars combined with the anticipated availability of commercial flights to space in the near future, warrants continued understanding of the human physiological processes and response mechanisms when in this extreme environment. Acute skeletal loss, more severe than any bone loss seen on Earth, has significant implications for deep space exploration, and it remains elusive as to why there is such a magnitude of difference between bone loss on Earth and loss in microgravity. The removal of gravity eliminates a critical primary mechano-stimulus, and when combined with exposure to both galactic and solar cosmic radiation, healthy human tissue function can be negatively affected. An additional effect found in microgravity, and one with limited insight, involves changes in dynamic fluid flow. Fluids provide the most fundamental way to transport chemical and biochemical elements within our bodies and apply an essential mechano-stimulus to cells. Furthermore, the cell cytoplasm is not a simple liquid, and fluid transport phenomena together with viscoelastic deformation of the cytoskeleton play key roles in cell function. In microgravity, flow behavior changes drastically, and the impact on cells within the porous system of bone and the influence of an expanding level of adiposity are not well understood. This review explores the role of interstitial fluid motion and solute transport in porous bone under two different conditions: normogravity and microgravity.

The relationship between a previous infectious disease caused by influenza, herpes simplex, or Epstein-Barr viruses as the biological threatening agents with recurrent episodes of multiple sclerosis

"Although multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common neurological disease of young adults, afflicting hundreds of thousands of people worldwide, its pathogenesis is still only incompletely understood. There seems to be substantial heterogeneity in disease mechanisms, but in the majority of cases an autoimmune origin or at least a decisive autoimmune component is postulated. Therefore, pathogenic research focuses on different players programmed by the immune system. In this study, biomarkers such as Human myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA), Anti-EBNA antibody and Interleukin S10-12- 17 have been tested. Study of hypotheses show that: Interleukin levels in the blood of MS patients in the experimental group (patients with recurrence) is higher than controls (patients without recurrence condition). The level of anti-EBNA antibody in MS patients in other groups (patients with recurrent) and control group (patients without recurrence condition) is high. The level of the human myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) in patients with multiple sclerosis in the experimental group (patients with recurrence) is less than the control group (patients without recurrence condition). The level of anti-EBNA antibody in MS patients in other groups (patients with recurrent) and control group (patients without recurrence condition) is high."