The effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance: A structured narrative review

The acute effect of two exercise modalities on neurocognitive responses in postmenopausal women: A randomized controlled trial

Menopause-related cognitive decline, often worsened by vasomotor symptoms (VMS), might be mitigated by high cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). Although acute exercise supports neurocognitive function, its effects vary by exercise and individual characteristics. In this study, we investigated the acute effects of isometric resistance exercise (IRE) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on prefrontal cortex oxygenation and cognitive performance in postmenopausal women and examined the influence of VMS and CRF on these outcomes. A cross-over randomized controlled trial was conducted among 29 women aged 55 ± 3 years. The HIIE session included two sets of 12 × 15 s at 100% maximal aerobic power, and the IRE session included 4 × 2 min at 30% maximal voluntary force. Cognitive functions were evaluated before and after sessions using the MEM-III story recall test (episodic memory), Stroop task (inhibitory control) and n-back task (working memory). Prefrontal cortex oxygenation was assessed by measuring oxyhaemoglobin (ΔHbO2), deoxygenated haemoglobin (ΔHHb) and total haemoglobin (ΔtHb) concentrations before, during and after each session. No effect of exercise was noted on cognitive performance. However, prefrontal cortex oxygenation increased during HIIE (ΔHbO2: d = 0.99, p < 0.0001; ΔHHb: d = 0.68, p = 0.018; ΔtHb: d = 0.96, p = 0.001), during IRE (ΔHbO2: d = 1.2, p = 0.003) and post-HIIE (ΔHbO2 and ΔtHb: d > 1; p < 0.0001) versus control. CRF positively modulated cognitive and cerebrovascular responses to IRE, whereas VMS showed no influence. IRE and HIIE did not improve cognitive performance in postmenopausal women, but increased prefrontal cortex oxygenation, with sustained effects after HIIE. CRF positively modulated responses, whereas VMS did not, underscoring the importance of maintaining high CRF to support brain health in this population.

Physical Activity to Counter Age-Related Cognitive Decline: Benefits of Aerobic, Resistance, and Combined Training-A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

With the increase in life expectancy, age-related cognitive decline has become a prevalent concern. Physical activity (PA) is increasingly being recognized as a vital non-pharmacological strategy to counteract this decline. This review aimed to (i) critically evaluate and synthesize the impact of different PA and exercise modalities (aerobic, resistance, and concurrent training) on cognitive health and overall well-being in older adults, (ii) discuss the influence of exercise intensity on cognitive functions, and (iii) elucidate the potential mechanisms through which PA and exercise may enhance or mitigate cognitive performance among older adults.

MAIN BODY

An exhaustive analysis of peer-reviewed studies pertaining to PA/exercise and cognitive health in older adults from January 1970 to February 2025 was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and MEDLINE. There is compelling evidence that aerobic and resistance training (RT) improve cognitive function and mental health in older adults, with benefits influenced by the type and intensity of exercise. Specifically, moderate-intensity aerobic exercise appears to bolster memory, executive functions, and mood regulation, potentially through increased cerebral blood flow, neurogenesis, and production of brain-derived neurotrophic factors in the hippocampus. Moderate-to-high-intensity RT acutely enhances visuospatial processing and executive functions, with chronic training promoting neurogenesis, possibly by stimulating insulin-like growth factor-1 and augmenting blood flow to the prefrontal cortex. Findings related to the effects of concurrent training on cognitive function and mental health are heterogeneous, with some studies reporting no significant impact and others revealing substantial improvements. However, emerging evidence indicates that the combination of concurrent training and cognitive tasks (i.e., dual tasks) is particularly effective, often outperforming aerobic exercise alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Regular aerobic and RT performance is beneficial for older adults to mitigate cognitive decline and enhance their overall well-being. Specifically, engaging in moderate-intensity aerobic exercises and moderate-to-high-intensity RT is safe and effective in improving cognitive function and mental health in this demographic. These exercises, which can be conveniently incorporated into daily routines, effectively enhance mental agility, memory, executive function, and mood. The findings related to concurrent training are mixed, with emerging evidence indicating the effectiveness of combined concurrent and cognitive tasks on cognitive health and well-being in older adults. Key Points - Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, mood regulation, and overall well-being in older adults. These benefits are linked to structural and functional changes in the brain such as increased hippocampal volume and elevated levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. - Moderate-to-high-intensity resistance training, both in acute and chronic forms, enhances cognitive performance in older adults, particularly in executive functions and visuospatial processing. Cognitive benefits, including improvements in information-processing speed, attention, and memory, can be sustained through regular training. - The effects of concurrent resistance and aerobic training on cognitive function in older adults are mixed. However, combining concurrent training with cognitive tasks (i.e., dual-task training) is particularly effective and often outperforms aerobic exercise alone. - Cognitive and well-being improvements from aerobic and resistance training are mediated by mechanisms such as increased cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery, enhanced neurogenesis, reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, and positive hormonal changes. - While the optimal exercise dosage for promoting cognitive health in older adults remains undetermined, empirical evidence indicates a positive correlation between increased exercise dosage and cognitive health improvements.

Exercising4Cognition: Can Short Bouts of Aerobic Exercise Improve Cognitive Performance in Healthy Adults for Primary Health Prevention? Previous Findings and Suggestions for the Future

Background: Regular physical activity (PA) and regular exercise (RE) are essential for an active and healthy lifestyle. Additionally, the short-term effects have been investigated to understand how an acute bout of exercise impacts cognitive processing, an important aspect of mental health and well-being. Previous studies have confirmed positive effects. However, several exercise factors and human factors can influence this relationship. Aim/Methods/Results: This perspective paper has three main objectives: firstly, discussing the exercise and human factors that influence exercise-cognition effects significantly across studies according to previous reviews and meta-analytic studies and how this influence could be explained theoretically; secondly, highlighting important knowledge gaps and research questions for future research; and thirdly, discussing what conclusion can be drawn for cognitive health promotion. A particular focus is given to the effects of acute bouts of aerobic exercise and healthy adults as an important target group for primary health prevention. Conclusions: The summary of previous findings shows that the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on cognitive performance in healthy adults depend on (a) exercise factors such as the duration and intensity of the acute bout of exercise, (b) cognitive factors such as the type of cognitive task and domain of cognitive functions, and (c) individual factors such as the physical activity of the individuals. Still, open questions concern the ideal duration, intensity and timing of the acute bout of exercise. In particular, more research is needed to determine whether and how aerobic exercises of short duration and an intensity above and especially below moderate intensity improve cognitive functions in healthy adults. Methodologically, these factors should be addressed by multimethod designs that consider intra- and interindividual comparisons and different response levels (self-report, behavioral, psychophysiological). In conclusion, answering these questions could pave the way for recommendations on how healthcare professionals should prescribe brief aerobic exercise as a cognitive health booster in healthy young adults. To this end, concepts of extended arousal and neurovisceral integration are useful framework models to include individual factors, like self-regulatory abilities of the individual and how these influence exercise-cognition interactions and exercise motivation during, pre-to-post and across testing sessions.

Association between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity trajectories and academic achievement in Chinese primary school children: a 3-year longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Past cross-sectional studies have reported a positive association between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and academic achievement in children and adolescents. Despite this, the influence of variations in MVPA over time on academic achievement remains yet to be definitively understood. Therefore, this study aims to track the patterns of MVPA and examine how they are associated with academic achievement over a three-year period among Chinese primary school students.

METHODS

The longitudinal study examined the MVPA and academic achievement of a cohort of 202 primary school children over a three-year period. MVPA was assessed via accelerometers and analysed using Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA). Academic achievement was quantified using standardised test scores in reading, mathematics, and language. Group-Based Trajectory Models (GBTMs) were used to identify patterns of MVPA. Covariates such as demographics, sleep duration, and attitudes towards sports were adjusted in the Generalized Estimating Equations (GEEs) used to examine associations with academic achievement. All statistical analyses were conducted using R and SAS 9.4 software.

RESULTS

This study identified three distinct MVPA trajectories: Low (74.8%), Decline (13.2%), and High (12.0%). At baseline, the High MVPA group had better academic achievement with mean scores of 89.8 in reading, 94.5 in mathematics, and 94.7 in language, compared to the Low MVPA group with mean scores of 80.4, 83.0, and 84.9, respectively. After adjustment for confounders, GEE models showed significant associations between MVPA trajectories and improved academic achievement. Compared to the Low MVPA group, the Decline MVPA group exhibited significant score increases in reading (β = 4.11, 95% CI: 1-7.21) and mathematics (β = 2.79, 95% CI: 0.09-5.5). The High MVPA group exhibited significant score increases in reading (β = 11.3, 95% CI: 7.93-14.67), mathematics (β = 12.32, 95% CI: 9.61-15.02), and language (β = 11.53, 95% CI: 8.99-14.06). Additionally, notable gender differences in MVPA trajectories were observed, and a positive association was found between favorable sports attitudes and improved academic achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals three distinct MVPA trajectories among Chinese primary school children and demonstrates that those with high MVPA trajectories showcase superior academic achievements, particularly in reading, mathematics, and language. This highlights the vital role of MVPA in supporting academic excellence.

Improving brain health via the central executive network

Cognitive and physical stress have significant effects on brain health, particularly through their influence on the central executive network (CEN). The CEN, which includes regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex and inferior parietal lobe, is central to managing the demands of cognitively challenging motor tasks. Acute stress can temporarily reduce connectivity within the CEN, leading to impaired cognitive function and emotional states. However a rebound in these states often follows, driven by motivational signals through the mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways, which help sustain inhibitory control and task execution. Chronic exposure to physical and cognitive challenges leads to long-term improvements in CEN functionality. These changes are supported by neurochemical, structural and systemic adaptations, including mechanisms of tissue crosstalk. Myokines, adipokines, anti-inflammatory cytokines and gut-derived metabolites contribute to a biochemical environment that enhances neuroplasticity, reduces neuroinflammation and supports neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. These processes strengthen CEN connectivity, improve self-regulation and enable individuals to adopt and sustain health-optimizing behaviours. Long-term physical activity not only enhances inhibitory control but also reduces the risk of age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases. This review highlights the role of progressive physical stress through exercise as a practical approach to strengthening the CEN and promoting brain health, offering a strategy to improve cognitive resilience and emotional well-being across the lifespan.

Active motor-cognitive recovery supports reactive agility performance in trained athletes

Active breaks are suggested to support recovery and performance in sports. Previous research in ball and team sports focused on motor performance such as repetitive sprinting or change of direction. This does not account for the interaction between motor and cognitive task demands in sports. Therefore, this study is the first to investigate the effectiveness of an active motor-cognitive break to support reactive agility performance. Twenty (7 female and 13 male) healthy trained young adults (mean age: 26 years) performed an active or passive 5 min break following a fatiguing protocol of six 100 m reactive agility runs with an intermittent break of 40 s. Prior to the experiment (pre), after fatigue (post), and following the rest condition (retention), a reactive agility test was performed using the SKILLCOURT technology. In addition, lactate, heartrate, and physical exertion were recorded. Active rest contained two motor-cognitive training tasks on the SKILLCOURT combining low to moderate physical intensity with conflict inhibition and decision-making. During passive rest, participants remained seated. When comparing post and retention agility tests, results indicate significantly stronger performance gains following the active when compared to the passive break condition (p = 0.02 and ηp 2 = 0.24). This was not associated with any differences in physiological parameters such as lactate, heart rate, or RPE (p ≥ 0.25). The results suggest that active motor-cognitive breaks support recovery and improve sport-related reactive agility performance. Performance gains in the active break are likely attributable to cognitive performance effects rather than physiological recovery, which may benefit athletes especially in ball and team sports.

Effects of 2 consecutive badminton matches on motor and cognitive abilities among adult elite badminton players: An observational study

The goal of our study was to investigate the effect of 2 consecutive badminton matches among elite badminton players on visuomotor integration, dynamic balance ability, inhibitory control, short-term memory capacity, and changes in cardiovascular fitness. Badminton is the fastest racket sport regarding the speed of the shuttle leaving the racket. The play with open move skills is characterized by series of short range and high intensity workload phases. The effectiveness is affected by the execution of the specific movement techniques within a certain time period and the optimal function of decision-making techniques. The experiment included a tournament with 2 simulated matches among elite, adult, male badminton players. The quality of visuomotor integrity and dynamic balance task were measured with Blazepod modified adapted Y-Balance Test induced reactive balance test, pre and post matches. Stroop test was used to evaluate the inhibition capability, and Digit Span Test was applied to measure the cognitive short-term capacity. Remarkable changes could not be detected in the visuomotor reaction in each time points. Gradual increase was observed in balance errors due to the dominant leg (right) support. Digit Span Test decreased between pre and post match measurements, however, significant changes (P < .01) could be detected after the restitution period between pre and post match. No alteration could be seen with Stroop test in each time points, nevertheless, notable increase in false results were observed at the 4th measurements points. Heart rate did not remarkably differ. In summary, the intensive, consecutive strength had a negative effect on peripheral system, and therefore on dynamic balance control. Cognitive ability indicated gradual deterioration, but showed optimal regeneration between loads.

Heart rate during moderate exercise and attention among adolescents: An experimental study

BACKGROUND

Existing studies on the effects of physical activity on cognitive function have predominantly focused on pre- or post-exercise effects, leaving a gap in understanding the immediate cognitive impacts during physical exertion. Understanding cognitive performance during activity could have significant implications for improving productivity and therapeutic strategies.

METHODS

This study examined the relationship between heart rate and cognitive performance, specifically attention, using the D2 attention test among 32 adolescents aged 12-18 years. Participants underwent attention assessments at rest and while moving at target heart rates of 100 bpm, 120 bpm, and 140 bpm. The influence of body mass index (BMI) and sleep quality on attention has been analysed too.

RESULTS

A significant positive correlation between heart rate and attention was observed (r = 0.39, P < .005), indicating enhanced cognitive performance with increased heart rate. Furthermore, a significant negative correlation was found between BMI and attention (r = -0.37, P = .039) and a significant positive correlation was found between sleep quality and attention (r = 0.66, P = .014).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that moderate physical activity can enhance attention, which could inform the design of educational, therapeutic, and occupational strategies. Future research should explore the generalizability of these effects across different cognitive domains, age groups, and settings.

Adding a sustained attention task to a physically demanding cycling exercise exacerbates neuromuscular fatigue and impairs cognitive performance in both normoxia and hypoxia

PURPOSE

Both cognitive motor dual-tasks (CMDT) protocols and hypoxic environments have been associated with significant impairments in cognitive and physical performance. We aimed to determine the effects of hypoxia on cognitive performance and neuromuscular fatigue during a highly physically demanding CMDT.

METHODS

Fifteen young adults completed a first session involving a cognitive task (CTLCOG) followed by cycling exercise (CTLEX) in normoxia. After that, they randomly participated in CMDT sessions in normoxia (DTNOR) and hypoxia (DTHYP). The physical exercise consisted of 20 min cycling at a "hard" perceived effort, and the cognitive task consisted of 15 min sustained attention to response time task (SART). Concurrent psycho-physiological measurements included: quadriceps neuromuscular fatigue (peripheral/central components from femoral nerve electrostimulation), prefrontal cortex (PFC) oxygenation by near-infrared spectroscopy, and perception of effort.

RESULTS

SART performance significantly decreased in DTNOR (-15.7 ± 15.6%, P < 0.01) and DTHYP (-26.2 ± 16.0%, P < 0.01) compared to CTLCOG (-1.0 ± 17.7%, P = 0.61). Peripheral fatigue similarly increased across conditions, whereas the ability of the central nervous system to activate the working muscles was impaired similarly in DTNOR (-6.1 ± 5.9%, P < 0.001) and DTHYP (-5.4 ± 7.3%, P < 0.001) compared to CTLEX (-1.1 ± 0.2%, P = 0.52). Exercise-induced perception of effort was higher in DTHYP vs. DTNOR and in DTNOR vs. CTLEX. This was correlated with cognitive impairments in both normoxia and hypoxia. PFC deoxygenation was more pronounced in DTHYP compared to DTNOR and CTLEX.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, performing a sustained attention task together with physically challenging cycling exercise promotes central neuromuscular fatigue and impairs cognitive accuracy; the latter is particularly noticeable when the CMDT is performed in hypoxia.

Effects of voluntary exercise and electrical muscle stimulation on reaction time in the Go/No-Go task

INTRODUCTION

Acute exercise improves cognitive performance. However, it remains unclear what triggers cognitive improvement. Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) facilitates the examination of physiological changes derived from peripheral muscle contraction during exercise. Thus, we compared the effects of EMS and voluntary exercise at low- or moderate-intensity on reaction time (RT) in a cognitive task to understand the contribution of central and peripheral physiological factors to RT improvement.

METHODS

Twenty-four young, healthy male participants performed a Go/No-Go task before and after EMS/exercise. In the EMS condition, EMS was applied to the lower limb muscles. In the low-intensity exercise condition, the participants cycled an ergometer while maintaining their heart rate (HR) at the similar level during EMS. In the moderate-intensity exercise condition, exercise intensity corresponded to ratings of perceived exertion of 13/20. The natural log-transformed root mean square of successive differences between adjacent inter-beat (R-R) intervals (LnRMSSD), which predominantly reflects parasympathetic HR modulation, was calculated before and during EMS/exercise.

RESULTS

RT improved following moderate-intensity exercise (p = 0.002, Cohen' d = 0.694), but not following EMS (p = 0.107, Cohen' d = 0.342) and low-intensity exercise (p = 0.076, Cohen' d = 0.380). Repeated measures correlation analysis revealed that RT was correlated with LnRMSSD (Rrm(23) = 0.599, p = 0.002) in the moderate-intensity exercise condition.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the amount of central neural activity and exercise pressor reflex may be crucial for RT improvement. RT improvement following moderate-intensity exercise may, at least partly, be associated with enhanced sympathetic nervous system activity.

Lifestyle, Environment, and Dietary Measures Impacting Cognitive Impairment: The Evidence Base for Cognitive Subtypes

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Cognition includes all phases of valid functions and processes, e.g., sensitivity, judgment, assessment, and decision-making. Thinking is also a cognitive procedure since it involves considering potential opportunities. There are various types of cognition. Hot cognition involves mental procedures where emotion plays a role, while cold cognition includes mental processes that do not include feelings or emotions. Cognitive memories of various types include sensor memory, sensing touch, smell, and sight; short-term memory allows one to recall, e.g., what one had for lunch a few days ago; working memory includes remembering telephone numbers or directions to a destination; and long-term memory comprises of major milestones in life and recalling one’s childhood events. These are further classified as episodic, e.g., the first day in primary school, and semantic memories, such as recalling the capital city of a country and filling out crossword puzzles. Declarative memories include remembering significant past events, such as global information. Cognition is affected by factors, such as nutrition, aging, addiction, environment, mental health, physical activity, smoking, and keeping the brain active. Consumption of plant- based foods plays a prominent role in the prevention of cognitive memory. Playing games and instruments, reading books, and being socially active make life more satisfying, thus assisting in the preservation of mental function and slowing mental decline.

Staying in control: Characterizing the mechanisms underlying cognitive control in high and low arousal states

Throughout the day, humans show natural fluctuations in arousal that impact cognitive function. To study the behavioural dynamics of cognitive control during high and low arousal states, healthy participants performed an auditory conflict task during high-intensity physical exercise (N = 39) or drowsiness (N = 33). In line with the pre-registered hypotheses, conflict and conflict adaptation effects were preserved during both altered arousal states. Overall task performance was markedly poorer during low arousal, but not for high arousal. Modelling behavioural dynamics with drift diffusion analysis revealed evidence accumulation and non-decision time decelerated, and decisional boundaries became wider during low arousal, whereas high arousal was unexpectedly associated with a decrease in the interference of task-irrelevant information processing. These findings show how arousal differentially modulates cognitive control at both sides of normal alertness, and further validate drowsiness and physical exercise as key experimental models to disentangle the interaction between physiological fluctuations on cognitive dynamics.

Effects of menstrual cycle on cognitive function, cortisol, and metabolism after a single session of aerobic exercise

AIM

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the two pre-ovulatory and mid-luteal phases of the menstrual cycle on cognitive function, as well as possible mediators of metabolism and salivary cortisol, at rest and after an aerobic exercise session.

STUDY DESIGN

Twelve active young unmarried women aged 22-30 years volunteered to participate in the study. The participants performed a 20-min exercise session on a cycle ergometer at 60-70% of their reserve heart rate twice, during the follicular (pre-ovulation: days 7-10) and luteal (mid-luteal: days 21-24) phases of the menstrual cycle. Saliva samples were collected to measure cortisol. Fat utilization, respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and energy expenditure (during exercise) were measured using a spiroergometer. Cognitive function was assessed using the Stroop test. Cognitive function and cortisol levels were measured before and after each exercise session.

RESULTS

The findings of this study indicated no significant differences in variables during the resting follicular and luteal phases. Cortisol levels and cognitive function were increased after exercise compared with before exercise in both the follicular and luteal phases. Cortisol and fat utilization after exercise were significantly higher in the follicular phase than in the luteal phase. There were no significant differences between the follicular and luteal phasesregarding the effects of exercise on cognitive function, energy expenditure, and RER.

CONCLUSION

In general, the follicular and luteal phases of menstruation may not affect cognitive function in response to a single aerobic exercise session, although they change some metabolic factors and cortisol.

Physical exercise for brain plasticity promotion an overview of the underlying oscillatory mechanism

The global recognition of the importance of physical exercise (PE) for human health has resulted in increased research on its effects on cortical activity. Neural oscillations, which are prominent features of brain activity, serve as crucial indicators for studying the effects of PE on brain function. Existing studies support the idea that PE modifies various types of neural oscillations. While EEG-related literature in exercise science exists, a comprehensive review of the effects of exercise specifically in healthy populations has not yet been conducted. Given the demonstrated influence of exercise on neural plasticity, particularly cortical oscillatory activity, it is imperative to consolidate research on this phenomenon. Therefore, this review aims to summarize numerous PE studies on neuromodulatory mechanisms in the brain over the past decade, covering (1) effects of resistance and aerobic training on brain health via neural oscillations; (2) how mind-body exercise affects human neural activity and cognitive functioning; (3) age-Related effects of PE on brain health and neurodegenerative disease rehabilitation via neural oscillation mechanisms; and (4) conclusion and future direction. In conclusion, the effect of PE on cortical activity is a multifaceted process, and this review seeks to comprehensively examine and summarize existing studies' understanding of how PE regulates neural activity in the brain, providing a more scientific theoretical foundation for the development of personalized PE programs and further research.

Brain functional training: a perspective article

Introduction: Physical exercise (PE) positively affects the nervous system, impacting morphology and physiology. It increases brain gray and white matter, improves cerebral blood flow, and stimulates neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and angiogenesis, promoting brain function. Although exercise already affects cognition, some training modalities place greater demands on the cognitive aspects of physical exercise, such as perceptual-motor and visual-motor training. This type of approach aims to emphasize the cognitive adaptations that occur chronically. Specifically for older people, functional training, a multi-component approach, is a promising exercise modality that stimulates functionality using multi-joint, multi-planar exercises mirroring daily activities. However, applying a greater focus on cognitive adaptations in line with the functional training proposal for maximal benefits remains underexplored. Aim: Thus, this perspective article initially explores different exercise approaches emphasizing cognitive adaptations and proposes Brain Functional Training to improve older adult's functionality. Methods: Furthermore, we explain how brain functional training can be explored to emphasize cognitive aspects based on increasing complexity to stimulate the executive function and its subdomains. Conclusion: This proposal is one alternative to combining motor and cognitive stimuli to promote autonomy and health in older people.

Decision-making accuracy of soccer referees in relation to markers of internal and external load

This study examined the relationships between the decision-making performances of soccer referees and markers of physiological load. Following baseline measurements and habituation procedures, 13 national-level male referees completed a novel Soccer Referee Simulation whilst simultaneously adjudicating on a series of video-based decision-making clips. The correctness of each decision was assessed in relation to the mean heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), minute ventilation (VE), perceptions of breathlessness (RPE-B) and local muscular (RPE-M) exertion and running speeds recorded in the 10-s and 60-s preceding decisions. There was a significant association between decision-making accuracy and the mean HR (p = 0.042; VC = 0.272) and RR (p = 0.024, VC = 0.239) in the 10-s preceding decisions, with significantly more errors observed when HR ≥ 90% of HRmax (OR, 5.39) and RR ≥ 80% of RRpeak (OR, 3.34). Decision-making accuracy was also significantly associated with the mean running speeds performed in the 10-s (p = 0.003; VC = 0.320) and 60-s (p = 0.016; VC = 0.253) preceding decisions, with workloads of ≥250 m·min-1 associated with an increased occurrence of decisional errors (OR, 3.84). Finally, there was a significant association between decision-making accuracy and RPE-B (p = 0.021; VC = 0.287), with a disproportionate number of errors occurring when RPE-B was rated as "very strong" to "maximal" (OR, 7.19). Collectively, the current data offer novel insights into the detrimental effects that high workloads may have upon the decision-making performances of soccer referees. Such information may be useful in designing combined physical and decision-making training programmes that prepare soccer referees for the periods of match play that prove most problematic to their decision-making.

Combined effects of electrical muscle stimulation and cycling exercise on cognitive performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a combination of electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) and cycling exercise is beneficial for improving cognitive performance. Eighteen participants (7 females and 11 males) performed a Go/No-Go task before and 2 min after i) cycling exercise (EX), ii) a combination of EMS and cycling (EMS + EX) and iii) a control (rest) intervention in a randomized controlled crossover design. In the EX intervention, the participants cycled an ergometer for 20 min with their heart rate maintained at ∼120 beats·min-1. In the EMS + EX intervention, the participants cycled an ergometer simultaneously with EMS for 20 min, with heart rate maintained at ∼120 beats·min-1. In the Control intervention, the participants remained at rest while seated on the ergometer. Cognitive performance was assessed by reaction time (RT) and accuracy. There was a significant interaction between intervention and time (p = 0.007). RT was reduced in the EX intervention (p = 0.054, matched rank biserial correlation coefficient = 0.520). In the EMS + EX intervention, RT was not altered (p = 0.243, Cohen's d = 0.285) despite no differences in heart rate between the EX and EMS + EX interventions (p = 0.551). RT was increased in the Control intervention (p = 0.038, Cohen's d = -0.529). These results indicate that combining EMS and cycling does not alter cognitive performance despite elevated heart rate, equivalent to a moderate intensity. The present findings suggest that brain activity during EMS with cycling exercise may be insufficient to improve cognitive performance when compared to exercise alone.

Microbiota-gut-brain axis: the mediator of exercise and brain health

The brain controls the nerve system, allowing complex emotional and cognitive activities. The microbiota-gut-brain axis is a bidirectional neural, hormonal, and immune signaling pathway that could link the gastrointestinal tract to the brain. Over the past few decades, gut microbiota has been demonstrated to be an essential component of the gastrointestinal tract that plays a crucial role in regulating most functions of various body organs. The effects of the microbiota on the brain occur through the production of neurotransmitters, hormones, and metabolites, regulation of host-produced metabolites, or through the synthesis of metabolites by the microbiota themselves. This affects the host's behavior, mood, attention state, and the brain's food reward system. Meanwhile, there is an intimate association between the gut microbiota and exercise. Exercise can change gut microbiota numerically and qualitatively, which may be partially responsible for the widespread benefits of regular physical activity on human health. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a non-invasive method to show areas of brain activity enabling the delineation of specific brain regions involved in neurocognitive disorders. Through combining exercise tasks and fMRI techniques, researchers can observe the effects of exercise on higher brain functions. However, exercise's effects on brain health via gut microbiota have been little studied. This article reviews and highlights the connections between these three interactions, which will help us to further understand the positive effects of exercise on brain health and provide new strategies and approaches for the prevention and treatment of brain diseases.

Inverted U-shape-like functional connectivity alterations in cognitive resting-state networks depending on exercise intensity: An fMRI study

Acute physical activity influences cognitive performance. However, the relationship between exercise intensity, neural network activity, and cognitive performance remains poorly understood. This study examined the effects of different exercise intensities on resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and cognitive performance. Twenty male athletes (27.3 ± 3.6 years) underwent cycling exercises of different intensities (high, low, rest/control) on different days in randomized order. Before and after, subjects performed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and a behavioral Attention Network Test (ANT). Independent component analysis and Linear mixed effects models examined rsFC changes within ten resting-state networks. No significant changes were identified in ANT performance. Resting-state analyses revealed a significant interaction in the Left Frontoparietal Network, driven by a non-significant rsFC increase after low-intensity and a significant rsFC decrease after high-intensity exercise, suggestive of an inverted U-shape relationship between exercise intensity and rsFC. Similar but trend-level rsFC interactions were observed in the Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) and the Cerebellar Basal Ganglia Network. Explorative correlation analysis revealed a significant positive association between rsFC increases in the right superior parietal lobule (part of DAN) and better ANT orienting in the low-intensity condition. Results indicate exercise intensity-dependent subacute rsFC changes in cognition-related networks, but their cognitive-behavioral relevance needs further investigation.

Effects of an acute bout of cycling on different domains of cognitive function

The literature suggesting acute exercise benefits cognitive function has been largely confined to single cognitive domains and measures of reliant on measures of central tendencies. Furthermore, studies suggest cognitive intra-individual variability (IIV) to reflect cognitive efficiency and provide unique insights into cognitive function, but there is limited knowledge on the effects of acute exercise on IIV. To this end, this study examined the effects of acute exercise on three different cognitive domains, executive function, implicit learning, and hippocampal-dependent memory function using behavioral performance and event-related potentials (ERPs). Furthermore, this study also sought to explore the effects of an acute bout of exercise on IIV using the RIDE algorithm to separate signals into individuals components based on latency variability. Healthy adult participants (N=20; 26.3±4.8years) completed a randomized cross-over trial with seated rest or 30min of high intensity cycling. Before and after each condition, participants completed a cognitive battery consisting of the Eriksen Flanker task, implicit statistical learning task, and a spatial reconstruction task. While exercise did not affect Flanker or spatial reconstruction performance, there were exercise related decreases in accuracy (F=5.47; P=0.040), slowed reaction time (F=5.18; P=0.036), and decreased late parietal positivity (F=4.26; P=0.046). However, upon adjusting for performance and ERP variability, there were exercise related decreases in Flanker reaction time (F=24.00; P<0.001), and reduced N2 amplitudes (F=13.03; P=0.002), and slower P3 latencies (F=3.57; P=0.065) for incongruent trials. These findings suggest that acute exercise may impact cognitive IIV as an adaptation to maintain function following exercise.

Cognitive Fitness: Harnessing the Strength of Exerkines for Aging and Metabolic Challenges

Addressing cognitive impairment (CI) represents a significant global challenge in health and social care. Evidence suggests that aging and metabolic disorders increase the risk of CI, yet promisingly, physical exercise has been identified as a potential ameliorative factor. Specifically, there is a growing understanding that exercise-induced cognitive improvement may be mediated by molecules known as exerkines. This review delves into the potential impact of aging and metabolic disorders on CI, elucidating the mechanisms through which various exerkines may bolster cognitive function in this context. Additionally, the discussion extends to the role of exerkines in facilitating stem cell mobilization, offering a potential avenue for improving cognitive impairment.

Evaluating the effects of PeakATP® supplementation on visuomotor reaction time and cognitive function following high-intensity sprint exercise

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 14-days adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) supplementation (PeakATP®) on reaction time (RT), multiple object tracking speed (MOT), mood and cognition. Twenty adults (22.3 ± 4.4 yrs., 169.9 ± 9.5 cm, 78.7 ± 14.6 kg) completed two experimental trials in a double-blind, counter-balanced, crossover design. Subjects were randomized to either PeakATP® (400 mg) or placebo (PLA) and supplemented for 14-days prior to each trial. During each trial, subjects completed a three-minute all-out test on a cycle ergometer (3MT), with measures of visuomotor RT [Dynavision D2 Proactive (Mode A) and Reactive (Mode B) tasks], MOT (Neurotracker), mood (Profile of Mood States Questionnaire; POMS) and cognition (Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics; ANAM) occurring before (PRE), immediately post (IP) and 60 min post-3MT (60P). Subjects ingested an acute dose of the assigned supplement 30 min prior to completing PRE assessments for each trial. Trials were separated by a 14-day washout period. PeakATP® significantly attenuated declines in hits (p = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.235) and average RT (AvgRT, p = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.236) in Mode A, significantly improved AvgRT (p = 0.039, ηp2 = 0.174) in Mode B, and significantly reduced the total number of misses (p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.343) in Mode B. No differences between treatments were noted for MOT, POMS or ANAM variables. In conclusion, these results indicate that PeakATP® maintains proactive RT and improves reactive RT following high-intensity sprint exercise suggesting that supplemental ATP may mitigate exercise induced cognitive dysfunction.

Added Inspiratory Resistance Does Not Impair Cognitive Function and Mood State

This study evaluated cognitive function and mood state with inspiratory resistance before and after maximal exercise in hypoxia. Nine healthy men (age = 25 ± 2 years) performed the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics-4th Edition (ANAM4) of the Stroop color-word test (SCWT) and total mood disturbance (TMD) before and after an incremental cycling exercise until volitional fatigue with four different inspiratory resistances (0, 1.5, 4.5, 7.5 cm H₂O·L^-1·s^-1). There was no significant difference in the interference score of SCWT and TMD at normobaric, hypoxic conditions at four different inspiratory resistances. However, the interference score of SCWT was improved following maximal cycling exercise, whereas TMD was not improved. Inspiratory resistance did not have a deleterious effect on cognitive function and mood state in normobaric hypoxia after maximal cycling exercise. However, following maximal cycling exercise, cognitive function was improved.

Do executive function performance, gaze behavior, and pupil size change during incremental acute physical exercise?

Several studies have investigated the interaction between acute physical exercise and cognitive performance. However, few studies have investigated this issue during acute high-intensity exercise. In the present study, we evaluated executive functions (EFs) during incremental exercise in three different intensities [below lactate threshold (LT), at LT, and above LT], measuring EFs performance, gaze behavior, and pupil diameter. Twenty subjects were familiarized with the EFs test and participated in a graded maximal exercise test on a cycle ergometer on the first visit. On the second visit, they performed the EFs task at rest and while exercising at three different intensities using mobile eye-tracking glasses. Our results showed that the psychophysiological measures differed between the conditions. Regarding EFs performance, during exercise above LT, the subjects showed worse accuracy when compared with rest (p < .001) and below LT (p < .001). In addition, the response time (RT) at LT and above LT was shorter than in the rest condition (p < .050). Further, RT was faster (p = .002) in the above LT than in the below LT condition. In addition, the gaze behavior measures indicated that exercise, independently of the intensity, improves the number of fixations with shorter fixation durations compared to the rest condition (p < .050). Additionally, we found no significant differences in average and peak pupil diameter between conditions. In conclusion, exercise at LT improves the EFs performance while exercising above LT worsens EFs performance. However, there were no significant differences in average and peak pupil diameter between conditions.