Cannabinoid, melanocortin and opioid receptor expression on DRD1 and DRD2 subpopulations in rat striatum

Sustained fentanyl exposure inhibits neuronal activity in dissociated striatal neuronal-glial cocultures through actions independent of opioid receptors

Besides having high potency and efficacy at the µ-opioid (MOR) and other opioid receptor types, fentanyl has some affinity for some adrenergic receptor types, which may underlie its unique pathophysiological differences from typical opioids. To better understand the unique actions of fentanyl, we assessed the extent to which fentanyl alters striatal medium spiny neuron (MSN) activity via opioid receptors or α1-adrenoceptors in dopamine type 1 or type 2 receptor (D1 or D2)-expressing MSNs. In neuronal and mixed-glial cocultures from the striatum, acute fentanyl (100 nM) exposure decreased the frequency of spontaneous action potentials. Overnight exposure of cocultures to 100 nM fentanyl severely reduced the proportion of MSNs with spontaneous action potentials, which was unaffected by coexposure to the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone (10 µM) but fully negated by coadministering the pan-α1-adrenoceptor inverse agonist prazosin (100 nM) and partially reversed by the selective α1A-adrenoceptor antagonist RS 100329 (300 nM). Acute fentanyl (100 nM) exposure modestly reduced the frequency of action potentials and caused firing rate adaptations in D2, but not D1, MSNs. Prolonged (2-5 h) fentanyl (100 nM) application dramatically attenuated firing rates in both D1 and D2 MSNs. To identify possible cellular sites of α1-adrenoceptor action, α1-adrenoceptors were localized in subpopulations of striatal astroglia and neurons by immunocytochemistry and Adra1a mRNA by in situ hybridization in astrocytes. Thus, sustained fentanyl exposure can inhibit striatal MSN activity via a nonopioid receptor-dependent pathway, which may be modulated via complex actions in α1-adrenoceptor-expressing striatal neurons and/or glia.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Acute fentanyl exposure attenuated the activity of striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in vitro and in dopamine D2, but not D1, receptor-expressing MSNs in ex vivo slices. By contrast, sustained fentanyl exposure suppressed the spontaneous activity of MSNs cocultured with glia through a nonopioid receptor-dependent mechanism modulated, in part, by α1-adrenoceptors. Fentanyl exposure can affect striatal function via a nonopioid receptor mechanism of action that appears mediated by α1-adrenoreceptor-expressing striatal neurons and/or astroglia.

Cholinergic mu-opioid receptor deletion alters reward preference and aversion-resistance

The endogenous opioid system has been implicated in alcohol consumption and preference in both humans and animals. The mu opioid receptor (MOR) is expressed on multiple cells in the striatum, however little is known about the contributions of specific MOR populations to alcohol drinking behaviors. The current study used mice with a genetic deletion of MOR in cholinergic cells (ChAT-Cre/Oprm1fl/fl) to examine the role of MORs expressed in cholinergic interneurons (CINs) in home cage self-administration paradigms. Male and female ChAT-Cre/Oprm1fl/fl mice were generated and heterozygous Cre+ (knockout) and Cre- (control) mice were tested for alcohol consumption in two drinking paradigms: limited access "Drinking in the Dark" and intermittent access. Quinine was added to the drinking bottles in the DID experiment to test aversion-resistant, "compulsive" drinking. Nicotine and sucrose drinking were also assessed so comparisons could be made with other rewarding substances. Cholinergic MOR deletion did not influence consumption or preference for ethanol (EtOH) in either drinking task. Differences were observed in aversion-resistance in males with Cre + mice tolerating lower concentrations of quinine than Cre-. In contrast to EtOH, preference for nicotine was reduced following cholinergic MOR deletion while sucrose consumption and preference was increased in Cre+ (vs. Cre-) females. Locomotor activity was also greater in females following the deletion. These results suggest that cholinergic MORs participate in preference for rewarding substances. Further, while they are not required for consumption of alcohol alone, cholinergic MORs may influence the tendency to drink despite negative consequences.

Chst9 marks a spatially and transcriptionally unique population of Oprm1-expressing neurons in the nucleus accumbens

Opioids produce addictive, analgesic, and euphoric effects via actions at mu opioid receptors (μORs). The μOR is encoded by the Oprm1 gene and is expressed in multiple brain regions that regulate reward and motivation, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Oprm1 expression in NAc medium spiny neurons (MSNs) mediates opioid place preference, seeking, and consumption. However, recent single nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) studies have revealed that multiple subpopulations of NAc neurons express Oprm1 mRNA, making it unclear which populations mediate diverse behaviors resulting from μOR activation. Using published snRNA-seq datasets from the rat NAc, we identified a novel population of MSNs that express the highest levels of Oprm1 of any NAc cell type. Here, we show that this population is selectively marked by expression of Chst9, a gene encoding a carbohydrate sulfotransferase. Notably, Chst9+ neurons exhibited more abundant expression of Oprm1 as compared to other cell types, and formed discrete cellular clusters along the medial and ventral borders of the NAc shell subregion. Moreover, CHST9 mRNA was also found to mark specific MSN populations in published human and primate snRNA-seq studies, indicating that this unique population may be conserved across species. Together, these results identify a spatially and transcriptionally distinct NAc neuron population characterized by the expression of Chst9. The abundant expression of Oprm1 in this population and the conservation of these cells across species suggests that they may play a key functional role in opioid response and identify this subpopulation as a target for further investigation.

Cholinergic mu-opioid receptor deletion alters reward preference and aversion-resistance

Heavy alcohol use and binge drinking are important contributors to alcohol use disorder (AUD). The endogenous opioid system has been implicated in alcohol consumption and preference in both humans and animals. The mu opioid receptor (MOR) is expressed on multiple cells in the striatum, however little is known about the contributions of specific MOR populations to alcohol drinking behaviors. The current study used mice with a genetic deletion of MOR in cholinergic cells (ChAT-Cre/Oprm1fl/fl) to examine the role of MORs expressed in cholinergic interneurons (CINs) in home cage self-administration paradigms. Male and female ChAT-Cre/Oprm1fl/fl mice were generated and heterozygous Cre+ (knockout) and Cre- (control) mice were tested for alcohol and nicotine consumption. In Experiment 1, binge-like and quinine-resistant drinking was tested using 15% ethanol (EtOH) in a two-bottle, limited-access Drinking in the Dark paradigm. Experiment 2 involved a six-week intermittent access paradigm in which mice received 20% EtOH, nicotine, and then a combination of the two drugs. Experiment 3 assessed locomotor activity, sucrose preference, and quinine sensitivity. Deleting MORs in cholinergic cells did not alter consumption of EtOH in Experiment 1 or 2. In Experiment 1, the MOR deletion resulted in greater consumption of quinine-adulterated EtOH in male Cre+ mice (vs. Cre-). In Experiment 2, Cre+ mice demonstrated a significantly lower preference for nicotine but did not differ from Cre- mice in nicotine or nicotine + EtOH consumption. Overall fluid consumption was also heightened in the Cre+ mice. In Experiment 3, Cre+ females were found to have greater locomotor activity and preference for sucrose vs. Cre- mice. These data suggest that cholinergic MORs are not required for EtOH, drinking behaviors but may contribute to aversion resistant EtOH drinking in a sex-dependent manner.

Chst9 Marks a Spatially and Transcriptionally Unique Population of Oprm1 -Expressing Neurons in the Nucleus Accumbens

Opioids produce addictive, analgesic, and euphoric effects via actions at mu opioid receptors (μORs). The μOR is encoded by the Oprm1 gene and is expressed in multiple brain regions that regulate reward and motivation, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Oprm1 expression in NAc medium spiny neurons (MSNs) mediates opioid place preference, seeking, and consumption. However, recent single nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) studies in rodent, primate, and human NAc have revealed that multiple subpopulations of NAc neurons express Oprm1 mRNA, making it unclear which populations mediate diverse behaviors resulting from μOR activation. Using published snRNA-seq datasets from the rat NAc, we identified a novel population of MSNs that express the highest levels of Oprm1 of any NAc cell type. Here, we show that this population is selectively marked by expression of Chst9 , a gene encoding a carbohydrate sulfotransferase. To validate this observation and characterize spatial localization of this population in the rat NAc, we performed multiplexed RNAscope fluorescence in situ hybridization studies to detect expression of Oprm1 and Chst9 mRNA along with well-validated markers of MSNs. Notably, Chst9 + neurons exhibited more abundant expression of Oprm1 as compared to other cell types, and formed discrete cellular clusters along the medial and ventral borders of the NAc shell subregion. Moreover, CHST9 mRNA was also found to mark specific MSN populations in published human and primate snRNA-seq studies, indicating that this unique population may be conserved across species. Together, these results identify a spatially and transcriptionally distinct NAc neuron population characterized by the expression of Chst9 . The abundant expression of Oprm1 in this population and the conservation of these cells across species suggests that they may play a key functional role in opioid response and identify this subpopulation as a target for further investigation.

Putative neurochemical and cell type contributions to hemodynamic activity in the rodent caudate putamen

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is widely used by researchers to noninvasively monitor brain-wide activity. The traditional assumption of a uniform relationship between neuronal and hemodynamic activity throughout the brain has been increasingly challenged. This relationship is now believed to be impacted by heterogeneously distributed cell types and neurochemical signaling. To date, most cell-type- and neurotransmitter-specific influences on hemodynamics have been examined within the cortex and hippocampus of rodent models, where glutamatergic signaling is prominent. However, neurochemical influences on hemodynamics are relatively unknown in largely GABAergic brain regions such as the rodent caudate putamen (CPu). Given the extensive contribution of CPu function and dysfunction to behavior, and the increasing focus on this region in fMRI studies, improved understanding of CPu hemodynamics could have broad impacts. Here we discuss existing findings on neurochemical contributions to hemodynamics as they may relate to the CPu with special consideration for how these contributions could originate from various cell types and circuits. We hope this review can help inform the direction of future studies as well as interpretation of fMRI findings in the CPu.

Progressive Degeneration and Adaptive Excitability in Dopamine D1 and D2 Receptor-Expressing Striatal Neurons Exposed to HIV-1 Tat and Morphine

The striatum is especially vulnerable to HIV-1 infection, with medium spiny neurons (MSNs) exhibiting marked synaptodendritic damage that can be exacerbated by opioid use disorder. Despite known structural defects in MSNs co-exposed to HIV-1 Tat and opioids, the pathophysiological sequelae of sustained HIV-1 exposure and acute comorbid effects of opioids on dopamine D1 and D2 receptor-expressing (D1 and D2) MSNs are unknown. To address this question, Drd1-tdTomato- or Drd2-eGFP-expressing reporter and conditional HIV-1 Tat transgenic mice were interbred. MSNs in ex vivo slices from male mice were assessed by whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology and filled with biocytin to explore the functional and structural effects of progressive Tat and acute morphine exposure. Although the excitability of both D1 and D2 MSNs increased following 48 h of Tat exposure, D1 MSN firing rates decreased below control (Tat-) levels following 2 weeks and 1 month of Tat exposure but returned to control levels after 2 months. D2 neurons continued to display Tat-dependent increases in excitability at 2 weeks, but also returned to control levels following 1 and 2 months of Tat induction. Acute morphine exposure increased D1 MSN excitability irrespective of the duration of Tat exposure, while D2 MSNs were variably affected. That D1 and D2 MSN excitability would return to control levels was unexpected since both subpopulations displayed significant synaptodendritic degeneration and pathologic phospho-tau-Thr205 accumulation following 2 months of Tat induction. Thus, despite frank morphologic damage, D1 and D2 MSNs uniquely adapt to sustained Tat and acute morphine insults.

Dichotomous regulation of striatal plasticity by dynorphin

Modulation of corticostriatal plasticity alters the information flow throughout basal ganglia circuits and represents a fundamental mechanism for motor learning, action selection, and reward. Synaptic plasticity in the striatal direct- and indirect-pathway spiny projection neurons (dSPNs and iSPNs) is regulated by two distinct networks of GPCR signaling cascades. While it is well-known that dopamine D2 and adenosine A2a receptors bi-directionally regulate iSPN plasticity, it remains unclear how D1 signaling modulation of synaptic plasticity is counteracted by dSPN-specific Gi signaling. Here, we show that striatal dynorphin selectively suppresses long-term potentiation (LTP) through Kappa Opioid Receptor (KOR) signaling in dSPNs. Both KOR antagonism and conditional deletion of dynorphin in dSPNs enhance LTP counterbalancing with different levels of D1 receptor activation. Behaviorally, mice lacking dynorphin in D1 neurons show comparable motor behavior and reward-based learning, but enhanced flexibility during reversal learning. These findings support a model in which D1R and KOR signaling bi-directionally modulate synaptic plasticity and behavior in the direct pathway.

Role of the striatal dopamine, GABA and opioid systems in mediating feeding and fat intake

Food intake, which is a highly reinforcing behavior, provides nutrients required for survival in all animals. However, when fat and sugar consumption goes beyond the daily needs, it can favor obesity. The prevalence and severity of this health problem has been increasing with time. Besides covering nutrient and energy needs, food and in particular its highly palatable components, such as fats, also induce feelings of joy and pleasure. Experimental evidence supports a role of the striatal complex and of the mesolimbic dopamine system in both feeding and food-related reward processing, with the nucleus accumbens as a key target for reward or reinforcing-associated signaling during food intake behavior. In this review, we provide insights concerning the impact of feeding, including fat intake, on different types of receptors and neurotransmitters present in the striatal complex. Reciprocally, we also cover the evidence for a modulation of palatable food intake by different neurochemical systems in the striatal complex and in particular the nucleus accumbens, with a focus on dopamine, GABA and the opioid system.

Inter-individual variability amplified through breeding reveals control of reward-related action strategies by Melanocortin-4 Receptor in the dorsomedial striatum

In day-to-day life, we often must choose between pursuing familiar behaviors or adjusting behaviors when new strategies might be more fruitful. The dorsomedial striatum (DMS) is indispensable for arbitrating between old and new action strategies. To uncover molecular mechanisms, we trained mice to generate nose poke responses for food, then uncoupled the predictive relationship between one action and its outcome. We then bred the mice that failed to rapidly modify responding. This breeding created offspring with the same tendencies, failing to inhibit behaviors that were not reinforced. These mice had less post-synaptic density protein 95 in the DMS. Also, densities of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), a high-affinity receptor for α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, predicted individuals' response strategies. Specifically, high MC4R levels were associated with poor response inhibition. We next found that reducing Mc4r in the DMS in otherwise typical mice expedited response inhibition, allowing mice to modify behavior when rewards were unavailable or lost value. This process required inputs from the orbitofrontal cortex, a brain region canonically associated with response strategy switching. Thus, MC4R in the DMS appears to propel reward-seeking behavior, even when it is not fruitful, while moderating MC4R presence increases the capacity of mice to inhibit such behaviors.

Dorsal Striatum Transcriptome Profile Profound Shift in Repeated Aggression Mouse Model Converged to Networks of 12 Transcription Factors after Fighting Deprivation

Both aggressive and aggression-deprived (AD) species represent pathologic cases intensely addressed in psychiatry and substance abuse disciplines. Previously, we reported that AD mice displayed a higher aggressive behavior score than the aggressive group, implying the manifestation of a withdrawal effect. We employed an animal model of chronic social conflicts, curated in our lab for more than 30 years. In the study, we pursued the task of evaluating key events in the dorsal striatum transcriptome of aggression experienced mice and AD species compared to controls using RNA-Seq profiling. Aggressive species were subjected to repeated social conflict encounters (fights) with regular positive (winners) experience in the course of 20 consecutive days (A20 group). This led to a profoundly shifted transcriptome expression profile relative to the control group, outlined by more than 1000 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). RNA-Seq cluster analysis revealed that elevated cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling cascade and associated genes comprising 170 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in aggressive (A20) species were accompanied by a downturn in the majority of other metabolic/signaling gene networks (839 DEGs) via the activation of transcriptional repressor DEGs. Fourteen days of a consecutive fighting deprivation period (AD group) featured the basic restoration of the normal (control) transcriptome expression profile yielding only 62 DEGs against the control. Notably, we observed a network of 12 coordinated DEG Transcription Factor (TF) activators from 62 DEGs in total that were distinctly altered in AD compared to control group, underlining the distinct transcription programs featuring AD group, partly retained from the aggressive encounters and not restored to normal in 14 days. We found circadian clock TFs among them, reported previously as a withdrawal effect factor. We conclude that the aggressive phenotype selection with positive reward effect (winning) manifests an addiction model featuring a distinct opioid-related withdrawal effect in AD group. Along with reporting profound transcriptome alteration in A20 group and gaining some insight on its specifics, we outline specific TF activator gene networks associated with transcriptional repression in affected species compared to controls, outlining Nr1d1 as a primary candidate, thus offering putative therapeutic targets in opioid-induced withdrawal treatment.

Characterization of the discriminative stimulus effect of quinpirole: Further evidence for functional interaction between central dopamine D1/D2-receptors

Dysfunction of the central dopamine D₂-receptor-related network has been proposed to play a critical role in dopamine-related diseases, such as schizophrenia and drug dependence. Generally, the stimulation of dopamine D₂-receptors on medium spiny neurons (MSN) induces several behavioral effects, such as sedation, hallucination, aversion and motivation. Furthermore, such physiological responses through dopamine D₂-receptor-containing MSN (D₂-MSN) may be synchronized with the activity of dopamine D₁-receptor-containing MSN (D₁-MSN), or both may exhibit dual agonistic/antagonistic innervation. In the present study, we characterized the discriminative stimulus effect of the selective dopamine D₂-receptor agonist quinpirole to further investigate the "D_1/D₂-MSN" interaction using dopamine-related agents, hallucinogens and sedatives in rats. Among dopamine receptor agonists, only selective dopamine D₂-receptor agonists substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of quinpirole. Neither the δ-opioid receptor agonist SNC80 nor the adenosine A_2A-receptor antagonist istradefylline, both of which may act on D₂-MSNs, substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of quinpirole. Interestingly, the dopamine D₁-receptor antagonist SCH23390 and the GABA_B-receptor agonist baclofen, but not hallucinogens or sedatives, substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of quinpirole. These results suggest that stimulation of central dopamine D₂-receptors exerts a distinct discriminative stimulus effect, and blockade of dopamine D₁-receptors and agonistic modulation of GABA_B-receptors may share the discriminative stimulus effect via the activation of central dopamine D₂-receptors.

The distribution of Cdh20 mRNA demarcates somatotopic subregions and subpopulations of spiny projection neurons in the rat dorsolateral striatum

The dorsolateral striatum (DLS) of rodents is functionally subdivided into somatotopic subregions that represent each body part along both the dorsoventral and anteroposterior (A-P) axes and play crucial roles in sensorimotor functions via corticostriatal pathways. However, little is known about the spatial gene expression patterns and heterogeneity of spiny projection neurons (SPNs) within somatotopic subregions. Here, we show that the cell adhesion molecule gene Cdh20, which encodes a Type II cadherin, is expressed in discrete subregions covering the inner orofacial area and part of the forelimb area in the ventral domain of the DLS (v-DLS) in rats. Cdh20-expressing cells were localized in the v-DLS at the intermediate level of the striatum along the A-P axis and could be classified as direct-pathway SPNs or indirect-pathway SPNs. Unexpectedly, comprehensive analysis revealed that Cdh20 is expressed in SPNs in the rat DLS but not in the mouse DLS or the ferret putamen (Pu). Our observations reveal that Cdh20 expression demarcates somatotopic subregions and subpopulations of SPNs specifically in the rat DLS and suggest divergent regulation of genes differentially expressed in the v-DLS and Pu among mammals.

Replacing a Palatable High-Fat Diet with a Low-Fat Alternative Heightens κ-Opioid Receptor Control over Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine

Diet-induced obesity reduces dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), and stressful weight loss interventions could promote cravings for palatable foods high in fat and sugar that stimulate dopamine. Activation of κ-opioid receptors (KORs) reduces synaptic dopamine, but contribution of KORs to lower dopamine tone after dietary changes is unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the function of KORs in C57BL/6 mice that consumed a 60% high-fat diet (HFD) for six weeks followed by replacement of HFD with a control 10% fat diet for one day or one week. HFD replacement induced voluntary caloric restriction and weight loss. However, fast-scan cyclic voltammetry revealed no differences in baseline dopamine parameters, whereas sex effects were revealed during KOR stimulation. NAc core dopamine release was reduced by KOR agonism after one day of HFD replacement in females but after one week of HFD replacement in males. Further, elevated plus-maze testing revealed no diet effects during HFD replacement on overt anxiety. These results suggest that KORs reduce NAc dopamine tone and increase food-related anxiety during dietary weight loss interventions that could subsequently promote palatable food cravings and inhibit weight loss.

The atypical antipsychotic risperidone targets hypothalamic melanocortin 4 receptors to cause weight gain

Atypical antipsychotics such as risperidone cause drug-induced metabolic syndrome. However, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we report a new mouse model that reliably reproduces risperidone-induced weight gain, adiposity, and glucose intolerance. We found that risperidone treatment acutely altered energy balance in C57BL/6 mice and that hyperphagia accounted for most of the weight gain. Transcriptomic analyses in the hypothalamus of risperidone-fed mice revealed that risperidone treatment reduced the expression of Mc4r. Furthermore, Mc4r in Sim1 neurons was necessary for risperidone-induced hyperphagia and weight gain. Moreover, we found that the same pathway underlies the obesogenic effect of olanzapine-another commonly prescribed antipsychotic drug. Remarkably, whole-cell patch-clamp recording demonstrated that risperidone acutely inhibited the activity of hypothalamic Mc4r neurons via the opening of a postsynaptic potassium conductance. Finally, we showed that treatment with setmelanotide, an MC4R-specific agonist, mitigated hyperphagia and obesity in both risperidone- and olanzapine-fed mice.

Optogenetic induction of orbitostriatal long-term potentiation in the dorsomedial striatum elicits a persistent reduction of alcohol-seeking behavior in rats

Uncontrolled drug-seeking and -taking behaviors are generally driven by maladaptive corticostriatal synaptic plasticity. The orbital frontal cortex (OFC) and its projections to the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) have been extensively implicated in drug-seeking and relapse behaviors. The influence of the synaptic plasticity of OFC projections to the DMS (OFC→DMS) on drug-seeking and -taking behaviors has not been fully characterized. To investigate this, we trained rats to self-administer 20% alcohol and then delivered an in vivo optogenetic protocol designed to induce long-term potentiation (LTP) selectively at OFC→DMS synapses. We selected LTP induction because we found that voluntary alcohol self-administration suppressed OFC→DMS transmission and LTP may normalize this transmission, consequently reducing alcohol-seeking behavior. Importantly, ex vivo slice electrophysiology studies confirmed that this in vivo optical stimulation protocol resulted in a significant increase in excitatory OFC→DMS transmission strength on day two after stimulation, suggesting that LTP was induced in vivo. Rat alcohol-seeking and -taking behaviors were significantly reduced on days 1-3, but not on days 7-11, after LTP induction. Striatal synaptic plasticity is modulated by several critical neurotransmitter receptors, including dopamine D1 receptors (D1Rs) and adenosine A2A receptors (A2ARs). We found that delivery of in vivo optical stimulation in the presence of a D1R antagonist abolished the LTP-associated decrease in alcohol-seeking behavior, whereas delivery in the presence of an A2AR antagonist may facilitate this LTP-induced behavioral change. These results demonstrate that alcohol-seeking behavior was negatively regulated by the potentiation of excitatory OFC→DMS neurotransmission. Our findings provide direct evidence that the OFC exerts "top-down" control of alcohol-seeking behavior via the DMS.

Loss of mu and delta opioid receptors on neurons expressing dopamine receptor D1 has no effect on reward sensitivity

Opioid signaling controls the activity of the brain's reward system. It is involved in signaling the hedonic effects of rewards and has essential roles in reinforcement and motivational processes. Here, we focused on opioid signaling through mu and delta receptors on dopaminoceptive neurons and evaluated the role these receptors play in reward-driven behaviors. We generated a genetically modified mouse with selective double knockdown of mu and delta opioid receptors in neurons expressing dopamine receptor D1. Selective expression of the transgene was confirmed using immunostaining. Knockdown was validated by measuring the effects of selective opioid receptor agonists on neuronal membrane currents using whole-cell patch clamp recordings. We found that in the nucleus accumbens of control mice, the majority of dopamine receptor D1-expressing neurons were sensitive to a mu or delta opioid agonist. In mutant mice, the response to the delta receptor agonist was blocked, while the effects of the mu agonist were strongly attenuated. Behaviorally, the mice had no obvious impairments. The mutation did not affect the sensitivity to the rewarding effects of morphine injections or social contact and had no effect on preference for sweet taste. Knockdown had a moderate effect on motor activity in some of the tests performed, but this effect did not reach statistical significance. Thus, we found that knocking down mu and delta receptors on dopamine receptor D1-expressing cells does not appreciably affect some of the reward-driven behaviors previously attributed to opioid signaling.

TRH in the nucleus accumbens acts downstream to α-MSH to decrease food intake in rats

Feeding-regulatory peptides such as thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) and their receptors are expressed in brain regions involved in the homeostatic and hedonic control of food intake, such as the hypothalamus and the mesolimbic system, respectively. The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is part of the latter, a brain circuit involved in processing reward stimuli and the appetitive motivation of feeding. When TRH or α-MSH are administered in the NAc, both decrease food intake, through activating their respective receptors, TRH-R1 and MC4R. The actions of α-MSH as a homeostatic feeding-regulator involves the increase of hypothalamic TRH expression, thus, we aimed to identify whether TRH signaling in the NAc was also participating in α-MSH-induced reduction of food intake. α-MSH administration in the NAc of 48 h fasted rats reduced their food intake during the 2-h period of refeeding, increased accumbal TRH mRNA expression and decreased that of MC4R. Such downregulated MC4R mRNA levels implied a compensatory decrease of α-MSH actions in the NAc after the previous pathway stimulation. The co-administration of α-MSH along with an antisense oligonucleotide directed against pro-TRH mRNA in the NAc impaired the α-MSH-induced feeding reduction, supporting that the accumbal TRHergic pathway is downstream of α-MSH actions to inhibit feeding. Our results suggested that TRH in the NAc mediates some effects of α-MSH on inhibition of food intake; this supports the role of TRH not only as a homeostatic regulator but also as modulating the motivational aspects of feeding.

μ-Opioid Receptors on Distinct Neuronal Populations Mediate Different Aspects of Opioid Reward-Related Behaviors

μ-Opioid receptors (MORs) are densely expressed in different brain regions known to mediate reward. One such region is the striatum where MORs are densely expressed, yet the role of these MOR populations in modulating reward is relatively unknown. We have begun to address this question by using a series of genetically engineered mice based on the Cre recombinase/loxP system to selectively delete MORs from specific neurons enriched in the striatum: dopamine 1 (D1) receptors, D2 receptors, adenosine 2a (A2a) receptors, and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). We first determined the effects of each deletion on opioid-induced locomotion, a striatal and dopamine-dependent behavior. We show that MOR deletion from D1 neurons reduced opioid (morphine and oxycodone)-induced hyperlocomotion, whereas deleting MORs from A2a neurons resulted in enhanced opioid-induced locomotion, and deleting MORs from D2 or ChAT neurons had no effect. We also present the effect of each deletion on opioid intravenous self-administration. We first assessed the acquisition of this behavior using remifentanil as the reinforcing opioid and found no effect of genotype. Mice were then transitioned to oxycodone as the reinforcer and maintained here for 9 d. Again, no genotype effect was found. However, when mice underwent 3 d of extinction training, during which the drug was not delivered, but all cues remained as during the maintenance phase, drug-seeking behavior was enhanced when MORs were deleted from A2a or ChAT neurons. These findings show that these selective MOR populations play specific roles in reward-associated behaviors.

Neuropathic Pain Dysregulates Gene Expression of the Forebrain Opioid and Dopamine Systems

Disturbances in the function of the mesostriatal dopamine system may contribute to the development and maintenance of chronic pain, including its sensory and emotional/cognitive aspects. In the present study, we assessed the influence of chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve on the expression of genes coding for dopamine and opioid receptors as well as opioid propeptides in the mouse mesostriatal system, particularly in the nucleus accumbens. We demonstrated bilateral increases in mRNA levels of the dopamine D1 and D2 receptors (the latter accompanied by elevated protein level), opioid propeptides proenkephalin and prodynorphin, as well as delta and kappa (but not mu) opioid receptors in the nucleus accumbens at 7 to 14 days after CCI. These results show that CCI-induced neuropathic pain is accompanied by a major transcriptional dysregulation of molecules involved in dopaminergic and opioidergic signaling in the striatum/nucleus accumbens. Possible functional consequences of these changes include opposite effects of upregulated enkephalin/delta opioid receptor signaling vs. dynorphin/kappa opioid receptor signaling, with the former most likely having an analgesic effect and the latter exacerbating pain and contributing to pain-related negative emotional states.

Hyperactivity, dopaminergic abnormalities, iron deficiency and anemia in an in vivo opioid receptors knockout mouse: Implications for the restless legs syndrome

Previous studies have uncovered a potential role of the opioid system in iron hemostasis and dopamine metabolism. Abnormalities in both of these systems have been noted in human RLS. Autopsy studies of human RLS have shown an endogenous opioid deficiency in the thalamus. Opioids, particularly prolonged-release oxycodone/naloxone, have been approved in Europe to be a second-line therapy for severe restless legs syndrome (RLS). To study the role of opioid receptors in the pathogenesis of RLS, we used a triple knockout (KO) mouse strain that lack mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptors and explored the behavioral and biochemical parameters relevant to RLS. The triple KO mice showed hyperactivity and a trend of increased probability of waking during the rest period (day) akin to that in human RLS (night). Surprisingly, triple KO mice also exhibit decreased serum iron concentration, evidence of anemia, a significant dysfunction in dopamine metabolism akin to that noted in human RLS, as well as an increased latency in response to thermal stimuli. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate that the endogenous opioid system may play a role in iron metabolism and subsequently in the pathogenesis of anemia. It is also the first study showing that opioid receptors are involved in the production of motor restlessness with a circadian predominance. Our findings support the role of endogenous opioids in the pathogenesis of RLS, and the triple KO mice can be used to understand the relationship between iron deficiency, anemia, dopaminergic dysfunction, and RLS.

Indirect Medium Spiny Neurons in the Dorsomedial Striatum Regulate Ethanol-Containing Conditioned Reward Seeking

Adenosine 2A receptor (A_2AR)-containing indirect medium spiny neurons (iMSNs) in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) contribute to reward-seeking behaviors. However, those roles for ethanol-seeking behaviors remain unknown. To investigate ethanol-seeking behaviors, we used an ethanol-containing reward (10% ethanol and 10% sucrose solution; 10E10S). Upon conditioning with 10E10S, mice that initially only preferred 10% sucrose, not 10E10S, showed a stronger preference for 10E10S. Then, we investigated whether the manipulation of the DMS-external globus pallidus (GPe) iMSNs circuit alters the ethanol-containing reward (10E10S) seeking behaviors using the combination of pharmacologic and optogenetic approaches. DMS A_2AR activation dampened operant conditioning-induced ethanol-containing reward, whereas A_2AR antagonist abolished the effects of the A_2AR agonist and restored ethanol-containing reward-seeking. Moreover, pre-ethanol exposure potentiated the A_2AR-dependent reward-seeking. Interestingly, mice exhibiting ethanol-containing reward-seeking showed the reduction of the DMS iMSNs activity, suggesting that disinhibiting iMSNs decreases reward-seeking behaviors. In addition, we found that A_2AR activation reversed iMSNs neural activity in the DMS. Similarly, optogenetic stimulation of the DMS-GPe iMSNs reduced ethanol-containing reward-seeking, whereas optogenetic inhibition of the DMS-GPe iMSNs reversed this change. Together, our study demonstrates that DMS A_2AR and iMSNs regulate ethanol-containing reward-seeking behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Our findings highlight the mechanisms of how operant conditioning develops the preference of ethanol-containing conditioned reward. Mice exhibiting ethanol-containing reward-seeking showed a reduction of the indirect medium spiny neuronal activity in the dorsomedial striatum. Pharmacological activation of adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AR) or optogenetic activation of indirect medium spiny neurons dampened operant conditioned ethanol-containing reward-seeking, whereas inhibiting this neuronal activity restored ethanol-containing reward-seeking. Furthermore, repeated intermittent ethanol exposure potentiated A_2AR-dependent reward-seeking. Therefore, our finding suggests that A_2AR-containing indirect medium spiny neuronal activation reduces ethanol-containing reward-seeking, which may provide a potential therapeutic target for alcohol use disorder.

Cell-type-specific interrogation of CeA Drd2 neurons to identify targets for pharmacological modulation of fear extinction

Behavioral and molecular characterization of cell-type-specific populations governing fear learning and behavior is a promising avenue for the rational identification of potential therapeutics for fear-related disorders. Examining cell-type-specific changes in neuronal translation following fear learning allows for targeted pharmacological intervention during fear extinction learning, mirroring possible treatment strategies in humans. Here we identify the central amygdala (CeA) Drd2-expressing population as a novel fear-supporting neuronal population that is molecularly distinct from other, previously identified, fear-supporting CeA populations. Sequencing of actively translating transcripts of Drd2 neurons using translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) technology identifies mRNAs that are differentially regulated following fear learning. Differentially expressed transcripts with potentially targetable gene products include Npy5r, Rxrg, Adora2a, Sst5r, Fgf3, Erbb4, Fkbp14, Dlk1, and Ssh3. Direct pharmacological manipulation of NPY5R, RXR, and ADORA2A confirms the importance of this cell population and these cell-type-specific receptors in fear behavior. Furthermore, these findings validate the use of functionally identified specific cell populations to predict novel pharmacological targets for the modulation of emotional learning.

Selective Role of RGS9-2 in Regulating Retrograde Synaptic Signaling of Indirect Pathway Medium Spiny Neurons in Dorsal Striatum

In the striatum, medium spiny neurons (MSNs) are heavily involved in controlling movement and reward. MSNs form two distinct populations expressing either dopamine receptor 1 (D1-MSN) or dopamine receptor 2 (D2-MSN), which differ in their projection targets and neurochemical composition. The activity of both types of MSNs is shaped by multiple neuromodulatory inputs processed by GPCRs that fundamentally impact their synaptic properties biasing behavioral outcomes. How these GPCR signaling cascades are regulated and what downstream targets they recruit in D1-MSN and D2-MSN populations are incompletely understood. In this study, we examined the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the action of RGS9-2, a key GPCR regulator in MSNs implicated in both movement control and actions of addictive drugs. Imaging cultured striatal neurons, we found that ablation of RGS9-2 significantly reduced calcium influx through NMDARs. Electrophysiological recordings in slices confirmed inhibition of NMDAR function in MSNs, resulting in enhanced AMPAR/NMDAR ratio. Accordingly, male mice lacking RGS9-2 displayed behavioral hypersensitivity to NMDAR blockade by MK-801 or ketamine. Recordings from genetically identified populations of striatal neurons revealed that these changes were selective to D2-MSNs. Surprisingly, we found that these postsynaptic effects resulted in remodeling of presynaptic inputs to D2-MSNs increasing the frequency of mEPSC and inhibiting paired-pulse ratio. Pharmacological dissection revealed that these adaptations were mediated by the NMDAR-dependent inhibition of retrograde endocannabinoid signaling from D2-MSNs to CB1 receptor on presynaptic terminals. Together, these data demonstrate a novel mechanism for pathway selective regulation of synaptic plasticity in MSNs controlled by GPCR signaling.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study identifies a role for a major G-protein regulator in controlling synaptic properties of striatal neurons in a pathway selective fashion.

Opioidergic Modulation of Striatal Circuits, Implications in Parkinson's Disease and Levodopa Induced Dyskinesia

The functional organization of the dorsal striatum is complex, due to the diversity of neural inputs that converge in this structure and its subdivision into direct and indirect output pathways, striosomes and matrix compartments. Among the neurotransmitters that regulate the activity of striatal projection neurons (SPNs), opioid neuropeptides (enkephalin and dynorphin) play a neuromodulatory role in synaptic transmission and plasticity and affect striatal-based behaviors in both normal brain function and pathological states, including Parkinson's disease (PD). We review recent findings on the cell-type-specific effects of opioidergic neurotransmission in the dorsal striatum, focusing on the maladaptive synaptic neuroadaptations that occur in PD and levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Understanding the plethora of molecular and synaptic mechanisms underpinning the opioid-mediated modulation of striatal circuits is critical for the development of pharmacological treatments that can alleviate motor dysfunctions and hyperkinetic responses to dopaminergic stimulant drugs.

The cannabinoid-1 receptor is abundantly expressed in striatal striosomes and striosome-dendron bouquets of the substantia nigra

Presynaptic cannabinoid-1 receptors (CB₁-R) bind endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids to modulate neurotransmitter release. CB₁-Rs are expressed throughout the basal ganglia, including striatum and substantia nigra, where they play a role in learning and control of motivated actions. However, the pattern of CB₁-R expression across different striatal compartments, microcircuits and efferent targets, and the contribution of different CB₁-R-expressing neurons to this pattern, are unclear. We use a combination of conventional techniques and novel genetic models to evaluate CB₁-R expression in striosome (patch) and matrix compartments of the striatum, and in nigral targets of striatal medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs). CB₁-R protein and mRNA follow a descending dorsolateral-to-ventromedial intensity gradient in the caudal striatum, with elevated expression in striosomes relative to the surrounding matrix. The lateral predominance of striosome CB₁-Rs contrasts with that of the classical striosomal marker, the mu opioid receptor (MOR), which is expressed most prominently in rostromedial striosomes. The dorsolateral-to-ventromedial CB₁-R gradient is similar to Drd2 dopamine receptor immunoreactivity and opposite to Substance P. This topology of CB₁-R expression is maintained downstream in the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Dense CB₁-R-expressing striatonigral fibers extend dorsally within the substantia nigra pars reticulata, and colocalize with bundles of ventrally extending, striosome-targeted, dendrites of dopamine-containing neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (striosome-dendron bouquets). Within striatum, CB₁-Rs colocalize with fluorescently labeled MSN collaterals within the striosomes. Cre recombinase-mediated deletion of CB₁-Rs from cortical projection neurons or MSNs, and MSN-selective reintroduction of CB₁-Rs in knockout mice, demonstrate that the principal source of CB₁-Rs in dorsolateral striosomes is local MSN collaterals. These data suggest a role for CB₁-Rs in caudal dorsolateral striosome collaterals and striosome-dendron bouquet projections to lateral substantia nigra, where they are anatomically poised to mediate presynaptic disinhibition of both striosomal MSNs and midbrain dopamine neurons in response to endocannabinoids and cannabinomimetics.

Critical Role for Gi/o-Protein Activity in the Dorsal Striatum in the Reduction of Voluntary Alcohol Intake in C57Bl/6 Mice

The transition from non-dependent alcohol use to alcohol dependence involves increased activity of the dorsal striatum. Interestingly, the dorsal striatum expresses a large number of inhibitory G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which when activated may inhibit alcohol-induced increased activity and can decrease alcohol consumption. Here, we explore the hypothesis that dorsal striatal G_i/o-protein activation is sufficient to reduce voluntary alcohol intake. Using a voluntary, limited-access, two-bottle choice, drink-in-the-dark model of alcohol (10%) consumption, we validated the importance of G_i/o signaling in this region by locally expressing neuron-specific, adeno-associated-virus encoded G_i/o-coupled muscarinic M₄ designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADD) in the dorsal striatum and observed a decrease in alcohol intake upon DREADD activation. We validated our findings by activating G_i/o-coupled delta-opioid receptors (DORs), which are natively expressed in the dorsal striatum, using either a G-protein biased agonist or a β-arrestin-biased agonist. Local infusion of TAN-67, an in vitro-determined G_i/o-protein biased DOR agonist, decreased voluntary alcohol intake in wild-type and β-arrestin-2 knockout (KO) mice. SNC80, a β-arrestin-2 biased DOR agonist, increased alcohol intake in wild-type mice; however, SNC80 decreased alcohol intake in β-arrestin-2 KO mice, thus resulting in a behavioral outcome generally observed for G_i/o-biased agonists and suggesting that β-arrestin recruitment is required for SNC80-increased alcohol intake. Overall, these results suggest that activation G_i/o-coupled GPCRs expressed in the dorsal striatum, such as the DOR, by G-protein biased agonists may be a potential strategy to decrease voluntary alcohol consumption and β-arrestin recruitment is to be avoided.

NF1 Is a Direct G Protein Effector Essential for Opioid Signaling to Ras in the Striatum

It is well recognized that G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can activate Ras-regulated kinase pathways to produce lasting changes in neuronal function. Mechanisms by which GPCRs transduce these signals and their relevance to brain disorders are not well understood. Here, we identify a major Ras regulator, neurofibromin 1 (NF1), as a direct effector of GPCR signaling via Gβγ subunits in the striatum. We find that binding of Gβγ to NF1 inhibits its ability to inactivate Ras. Deletion of NF1 in striatal neurons prevents the opioid-receptor-induced activation of Ras and eliminates its coupling to Akt-mTOR-signaling pathway. By acting in the striatal medium spiny neurons of the direct pathway, NF1 regulates opioid-induced changes in Ras activity, thereby sensitizing mice to psychomotor and rewarding effects of morphine. These results delineate a novel mechanism of GPCR signaling to Ras pathways and establish a critical role of NF1 in opioid addiction.

Melanocortin 3 Receptor Signaling in Midbrain Dopamine Neurons Increases the Motivation for Food Reward

The central melanocortin (MC) system mediates its effects on food intake via MC3 (MC3R) and MC4 receptors (MC4R). Although the role of MC4R in meal size determination, satiation, food preference, and motivation is well established, the involvement of MC3R in the modulation of food intake has been less explored. Here, we investigated the role of MC3R on the incentive motivation for food, which is a crucial component of feeding behavior. Dopaminergic neurons within the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have a crucial role in the motivation for food. We here report that MC3Rs are expressed on VTA dopaminergic neurons and that pro-opiomelanocortinergic (POMC) neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (Arc) innervate these VTA dopaminergic neurons. Our findings show that intracerebroventricular or intra-VTA infusion of the selective MC3R agonist γMSH increases responding for sucrose under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement, but not free sucrose consumption in rats. Furthermore, ex vivo electrophysiological recordings show increased VTA dopaminergic neuronal activity upon γMSH application. Consistent with a dopamine-mediated effect of γMSH, the increased motivation for sucrose after intra-VTA infusion of γMSH was blocked by pretreatment with the dopamine receptor antagonist α-flupenthixol. Taken together, we demonstrate an Arc POMC projection onto VTA dopaminergic neurons that modulates motivation for palatable food via activation of MC3R signaling.

Nicotinic cholinergic and dopaminergic receptor mRNA expression in male and female rats with high or low preference for nicotine

BACKGROUND

Nicotine exerts its central actions through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), which in turn regulate major neurotransmitter systems including dopamine. Nicotinic and dopaminergic systems play significant roles in physiological functions, neuropsychiatric disorders, and addiction.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate possible differences in the expression of nAChR subunit and dopamine receptor (DR) mRNAs following voluntary nicotine intake.

METHODS

Male and female rats (n = 67) were exposed to long-term free-choice oral nicotine (24 hours/day, 6 weeks); rats with maximum and minimum nicotine preference/intake were selected. The mRNA levels of genes encoding α4,β2,α5, and α7 nAChR subunits and DR Drd1and Drd2 subtypes were evaluated in the striatum (STR), prefrontal cortex (PFC), and hippocampus using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in selected rats (n = 30) and their control groups (n = 15).

RESULTS

In addition to baseline differences, expression changes were observed in the mRNA levels of evaluated genes in rats exposed to voluntary oral nicotine in a brain region-, sex-, and preference-related manner. Nicotine intake is correlated negatively with Chrnb2, Chrna7 and positively with Drd1 expression. In the cholinergic system, regional differences in Chnrb2 and Chrna5, sex differences in Chrna4 and Chrna5, and nicotine preference effects in the expression of all subunits except α4 were observed. Chrna5 was lower in maximum than in minimum preferring, and in male than female rats, supporting the inhibitory role of the α5 subunit in nicotine dependence. Nicotine increased Drd2 mRNA expression only in minimum preferring female rats in STR and PFC.

CONCLUSION

Modulation of nAChR and DR gene expression by nicotine may have clinical implications and aid drug development. Pharmaceuticals targeting the nicotinic cholinergic and dopaminergic systems might be expected to have differential efficacy that varies with the patient's sex or smoking status.

Cross interaction of melanocortinergic and dopaminergic systems in neural modulation

Melanocortinergic and dopaminergic systems are widely distributed in the CNS and have been established as a crucial regulatory component in diverse physiological functions. The pharmacology of both melanocortinergic and dopaminergic systems including their individual receptors, signaling mechanisms, agonists and antagonists has been extensively studied. Several lines of evidence showed that there existed a cross interaction between the receptors of melanocortinergic and dopaminergic systems. The data available at present had expanded our understanding of melanocortinergic and dopaminergic system interaction in neural modulation, which will be main discussed in this paper.

Enkephalin Disinhibits Mu Opioid Receptor-Rich Striatal Patches via Delta Opioid Receptors

Opioid neuropeptides and their receptors are evolutionarily conserved neuromodulatory systems that profoundly influence behavior. In dorsal striatum, which expresses the endogenous opioid enkephalin, patches (or striosomes) are limbic-associated subcompartments enriched in mu opioid receptors. The functional implications of opioid signaling in dorsal striatum and the circuit elements in patches regulated by enkephalin are unclear. Here, we examined how patch output is modulated by enkephalin and identified the underlying circuit mechanisms. We found that patches are relatively devoid of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons and exist as self-contained inhibitory microcircuits. Enkephalin suppresses inhibition onto striatal projection neurons selectively in patches, thereby disinhibiting their firing in response to cortical input. The majority of this neuromodulation is mediated by delta, not mu-opioid, receptors, acting specifically on intra-striatal collateral axons of striatopallidal neurons. These results suggest that enkephalin gates limbic information flow in dorsal striatum, acting via a patch-specific function for delta opioid receptors.

In Vitro Differentiation of Human Neural Progenitor Cells Into Striatal GABAergic Neurons

: Huntington's disease (HD) results from a CAG repeat expansion in the gene encoding the huntingtin protein. This inherited disorder is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration. In particular, HD progression involves the loss of striatal projection neurons. The limited availability of reliable sources of human striatal projection neurons currently hampers our understanding of HD mechanisms and hinders the development of novel HD treatments. In this paper, we described two- and three-step methods for differentiating human neural progenitor cells toward striatal projection neurons. In the two-step differentiation protocol, 90%, 54%, and 6% of MAP2-positive cells were immunopositive for GABA, calbindin (CALB1), and DARPP-32/PPP1R1B, respectively. In the three-step differentiation protocol, 96%, 84%, and 21% of MAP2-positive cells were immunopositive for GABA, calbindin, and DARPP-32/PPP1R1B, respectively. In line with a striatal projection neuron phenotype, cells differentiated with our protocols displayed significantly increased expression of MAP2, CALB1, DARPP-32/PPP1R1B, ARPP21, and CTIP2. Application of glutamate receptor agonists induced calcium influx; accordingly, the cells also expressed various ionotropic glutamate receptor subunits. Differentiated cells also released GABA on stimulation. We suggest that our three-step differentiation protocol presents a reliable and simplified method for the generation of striatal projection neurons, yielding a critical resource for neuronal physiology and neurodegenerative disorder studies.

SIGNIFICANCE

The earliest changes in the neurodegenerative disorder Huntington's disease affect a specific type of brain neurons, the so-called medium spiny neurons of the striatum. In this study, two protocols were developed for the differentiation of neural progenitor cells into striatal medium spiny neurons, and the differentiated neurons were extensively characterized. The data indicate that the three-step differentiation protocol presents a reliable and simplified method for the generation of striatal medium spiny neurons. The generated striatal medium spiny neurons could represent a critical resource for the study of neurodegenerative disorders, a model system for drug discovery, and a step toward cell-based regeneration therapies.

Central melanocortins regulate the motivation for sucrose reward

The role of the melanocortin (MC) system in feeding behavior is well established. Food intake is potently suppressed by central infusion of the MC 3/4 receptor agonist α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), whereas the MC 3/4 receptor inverse-agonist Agouti Related Peptide (AGRP) has the opposite effect. MC receptors are widely expressed in both hypothalamic and extra-hypothalamic brain regions, including nuclei involved in food reward and motivation, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the ventral tegmental area. This suggests that MCs modulate motivational aspects of food intake. To test this hypothesis, rats were injected intracerebroventricularly with α-MSH or AGRP and their motivation for sucrose was tested under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement. Food motivated behavior was dose-dependently decreased by α-MSH. Conversely, AGRP increased responding for sucrose, an effect that was blocked by pretreatment with the dopamine receptor antagonist α-flupenthixol. In contrast to progressive ratio responding, free intake of sucrose remained unaltered upon α-MSH or AGRP infusion. In addition, we investigated whether the effects of α-MSH and AGRP on food motivation were mediated by the NAc shell. In situ hybridization of MC3 and MC4 receptor expression confirmed that the MC4 receptor was expressed throughout the NAc, and injection of α-MSH and AGRP into the NAc shell caused a decrease and an increase in motivation for sucrose, respectively. These data show that the motivation for palatable food is modulated by MC4 receptors in the NAc shell, and demonstrate cross-talk between the MC and dopamine system in the modulation of food motivation.

MC4R expression in pedunculopontine nucleus involved in the modulation of midbrain dopamine system

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Separate studies have implicated the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) in processing aversive stimuli to dopamine systems, and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) are broadly expressed by the neurons in the PPTg, but the exact neurosubstrate underlying the regulation of dopamine systems by the central melanocortin pathway is poorly understood.

METHODS

In this study, the PPTg of 6 adult mice expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the MC4R promoter was detected by fluorescence immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

A large number of GFP-positive neurons in the dissipated parts of PPTg (dpPPTg) were found, and approximately 50% of MC4R-GFP- positive neurons in the dpPPTg coexpressed tyrosine hydroxylase, a marker of dopamine neurons, indicating that they were dopaminergic.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the hypothesis that MC4R signaling in the dpPPTg may involve in the modulation of midbrain dopamine systems.