Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk Marketed in Italy: Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization

Risk Assessment of AFM1 in Raw Milk and Dairy Products Produced in Armenia, a Caucasus Region Country: A Pilot Study

This paper presents the first assessment of dietary exposure to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and associated health risks through milk and dairy product consumption in Armenia. Data on AFM1 in raw milk were obtained from an annual residue monitoring program. Additionally, commonly consumed dairy products (pasteurized milk, cheese, sour cream, curd cheese) were sampled, considering the sources of raw milk used by dairy companies. Per capita consumption of raw milk was sourced from national food balance databases, while individual consumption data for dairy products was collected via a 24 h recall survey with 1400 adult respondents. Detectable levels of AFM1 were observed in 7.14% of raw milk samples (up to 0.334 μg/kg) and, albeit at lower amounts (up to 0.009 µg/kg), in 30% and 40% of sour cream and curd cheese, respectively. The AFM1 levels were lower than the national maximum permitted level (0.5 μg/kg); however, levels in raw milk exceeded the EU ML (0.05 μg/kg). The estimated margin of exposure values for dairy products indicated no significant risk, whereas a reasonable worst-case estimate, using the measurable levels of AFM1 in raw milk consumption indicated a potential public health concern. This study provides a scientific basis for evaluating aflatoxin issues in the Caucasus area.

Mycotoxin sequestering agent: Impact on health and performance of dairy cows and efficacy in reducing AFM1 residues in milk

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the exposure to a diet naturally contaminated with mycotoxins on lactation performance, animal health, and the ability to sequester agents (SA) to reduce the human exposure to AFM1. Sixty healthy lactating Holstein cows were randomly assigned to two groups: naturally contaminated diet without and with the addition of a SA (20 g/cow/d AntitoxCooPil® -60% zeolite-40% cell wall-). Each cow was monitored throughout lactation. The concentration of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in feed and M1 (AFM1) in milk, health status, and productive and reproductive parameters were measured. AFB1 concentration in feed was very low (2.31 μg/kgDM). The addition of SA reduced the milk AFM1 concentrations (0.016 vs. 0.008 μg/kg) and transfer rates (2.19 vs. 0.77%). No differences were observed in health status, production and reproduction performance. The inclusion of SA in the diet of dairy cows reduce the risk in the most susceptible population.

Review, meta-analysis and carcinogenic risk assessment of aflatoxin M1 in different types of milks in Iran

REVIEWS

Despite in recent decades, several studies on the concentration of aflatoxins M1(AFM1) in various milks have been studied, as we know, no systematic review, meta-analysis and carcinogenic risk assessment study was conducted in Iran till now.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, a systematic review was conducted to collect, meta-analysis and carcinogenic risk assessment of the quantitative data regarding the prevalence and concentration of AFM1 in several types of milk produced in Iran.

CONTENT

In our study, the concentration and prevalence of AFM1 in different types of milk (Raw, pasteurized, and UHT) from 113 original articles in Iran using searching the Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct and Google Scholar (in Persian and English) databases from 2002 to august 2021 were collected. The concentration of AFM1 was meta-analyzed using the random effect model (REM) based on type of milk (raw, pasteurized and UHT) subgroups and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) approach was used to assess safety risks and investigate carcinogenic effects of AFM1 using Crystal-Ball software (Version 11.1.3, Oracle, Inc., USA).

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

The 113 original article (In English and Persian) were included in this review. Meta-analysis indicated lower and upper of AFM1 in subgroups of raw, pasteurized and UHT milk in Iran was 9, 720, 2.7, 230.2, 19.23, and 221.6 ng/kg respectively. The Point estimate for carcinogenic risk of AFM1 showed as result of age increasing, the carcinogenic risk of Aflatoxin M 1 decreases and concentration of Aflatoxin M1 (ng/liter), plays the most effective role in carcinogenic risk of AFM1.

CONCLUSION

The presence of AFM1 in milk and its products due to its high toxicity and carcinogenic properties is a public health concern that the results show that the risk of carcinogenesis is higher at younger ages (less than 20 years). As a result, there is a strong association between consumption of raw milk, pasteurized milk and UHT and the risk of cancer in children and adults in Iran.

Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Products and Their Impacts on the Health of Humans, Livestock Animals and Pets

Cereal grains are the most important food staples for human beings and livestock animals. They can be processed into various types of food and feed products such as bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, cake, snacks, beer, complete feed, and pet foods. However, cereal grains are vulnerable to the contamination of soil microorganisms, particularly molds. The toxigenic fungi/molds not only cause quality deterioration and grain loss, but also produce toxic secondary metabolites, mycotoxins, which can cause acute toxicity, death, and chronic diseases such as cancer, immunity suppression, growth impairment, and neural tube defects in humans, livestock animals and pets. To protect human beings and animals from these health risks, many countries have established/adopted regulations to limit exposure to mycotoxins. The purpose of this review is to update the evidence regarding the occurrence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in cereal grains and cereal-derived food and feed products and their health impacts on human beings, livestock animals and pets. The effort for safe food and feed supplies including prevention technologies, detoxification technologies/methods and up-to-date regulation limits of frequently detected mycotoxins in cereal grains for food and feed in major cereal-producing countries are also provided. Some important areas worthy of further investigation are proposed.

Recent Evidence on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure

This review provides a comprehensive conclusion of the relationship between the intake of various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and different dietary patterns, pointing to the accompanying potential health risks. To achieve this, existing pertinent research was collected and analyzed. The collation revealed that the concentration of PAHs in food and their dietary patterns were diverse in different regions. Specifically, the concentration of PAHs in food was found to be related to the level of pollution in the area, including soil, air, and water pollution, which is then accumulated through the food chain into food that can be ingested directly by the human body, resulting in malformations in offspring, increased risk of cancer, and gene mutation. Guidebooks and dietary surveys were consulted to uncover disparities in dietary patterns, which indicated regional variations in taste preferences, traditional foods, and eating habits. Different regions are spatially categorized in this assessment by cities, countries, and continents. Notably, smoking and grilling are two of the food processing methods most likely to produce high levels of PAHs. To prevent excessive intake of PAHs from food items and attain a higher quality of life, more health education is urgently needed to promote healthy eating patterns.

Second order probabilistic assessment of chronic dietary exposure to aflatoxin M1 in Serbia

Considering the genotoxic and cancerogenic nature of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), its presence in milk and dairy products may pose health risks for consumers. The chronic exposure was calculated using a two-dimensional (second order) Monte Carlo model. Results of 13 722 milk and dairy product samples analysed in the 2015-2022 period were used. Milk and dairy products intake information was collected with a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) validated by a 24-h recall-based method. Risk characterization was done by calculation of the Margin of Exposure (MOE) and by calculation of AFM1 induced number of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases. Mean AFM1 Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) was highest in children at 0.336 (CI: 0.294-0.385) ng kg^-1 bw day^-1, followed by adolescents with 0.183 (CI: 0.164-0.204), then adult females with 0.161 (CI: 0.146-0.179) and finally adult males with lowest EDI of 0.126 (CI: 0.115-0.139) ng kg^-1 bw day^-1. MOE values based on mean EDI for all population groups were above risk associated threshold and the number of possible HCC cases was in the range of 0.0002-0.0021 cases per year for 10⁵ individuals. The results suggest low health risks due to AFM1 exposure for the whole population. Still, this risk is not non-existent, especially for children as they have a higher ratio of the population exposed to risk associated AFM1 levels, with MOE values below risk indicating threshold starting at 77.5th percentile.

Compliance between Food and Feed Safety: Eight-Year Survey (2013–2021) of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk and Aflatoxin B1 in Feed in Northern Italy

Aflatoxins (AFs) are fungal metabolites that are found in feed and food. When ruminants eat feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), it is metabolised and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is excreted in the milk. Aflatoxins can result in hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and immunosuppressive effects. The European Union thus set a low threshold limit (50 ng/L) for presence of AFM1 in milk. This was in view of its possible presence also in dairy products and that quantification of these toxins is mandatory for milk suppliers. In the present study, a total of 95,882 samples of whole raw milk, collected in northern Italy between 2013 and 2021, were evaluated for presence of AFM1 using an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) method. The study also evaluated the relationship between feed materials collected from the same farms in the same area during the same period (2013–2021) and milk contamination. Only 667 milk samples out of 95,882 samples analysed (0.7%) showed AFM1 values higher than the EU threshold limit of 50 ng/L. A total of 390 samples (0.4%) showed values between 40 and 50 ng/L, thus requiring corrective action despite not surpassing the regulatory threshold. Combining feed contamination and milk contamination data, some feedingstuffs seem to be more effective in defying potential carryover of AFs from feed to milk. Combining the results, it can be concluded that a robust monitoring system that covers both feed, with a special focus on high risk/sentinel matrices, and milk is essential to guarantee high quality and safety standards of dairy products.

Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk and Cottage Cheese in Adults in Ethiopia

Aflatoxin M₁ (milk toxin) found in milk is formed from the hepatic biotransformation of AFB₁ (aflatoxin B₁) and poses a risk to human health when consumed. The risk assessment of AFM₁ exposure due to milk consumption is a valuable way to assess health risk. The objective of the present work was to determine an exposure and risk assessment of AFM₁ in raw milk and cheese, and it is the first of its kind in Ethiopia. Determination of AFM₁ was conducted using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results indicated that AFM₁ was positive in all samples of milk products. The risk assessment was determined using margin of exposure (MOE), estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard index (HI), and cancer risk. The mean EDIs for raw milk and cheese consumers were 0.70 and 0.16 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. Our results showed that almost all mean MOE values were <10,000, which suggests a potential health issue. The mean HI values obtained were 3.50 and 0.79 for raw milk and cheese consumers, respectively, which indicates adverse health effects for large consumers of raw milk. For milk and cheese consumers, the mean cancer risk was 1.29 × 10^-6 and 2.9 × 10^-6 cases/100,000 person/year, respectively, which indicates a low risk for cancer. Therefore, a risk assessment of AFM₁ in children should be investigated further as they consume more milk than adults.

Probabilistic modeling and risk characterization of the chronic aflatoxin M1 exposure of Hungarian consumers

Aflatoxin contamination can appear in various points of the food chain. If animals are fed with contaminated feed, AFB1 is transformed-among others-to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) metabolite. AFM1 is less toxic than AFB1, but it is still genotoxic and carcinogenic and it is present in raw and processed milk and all kinds of milk products. In this article, the chronic exposure estimation and risk characterization of Hungarian consumers are presented, based on the AFM1 contamination of milk and dairy products, and calculated with a probabilistic method, the two-dimensional Monte-Carlo model. The calculations were performed using the R plugin (mc2d package) integrated into the KNIME (Konstanz Information Miner) software. The simulations were performed using data from the 2018-2020 food consumption survey. The AFM1 analytical data were derived from the Hungarian monitoring survey and 1,985 milk samples were analyzed within the framework of the joint project of the University of Debrecen and the National Food Chain Safety Office of Hungary (NÉBIH). Limited AFM1 concentrations were available for processed dairy products; therefore, a database of AFM1 processing factors for sour milk products and various cheeses was produced based on the latest literature data, and consumer exposure was calculated with the milk equivalent of the consumed quantities of these products. For risk characterization, the calculation of hazard index (HI), Margin of Exposure, and the hepatocellular carcinoma incidence were used. The results indicate that the group of toddlers that consume a large amount of milk and milk products are exposed to a certain level of health risk. The mean estimated daily intake of toddlers is in the range of 0.008-0.221 ng kg-1 bw day-1; the 97.5th percentile exposure of toddlers is between 0.013 ng kg-1 bw day-1 and 0.379 ng kg-1 bw day-1, resulting in a HI above 1. According to our study, the exposure of older age groups does not pose an emergent health risk. Nevertheless, the presence of carcinogenic compounds should be kept to a minimum in the whole population.

Aflatoxin M1 exposure in a fermented millet-based milk beverage 'brukina' and its cancer risk characterization in Greater Accra, Ghana

Brukina is a millet based fermented milk product which is consumed as a beverage in Ghana. It is however prone to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination, which is a serious health challenge for low and middle-income countries in subtropical regions. This study aimed at evaluating AFM1 levels and cancer risks associated with brukina (n = 150) sampled from different locations of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. AFM1 were measured with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) connected to a Fluorescence Detector (FLD).Cancer risk assessments were also conducted using models prescribed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Additives (JECFA). Out of the 150 samples analyzed for AFM1, 80/150 (53%) tested positive between the range 0.00 ± 0.001-3.14 ± 0.77 µg/kg. Cancer risk assessments of AFM1 produced outcomes which ranged between 0.64 and 1.88 ng/kg bw/day, 0.31-9.40, 0.0323, and 1.94 × 10-3-0.06 for cases/100,000 person/yr for Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Hazard Index (H.I), Average Potency, and Cancer Risks respectively for all age categories investigated. It was concluded that the consumption of brukina posed adverse health effects on the majority of the age categories in the different locations of Greater Accra Region since the calculated H.Is were greater than one (> 1). Therefore, contamination of brukina with AFM1 should be considered a high priority in public health and Ghana's cancer risk management actions.

Seasonal Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk during a Five-Year Period in Croatia: Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment

This study’s objective was to estimate the seasonal occurrence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in cow’s milk between winter 2016 and winter 2022 and to assess dietary exposure and risk assessment for the adult Croatian population. In total, 5817 cow milk samples were screened for AFM₁ concentrations using the enzyme immunoassay assay (ELISA). For confirmation purposes of AFM₁ concentration above the European Union maximum permitted level (MRL), ultra high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry was performed. In 94.7% of milk samples, AFM₁ levels were below the detection limit (LOD) of the ELISA test. For 3.47% of samples, the AFM₁ was between the LOD and MRL values. Only 1.87% of all samples exceeded the MRL. The mean value of elevated AFM₁ in different seasons ranged between 59.2 ng/kg (autumn 2017) and 387.8 ng/kg (autumn 2021). The highest incidences of positive AFM₁ were determined in autumn and winter and the maximum (6.4%) was in winter 2019/2020. The largest percentage of positive samples (69.7%) was found in central Croatia. The estimated daily intakes for positive samples ranged between 0.17 and 2.82 ng/kg body weight/day. Risk assessment indicated a high level of concern during autumn and winter, especially for consumers of large amounts of milk.

Aflatoxin M1 in distributed milks in northwestern Iran: occurrence, seasonal variation, and risk assessment

Aflatoxin is one of the dangerous fungal toxins that is produced in the presence of humidity and heat and lack of proper storage conditions and is considered as a dangerous substance threatening human health. The work aimed to determination of aflatoxin M1 (AFM) level in raw, pasteurized, and sterilized milks offered in the study area and to evaluate the risk of its consumption. In this descriptive cross-sectional study, 60 samples of milk types supplied in the region were collected during two series of sampling (cold and hot seasons) and analyzed by ELISA method. LCR, MoE, and HI indices were used to assess the possible risk of consuming milk containing AFM. In all taken samples AFM was found, the toxin concentration range in the first and second series of sampling was 57.5-270.6 ng/L and 57-185.9 ng/L, respectively. The level of toxin in pasteurized and sterilized milks in both sampling series was higher than raw milks. Based on the obtained data and in order to assess the risk of milk consumption in the target population, associated values with EDI, LCR, MoE, and HI were also calculated and obtained in the range of 0.145-0.3 ng/k.d b.w, 0.0008-0.0017 additional case per one million population, 1892.9-3921.6 and 0.72-1.5 ng/kg b.w, respectively. According to the findings, all samples tested are contaminated and although it is within the range of the WHO recommendation, however, based on the calculated indicators, the risk of liver cancer threatens the consumers of these milks. Therefore, it is necessary to manage this issue through educational control and monitoring measures.

Aflatoxin M1 Contamination of Ghanaian Traditional Soft Cottage Cheese (Wagashie) and Health Risks Associated with Its Consumption

Wagashie is an unripened traditional cheese consumed in West Africa including Ghana. Being a milk product, it is unfortunately susceptible to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination, which is indeed a grave health challenge globally. This study evaluated AFM1 levels and health risk characterization associated with wagashie (n = 182) sampled from different locations in Ghana. AFM1 was measured with high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). Risk assessments were also conducted using models prescribed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Out of the 182 samples analyzed for AFM1, 93/182 (51.1%) tested positive between the range 0.00 ± 0.00–3.60 ± 0.99 µg/kg. Risk assessments of AFM1 using deterministic models produced outcomes that ranged between 0.11 and 3.60 ng/kg bw/day, 0.09–1.54, 0–0.0323 ng aflatoxins/kg bw/day, and 3.5 x 10−3 −0.06 cases/100,000 person/yr for estimated daily intake (EDI), margin of exposure (MOE), average potency, and cancer risks, respectively, for the age categories investigated. It was established that the consumption of wagashie posed adverse health effects on all age categories in the selected regions of the study because all calculated MOE values were less than 100,000. Therefore, contamination of wagashie with AFM1 should be a serious public health concern and as such considered a high precedence for Ghana’s risk management actions.

Presence of Aflatoxin M1 in Commercial Milk in Paraguay

ABSTRACT

The presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk is a public health concern because milk is a significant part of human diets worldwide. In economies where AFM1 monitoring is low or nonexistent, the possibility of AFM1 contamination might be increased. Our study was conducted to detect and quantify AFM1 in fluid milk and milk drinks of various brands, fat concentrations, packages, and heat treatments sold in the Metropolitan Area of Asunción, Paraguay. Eighty samples were collected from supermarkets in the Metropolitan Area of Asunción following a nonprobability sampling method. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for AFM1 (25 to 500 ppt) was used to quantify the toxin, and results were analyzed with nonparametric methods. All samples were positive values for AFM1 (above the detection limit of 25 ng/kg); 85% of the samples had 30 to 50 ng/kg, and 15% had >500 ng/kg. No significant difference in AFM1 concentration was found based on fat concentration, heat treatment, or type of packaging of these milk products; however, significant differences were found between brands.

HIGHLIGHTS

Janus-Faced Molecules against Plant Pathogenic Fungi

The high cytotoxicity of the secondary metabolites of mycotoxins is capable of killing microbes and tumour cells alike, similarly to the genotoxic effect characteristic of Janus-faced molecules. The "double-edged sword" effect of several cytotoxins is known, and these agents have, therefore, been utilized only reluctantly against fungal infections. In this review, consideration was given to (a) toxins that could be used against plant and human pathogens, (b) animal models that measure the effect of antifungal agents, (c) known antifungal agents that have been described and efficiently prevent the growth of fungal cells, and (d) the chemical interactions that are characteristic of antifungal agents. The utilization of apoptotic effects against tumour growth by agents that, at the same time, induce mutations may raise ethical issues. Nevertheless, it deserves consideration despite the mutagenic impact of Janus-faced molecules for those patients who suffer from plant pathogenic fungal infections and are older than their fertility age, in the same way that the short-term cytotoxicity of cancer treatment is favoured over the long-term mutagenic effect.

Occurrence and associated factors of aflatoxin M1 in raw cow milk in South Gondar Zone, North West Ethiopia, 2020

Aflatoxin M1 is the most significant toxin of milk and milk products. It is immunosuppressive, mutagenic, and carcinogenic compounds to humans. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the concentration of aflatoxin M1 and its determinants in raw cow milk sample intended for human consumption in South Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on a total of 100 dairy farmers from January to February 2020. Around 50 ml, 100 raw milk samples were collected for aflatoxin M1 analysis. A simple random sampling technique was applied to get the households. Binary and multivariate logistic regressions were used to see the association between predictor and outcome variables. From the 100 dairy farmers who had participated, 38% had heard about aflatoxin in the milk sample. Aflatoxin M1 was detected in the 99(99%) raw milk samples, of these 41 (41%) exceeded the limit of the European Union. The logistic regression analysis result showed that residence, awareness about the level of aflatoxin in the milk sample, management mold-contaminated animal feed, animal feed storage facility, and grazing systems were significantly associated with the high level of aflatoxin in the milk sample. Almost all milk samples analyzed were positive for aflatoxin M1, and 41% of samples were above the limit set by European Union. Many easily manageable and preventable factors were associated with higher levels of aflatoxin M1 in the milk sample than the European Union limit, which suggests continuous monitoring of milk and milk products is necessary.

Adsorbents Reduce Aflatoxin M1 Residue in Milk of Healthy Dairy Cow Exposed to Moderate Level Aflatoxin B1 in Diet and Its Exposure Risk for Humans

This study investigated the effect of moderate risk level (8 µg/kg) AFB₁ in diet supplemented with or without adsorbents on lactation performance, serum parameters, milk AFM₁ content of healthy lactating cows and the AFM₁ residue exposure risk in different human age groups. Forty late healthy lactating Holstein cows (270 ± 22 d in milk; daily milk yield 21 ± 3.1 kg/d) were randomly assigned to four treatments: control diet without AFB₁ and adsorbents (CON), CON with 8 μg/kg AFB₁ (dry matter basis, AF), AF + 15 g/d adsorbent 1 (AD1), AF + 15 g/d adsorbent 2 (AD2). The experiment lasted for 19 days, including an AFB₁-challenge phase (day 1 to 14) and an AFB₁-withdraw phase (day 15 to 19). Results showed that both AFB₁ and adsorbents treatments had no significant effects on the DMI, milk yield, 3.5% FCM yield, milk components and serum parameters. Compared with the AF, AD1 and AD2 had significantly lower milk AFM₁ concentrations (93 ng/L vs. 46 ng/L vs. 51 ng/L) and transfer rates of dietary AFB₁ into milk AFM₁ (1.16% vs. 0.57% vs. 0.63%) (p < 0.05). Children aged 2–4 years old had the highest exposure risk to AFM₁ in milk in AF, with an EDI of 1.02 ng/kg bw/day and a HI of 5.11 (HI > 1 indicates a potential risk for liver cancer). Both AD1 and AD2 had obviously reductions in EDI and HI for all population groups, whereas, the EDI (≥0.25 ng/kg bw/day) and HI (≥1.23) of children aged 2–11 years old were still higher than the suggested tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.20 ng/kg bw/day and 1.00 (HI). In conclusion, moderate risk level AFB₁ in the diet of healthy lactating cows could cause a public health hazard and adding adsorbents in the dairy diet is an effective measure to remit AFM₁ residue in milk and its exposure risk for humans.

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in bovine milk and associated risk factors among dairy farms of Punjab, India

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination in milk and milk products may pose a major public health concern. The present cross-sectional study was aimed to estimate the prevalence of AFM1 in bovine milk across all districts of Punjab, India and to identify the associated animal and farm level risk factors. A total of 402 milk samples (266 cow milk and 136 buffalo milk) were analysed using commercial ELISA and representative samples were confirmed using HPLC-FLD. The results revealed that 56.2 and 13.4% of the milk samples exceeded the maximum levels of the European Union, i.e. 0.05 μg/l and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), i.e. 0.5 μg/l for AFM1 in milk, respectively. On analysis of species variation, buffalo milk (prevalence: 56.6%; mean concentration: 0.42±0.9 μg/l) was found to have higher AFM1 levels than cow milk (prevalence: 56.0%; mean concentration: 0.19±0.3 μg/l), with statistically significant difference between mean concentrations (P<0.01) and non-significant difference between AFM1 prevalence (P=0.91). Furthermore, milk from commercial dairy farms (prevalence: 64.7%; mean concentration: 0.34±0.65 μg/l) was found to be more contaminated than from household dairy establishments (prevalence: 47.8%; mean concentration: 0.19±0.65 μg/l). The risk factors ‘above average milk yield/day’ (odds ratio (OR): 2.4) and ‘poor animal hygiene’ (OR: 1.9) were identified at animal level, and ‘intensive dairy farming’ (OR: 3.1) and ‘animal feed without aflatoxin binder’ (OR: 4.7) as farm level risk factors for AFM1 excretion above maximum levels of European Union in milk. Among cow breeds, the milk from ‘non-descript’ breed (OR: 11.5) was found to be most contaminated with AFM1 and the least from Jersey breed (OR: 1.0). The present study highlighted the presence of AFM1 in milk samples; therefore, regular monitoring of AFM1 in milk is required so that high risk regions and associated risk factors can be addressed appropriately.

A Study of the Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk Supply Chain over a Seven-Year Period (2014-2020): Human Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization in the Population of Central Italy

Aflatoxin food contamination represents a rising global issue that will continue to increase due to climate change. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is of high concern for the whole dairy industry. In light of AFM1′s harmful potential, a human health exposure assessment and risk characterization were performed for all age populations of central Italy with regard to milk and cheese consumption by means of the margin of exposure (MOE). In total, 16,934 cow and ewe’s milk samples were collected from 2014 to 2020 and analyzed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) screening method, confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The average concentration of AFM1 in cow’s milk ranged from 0.009 to 0.015 µg/kg, while in ewe’s milk, the average concentration ranged from 0.009 to 0.013 µg/kg. The average amount of AFM1 exposure ranged from 0.00005 to 0.00195 g/kg bw/day, with the main contributor represented by drinking milk, followed by the consumption of soft cheeses. A high level of public health concern related to the youngest consumers has arisen from risk characterizations highlighting the need for constant monitoring of AFM1′s occurrence in milk by inspection authorities, alongside regular updates with regard to exposure assessments.

The AFLATOX® Project: Approaching the Development of New Generation, Natural-Based Compounds for the Containment of the Mycotoxigenic Phytopathogen Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxin Contamination

The control of the fungal contamination on crops is considered a priority by the sanitary authorities of an increasing number of countries, and this is also due to the fact that the geographic areas interested in mycotoxin outbreaks are widening. Among the different pre- and post-harvest strategies that may be applied to prevent fungal and/or aflatoxin contamination, fungicides still play a prominent role; however, despite of countless efforts, to date the problem of food and feed contamination remains unsolved, since the essential factors that affect aflatoxins production are various and hardly to handle as a whole. In this scenario, the exploitation of bioactive natural sources to obtain new agents presenting novel mechanisms of action may represent a successful strategy to minimize, at the same time, aflatoxin contamination and the use of toxic pesticides. The Aflatox® Project was aimed at the development of new-generation inhibitors of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. proliferation and toxin production, through the modification of naturally occurring molecules: a panel of 177 compounds, belonging to the thiosemicarbazones class, have been synthesized and screened for their antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic potential. The most effective compounds, selected as the best candidates as aflatoxin containment agents, were also evaluated in terms of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and epi-genotoxicity to exclude potential harmful effect on the human health, the plants on which fungi grow and the whole ecosystem.

Physical and Chemical Methods for Reduction in Aflatoxin Content of Feed and Food

Aflatoxins (AFs) are among the most harmful fungal secondary metabolites imposing serious health risks on both household animals and humans. The more frequent occurrence of aflatoxins in the feed and food chain is clearly foreseeable as a consequence of the extreme weather conditions recorded most recently worldwide. Furthermore, production parameters, such as unadjusted variety use and improper cultural practices, can also increase the incidence of contamination. In current aflatoxin control measures, emphasis is put on prevention including a plethora of pre-harvest methods, introduced to control Aspergillus infestations and to avoid the deleterious effects of aflatoxins on public health. Nevertheless, the continuous evaluation and improvement of post-harvest methods to combat these hazardous secondary metabolites are also required. Already in-use and emerging physical methods, such as pulsed electric fields and other nonthermal treatments as well as interventions with chemical agents such as acids, enzymes, gases, and absorbents in animal husbandry have been demonstrated as effective in reducing mycotoxins in feed and food. Although most of them have no disadvantageous effect either on nutritional properties or food safety, further research is needed to ensure the expected efficacy. Nevertheless, we can envisage the rapid spread of these easy-to-use, cost-effective, and safe post-harvest tools during storage and food processing.

Assessing Environmental Factors within the One Health Approach

Background: One Health is a comprehensive and multisectoral approach to assess and examine the health of animals, humans and the environment. However, while the One Health approach gains increasing momentum, its practical application meets hindrances. This paper investigates the environmental pillar of the One Health approach, using two case studies to highlight the integration of environmental considerations. The first case study pertains to the Danish monitoring and surveillance programme for antimicrobial resistance, DANMAP. The second case illustrates the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk in dairy-producing ruminants in Italian regions. Method: A scientific literature search was conducted in PubMed and Web of Science to locate articles informing the two cases. Grey literature was gathered to describe the cases as well as their contexts. Results: 19 articles and 10 reports were reviewed and informed the two cases. The cases show how the environmental component influences the apparent impacts for human and animal health. The DANMAP highlights the two approaches One Health and farm to fork. The literature provides information on the comprehensiveness of the DANMAP, but highlights some shortcomings in terms of environmental considerations. The AFM1 case, the milk metabolite of the carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1, shows that dairy products are heavily impacted by changes of the climate as well as by economic drivers. Conclusions: The two cases show that environmental conditions directly influence the onset and diffusion of hazardous factors. Climate change, treatment of soils, water and standards in slaughterhouses as well as farms can have a great impact on the health of animals, humans and the environment. Hence, it is important to include environmental considerations, for example, via engaging environmental experts and sharing data. Further case studies will help to better define the roles of environment in One Health scenarios.

Biological Control and Mitigation of Aflatoxin Contamination in Commodities

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced mostly by Aspergillus species. AF contamination entering the feed and food chain has been a crucial long-term issue for veterinarians, medicals, agroindustry experts, and researchers working in this field. Although different (physical, chemical, and biological) technologies have been developed, tested, and employed to mitigate the detrimental effects of mycotoxins, including AFs, universal methods are still not available to reduce AF levels in feed and food in the last decades. Possible biological control by bacteria, yeasts, and fungi, their excretes, the role of the ruminal degradation, pre-harvest biocontrol by competitive exclusion or biofungicides, and post-harvest technologies and practices based on biological agents currently used to alleviate the toxic effects of AFs are collected in this review. Pre-harvest biocontrol technologies can give us the greatest opportunity to reduce AF production on the spot. Together with post-harvest applications of bacteria or fungal cultures, these technologies can help us strictly reduce AF contamination without synthetic chemicals.

Analysis of E.U. Rapid Alert System (RASFF) Notifications for Aflatoxins in Exported U.S. Food and Feed Products for 2010-2019

The most common, toxic, and carcinogenic mycotoxins found in human food and animal feed are the aflatoxins (AFs). The United States is a leading exporter of various nuts, with a marketing value of $9.1 billion in 2019; the European Union countries are the major importers of U.S. nuts. In the past few years, border rejections and notifications for U.S. tree nuts and peanuts exported to the E.U. countries have increased due to AF contamination. In this work, we analyzed notifications from the “Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF)” on U.S. food and feed products contaminated with mycotoxins, primarily AFs, for the 10-year period 2010–2019. Almost 95% of U.S. mycotoxin RASFF notifications were reported for foods and only 5% for feeds. We found that 98.9% of the U.S. food notifications on mycotoxins were due to the AF contamination in almond, peanut, and pistachio nuts. Over half of these notifications (57.9%) were due to total AF levels greater than the FDA action level in food of 20 ng g⁻¹. The Netherlands issued 27% of the AF notifications for U.S. nuts. Border rejection was reported for more than 78% of AF notifications in U.S. nuts. All U.S. feed notifications on mycotoxins occurred due to the AF contamination. Our research contributes to better understanding the main reasons behind RASFF mycotoxins notifications of U.S. food and feed products destined to E.U. countries. Furthermore, we speculate possible causes of this problem and provide a potential solution that could minimize the number of notifications for U.S. agricultural export market.

Aflatoxins in Milk and Dairy Products: Occurrence and Exposure Assessment for the Serbian Population

The main objective of this study was to assess the exposure associated with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) of the adult population in Serbia from consumption of milk and dairy products. This assessment was performed using concentration values of AFM1 in raw milk (385 samples) and dairy products (556 samples) based on the analyses conducted in the period between 2015 and 2018. In parallel, a dairy products consumption survey was completed during 2018 based on ‘one-day’ and ‘seven-day’ recall methods. In order to estimate the intake of AFM1 from the consumption of dairy products for both recall methods, a Monte Carlo simulation was conducted. The study revealed that pasteurized milk and yogurt are dairy products mostly consumed by the Serbian adult population. Estimated daily intake of AFM1 was in the range of 62–74 × 10−3 ng/kg bw/day, depending on the recall methods and scenarios employed. Although the results show moderate exposure risks compared to similar studies worldwide, climatic conditions and weather extremes that have occurred recently may have negatively influenced the contamination of feed and, consequently, AFM1 contamination of milk. As a result, it is justifiable to promote continuous monitoring in feed and dairy supply chains in Serbia and provide an update of exposure assessment.

Determination of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk from Different Provinces of Ecuador

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a mycotoxin from Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, classified as carcinogenic and hepatotoxic. The objective of the present investigation was to determine its presence in raw milk from north-central Ecuador, constituted by the provinces of Pichincha, Manabí, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas. These areas represent approximately 30% of Ecuadorian milk production. By the end of the investigation, a total of 209 raw milk samples were collected, obtained both during the dry (June and August) and rainy seasons (April and November) of 2019. AFM1 concentrations were measured with lateral flow immunochromatographic assays, and 100% of the samples were positive for this mycotoxin, presenting a mean value of 0.0774 μg/kg with a range of 0.023 to 0.751 μg/kg. These AFM1 levels exceeded the European Union regulatory limit of 0.05 μg/kg in 59.3% (124/209) of samples, while only 1.9% (4/209) exceeded the Ecuadorian legal limit of 0.5 μg/kg. By using non-parametric tests, significant differences were determined (p ≤ 0.05) between the provinces for months of study, climatic season (being higher in the dry season), and climatic region (greater in the coast region). On the other hand, there were no significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) between the types of producers or between production systems. Therefore, AFM1 contamination in raw milk does not present a serious public health problem in Ecuador, but a monitoring and surveillance program for this mycotoxin in milk should be developed to prevent consumer health problems.