Positive Economic, Psychosocial, and Physiological Ecologies Predict Brain Structure and Cognitive Performance in 9-10-Year-Old Children

Responsible research in health disparities using the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) study

PURPOSE

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study is the largest longitudinal study on brain development and adolescent health in the United States. The study includes a sociodemographically diverse cohort of nearly 12,000 youth born 2005-2009, with an open science model of making data rapidly available to the scientific community. The ABCD Study® data has been used in over 1100 peer-reviewed publications since its first data release in 2018. The dataset contains a broad scope and comprehensive set of measures of youths' behavioral, health, and brain outcomes, as well as extensive contextual and environmental measures that map onto the social determinants of health (SDOH). Understanding the impact of SDOH on the developmental trajectories of youth will help to address early lifecourse health inequities that lead to disparities later in life. However, the open science model and extensive use of ABCD data highlight the need for guidance on appropriate, responsible, and equitable use of the data.

DESIGN METHODS

Our conceptual framework integrates the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD) Research Framework with strength-based and data equity perspectives. We use this framework to articulate best practices and methods for investigations that aim to identify the multilevel pathways by which structural and systemic inequities impact adolescent health trajectories.

RESULTS

Using our conceptual model, we provide recommendations for equitable health disparities research using ABCD Study data. We identify over fifty ABCD measures that can encompass SDOH across five levels of influence: individual, interpersonal, school, community, and societal. We expand the societal level to acknowledge structural discrimination as the root cause of systemic and structural inequities resulting in health disparities among marginalized youth. We apply the methodological recommendations in an example data analysis using a multi-level approach that integrates strength-based and data equity perspectives to elucidate pathways by which social and structural inequities may influence cognitive decision making in youth. We conclude with recommendations for strengthening the utility of ABCD data for health disparities research now and in the future.

CONCLUSION

Adolescence is a critical period of development with subsequent ramifications for health outcomes across the lifespan. Thus, understanding SDOH among diverse youth can inform prevention interventions before the emergence of health disparities in adulthood.

Anxiety and Depression Symptoms, Adverse Childhood Experiences, and Persistent/Recurrent Pain Across Early Adolescence

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether anxiety and depression symptoms are mechanisms through which adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) contribute toward persistent/recurrent pain (PRP) across early adolescence.

METHODS

This study described the direct and indirect (ie, mediated) effects of ACEs on PRP across early adolescence, using 4 years of Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study data. Annual pain frequency, anxiety, and depression symptoms were measured using the Child Behavior Checklist, and youth with pain for ≥3 of the 4-year study period were classified with PRP. Early (up to age 9-10 years; reported at baseline) and recent (at age 10-11 years; reported at year 1) ACE exposures were derived from parent and youth completed surveys. Structural equation modeling estimated the direct and indirect associations among early and recent ACEs, pain outcomes, and anxiety/depression symptoms reported in the year(s) in between.

RESULTS

Among 7951 youth, 2540 (31.9%) were classified with PRP. Higher levels of early ACE exposure were associated with an increased probability of having PRP (adj. β 0.65 [95% confidence interval {CI} 0.07, 1.22). Early ACEs also had indirect effects on PRP via higher interim anxiety (adj. β 5.36 [95% CI 3.45, 7.26]) and depression symptoms (adj. β 4.57 [95% CI 3.01, 6.13]). Early and recent ACE exposures predicted higher pain frequency scores in subsequent years, with mixed results regarding the role of anxiety and depression in the relationships between ACEs and pain frequency scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Anxiety and depression symptoms are potentially important interventional targets to lower the risk for PRP among youth exposed to ACEs.

The future of neuroscience in developmental psychopathology

Developmental psychopathology started as an intersection of fields and is now a field itself. As we contemplate the future of this field, we consider the ways in which a newer, interdisciplinary field - human developmental neuroscience - can inform, and be informed by, developmental psychopathology. To do so, we outline principles of developmental psychopathology and how they are and/or can be implemented in developmental neuroscience. In turn, we highlight how the collaboration between these fields can lead to richer models and more impactful translation. In doing so, we describe the ways in which models from developmental psychopathology can enrich developmental neuroscience and future directions for developmental psychopathology.

Hierarchical individual variation and socioeconomic impact on personalized functional network topography in children

BACKGROUND

The spatial layout of large-scale functional brain networks exhibits considerable inter-individual variability, especially in the association cortex. Research has demonstrated a link between early socioeconomic status (SES) and variations in both brain structure and function, which are further associated with cognitive and mental health outcomes. However, the extent to which SES is associated with individual differences in personalized functional network topography during childhood remains largely unexplored.

METHODS

We used a machine learning approach-spatially regularized non-negative matrix factorization (NMF)-to delineate 17 personalized functional networks in children aged 9-10 years, utilizing high-quality functional MRI data from 6001 participants in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study. Partial least square regression approach with repeated random twofold cross-validation was used to evaluate the association between the multivariate pattern of functional network topography and three SES factors, including family income-to-needs ratio, parental education, and neighborhood disadvantage.

RESULTS

We found that individual variations in personalized functional network topography aligned with the hierarchical sensorimotor-association axis across the cortex. Furthermore, we observed that functional network topography significantly predicted the three SES factors from unseen individuals. The associations between functional topography and SES factors were also hierarchically organized along the sensorimotor-association cortical axis, exhibiting stronger positive associations in the higher-order association cortex. Additionally, we have made the personalized functional networks publicly accessible.

CONCLUSIONS

These results offer insights into how SES influences neurodevelopment through personalized functional neuroanatomy in childhood, highlighting the cortex-wide, hierarchically organized plasticity of the functional networks in response to diverse SES backgrounds.

Effects of parental socioeconomic status on offspring's fetal neurodevelopment

Emerging evidence underscores the prenatal period's critical role in shaping later cognition and health, influenced by an intricate interplay of parental genetic and environmental factors. Birth weight is commonly used as a retrospective indicator of fetal development, but recent focus has shifted to more specific proxies of neurodevelopment, like cortical sulcal patterns, which are established in utero and remain stable after birth. This study aimed to elucidate the interrelated effects of parental socioeconomic status, brain volume, birth weight, and sulcal patterns in the anterior cingulate cortex. Utilizing structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), parental educational attainment, and related polygenic risk scores, the study analyzed 203 healthy right-handed participants aged 9 to 18. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that the anterior cingulate cortex sulcal pattern is influenced by parental socioeconomic status and global brain volume, with socioeconomic status correlating with a polygenic risk score. These findings suggest that prenatal neurodevelopmental processes may mediate the intergenerational transmission of inequalities.

The ABCD and HBCD Studies: Longitudinal Studies to Inform Prevention Science

Increasing rates of overdose among U.S. adolescents and young adults, along with rising rates of emotional distress in these groups, are renewing the urgency for developmentally targeted and personalized substance use and other mental health prevention interventions. Most prevention programs recognize the unique vulnerability of childhood and adolescence and target parents and youths, addressing modifiable environmental risk and protective factors that affect behavior during periods when the brain is most susceptible to change. Until recently, a scarcity of comprehensive studies has limited a full understanding of the complexity of factors that may affect neurodevelopment, including substance exposure in pregnancy and/or subsequent substance use in adolescence, alongside their dynamic interactions with environmental factors and genetics. Two large longitudinal cohort studies funded by National Institutes of Health-the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study and the HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study-are collecting data on neurodevelopment and a wide range of environmental and biological factors across the first two decades of life to build databases that will allow researchers to study how individual neurodevelopmental trajectories are influenced by drugs, adverse childhood experiences, and genetics, among other factors. These studies are already deepening the understanding of risk and resilience factors that prevention programs could target and will identify critical windows where interventions can have the most impact on an individual's neurodevelopmental trajectory. This article describes what is being learned from ABCD and expected from HBCD and how these studies might inform prevention as these children grow and more data are gathered.

Comparing two measures of neighborhood quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the adolescent brain cognitive development study

PURPOSE

There is widespread recognition of the importance and complexity of measuring neighborhood contexts within research on child psychopathology. In this study, we assessed the cross-sectional associations between two measures of neighborhood quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in preadolescence.

METHODS

Drawing on baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (n = 10,577 preadolescents), we examined two multi-component assessments of neighborhood quality in relation to children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms: the Area Deprivation Index (ADI), which measures socioeconomic adversity, and the Child Opportunity Index 2.0 (COI), which measures economic, educational, and environmental opportunity. Both measures were categorized into quintiles. We then used mixed-effects linear regression models to examine bivariate and adjusted associations.

RESULTS

The bivariate associations displayed strong inverse associations between the COI and ADI and externalizing symptoms, with a graded pattern of fewer externalizing behaviors with increasing neighborhood quality. Only the ADI was associated with externalizing behaviors in models adjusted for child and family characteristics. We did not observe a clear association between either measure of neighborhood quality and internalizing behaviors in bivariate or adjusted models.

CONCLUSIONS

Neighborhood quality, as measured by the COI and ADI, was associated with externalizing behaviors in preadolescent children. The association using the ADI persisted after adjustment for family-level characteristics, including financial strain. Our results indicate that different assessments of neighborhood quality display distinct associations with preadolescent behavioral health. Future research is needed to assess the association between neighborhood quality and behavior trajectories and to identify place-based intervention strategies.

Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Youth Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown

Importance

Adolescence is a period in which mental health problems emerge. Research suggests that the COVID-19 lockdown may have worsened emotional and behavioral health.

Objective

To examine whether socioeconomic status was associated with mental health outcomes among youths during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Design, Setting, and Participants

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study is a multisite 10-year longitudinal study of youth neurocognitive development in the US. Recruitment was staggered where the baseline visit (ages 9 to 10 years) occurred from 2016 to 2018, and visits occurred yearly. The COVID-19 lockdown halted research collection during the 2-year follow-up visits (ages 11 to 12 years), but eventually resumed. As some youths already underwent their 2-year visits prior to lockdown, this allowed for a natural experiment-like design to compare prepandemic and intrapandemic groups. Thus, data were gathered from the 1-year follow-up (pre-COVID-19 lockdown for all youths) and the 2-year follow-up, of which a portion of youths had data collected after the lockdown began, to compare whether a period of near social isolation was associated with mental health symptoms in youths. The prepandemic group consisted of youths with a 2-year follow-up visit collected prior to March 11, 2020, and the intrapandemic group had their 2-year follow-up visit after lockdown restrictions were lifted.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Assessments included measures on income-to-needs ratio (INR; derived from total household income), the Child Behavior Checklist (a measure of mental health symptomology), and the Family Environmental Scale.

Results

The final sample included 10 399 youths; 3947 (52.3%) were male; 2084 (20.3%) were Latinx/Hispanic; 6765 (66.0%) were White; 4600 (44.2%) reported caregiver education levels below a 4-year college degree; and 2475 (26.2%) had INR either below 100% (indicating poverty) or between 100% and less than 200% (near poverty). Among youths in the intrapandemic group, worse mental health symptoms (eg, more total problems, greater depression, and greater anxiety) over time were associated with being from a household with higher socioeconomic status (eg, when comparing individuals who differed by 1 unit on INR between prepandemic and intrapandemic groups from 1-year to 2-year follow-up, their expected difference in total problems score was 0.79 [95% CI, 0.37-1.22]; false discovery rate-corrected P < .001).

Conclusions and Relevance

This cohort study found that the COVID-19 lockdown was associated with disproportionately negative mental health outcomes among youths from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds. Although this study does not shed light on the direct mechanisms driving these associations, it does provide some support for positive outcomes for youths. Future studies are needed to understand whether these associations persist over longer periods of time.

Brain volumes, behavioral inhibition, and anxiety disorders in children: results from the adolescent brain cognitive development study

BACKGROUND

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have identified brain changes associated with anxiety disorders (ADs), but the results remain mixed, particularly at a younger age. One key predictor of ADs is behavioral inhibition (BI), a childhood tendency for high avoidance of novel stimuli. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between candidate brain regions, BI, and ADs among children using baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study.

METHODS

We analyzed global and regional brain volumes of 9,353 children (9-10 years old) in relation to BI and current ADs, using linear mixed models accounting for family clustering and important demographic and socioeconomic covariates. We further investigated whether and how past anxiety was related to brain volumes.

RESULTS

Among included participants, 249 (2.66%) had a current AD. Larger total white matter (Beta = -0.152; 95% CI [-0.281, -0.023]), thalamus (Beta = -0.168; 95% CI [-0.291, -0.044]), and smaller hippocampus volumes (Beta = 0.094; 95% CI [-0.008, 0.196]) were associated with lower BI scores. Amygdala volume was not related to BI. Larger total cortical (OR = 0.751; 95% CI [0.580;0.970]), amygdala (OR = 0.798; 95%CI [0.666;0.956]), and precentral gyrus (OR = 0.802; 95% CI [0.661;0.973]) volumes were associated with lower odds of currently having ADs. Children with past ADs had smaller total white matter and amygdala volumes.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show associations between brain volumes and both BI and ADs at an early age. Importantly, results suggest that ADs and BI have different neurobiological correlates and that earlier occurrences of ADs may influence brain structures related to BI and ADs, motivating research that can better delineate the similarities and divergence in the neurobiological underpinnings and building blocks of BI and ADs across their development in early life.

Longitudinal associations of screen time, physical activity, and sleep duration with body mass index in U.S. youth

BACKGROUND

Youth use different forms of screen time (e.g., streaming, gaming) that may be related to body mass index (BMI). Screen time is non-independent from other behaviors, including physical activity and sleep duration. Statistical approaches such as isotemporal substitution or compositional data analysis (CoDA) can model associations between these non-independent behaviors and health outcomes. Few studies have examined different types of screen time, physical activity, and sleep duration simultaneously in relation to BMI.

METHODS

Data were baseline (2017-2018) and one-year follow-up (2018-2019) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, a multi-site study of a nationally representative sample of U.S. youth (N = 10,544, mean [SE] baseline age = 9.9 [0.03] years, 48.9% female, 45.4% non-White). Participants reported daily minutes of screen time (streaming, gaming, socializing), physical activity, and sleep. Sex-stratified models estimated the association between baseline behaviors and follow-up BMI z-score, controlling for demographic characteristics, internalizing symptoms, and BMI z-score at baseline.

RESULTS

In females, isotemporal substitution models estimated that replacing 30 min of socializing (β [95% CI] = -0.03 [-0.05, -0.002]), streaming (-0.03 [-0.05, -0.01]), or gaming (-0.03 [-0.06, -0.01]) with 30 min of physical activity was associated with a lower follow-up BMI z-score. In males, replacing 30 min of socializing (-0.03 [-0.05, -0.01]), streaming (-0.02 [-0.03, -0.01]), or gaming (-0.02 [-0.03, -0.01]) with 30 min of sleep was associated with a lower follow-up BMI z-score. In males, replacing 30 min of socializing with 30 min of gaming was associated with a lower follow-up BMI z-score (-0.01 [-0.03, -0.0001]). CoDA estimated that in males, a greater proportion of time spent in baseline socializing, relative to the remaining behaviors, was associated with a higher follow-up BMI z-score (0.05 [0.02, 0.08]). In females, no associations between screen time and BMI were observed using CoDA.

CONCLUSIONS

One-year longitudinal associations between screen time and BMI may depend on form of screen time, what behavior it replaces (physical activity or sleep), and participant sex. The alternative statistical approaches yielded somewhat different results. Experimental manipulation of screen time and investigation of biopsychosocial mechanisms underlying the observed sex differences will allow for causal inference and can inform interventions.

Recommendations for the responsible use and communication of race and ethnicity in neuroimaging research

The growing availability of large-population human biomedical datasets provides researchers with unique opportunities to conduct rigorous and impactful studies on brain and behavioral development, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of neurodevelopment in diverse populations. However, the patterns observed in these datasets are more likely to be influenced by upstream structural inequities (that is, structural racism), which can lead to health disparities based on race, ethnicity and social class. This paper addresses the need for guidance and self-reflection in biomedical research on conceptualizing, contextualizing and communicating issues related to race and ethnicity. We provide recommendations as a starting point for researchers to rethink race and ethnicity choices in study design, model specification, statistical analysis and communication of results, implement practices to avoid the further stigmatization of historically minoritized groups, and engage in research practices that counteract existing harmful biases.

Associations between community-level patterns of prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure on brain structure in a non-clinical sample of 6-year-old children: a South African pilot study

The current small study utilised prospective data collection of patterns of prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure (PAE and PTE) to examine associations with structural brain outcomes in 6-year-olds and served as a pilot to determine the value of prospective data describing community-level patterns of PAE and PTE in a non-clinical sample of children. Participants from the Safe Passage Study in pregnancy were approached when their child was ∼6 years old and completed structural brain magnetic resonance imaging to examine with archived PAE and PTE data (n = 51 children-mother dyads). Linear regression was used to conduct whole-brain structural analyses, with false-discovery rate (FDR) correction, to examine: (a) main effects of PAE, PTE and their interaction; and (b) predictive potential of data that reflect patterns of PAE and PTE (e.g. quantity, frequency and timing (QFT)). Associations between PAE, PTE and their interaction with brain structural measures demonstrated unique profiles of cortical and subcortical alterations that were distinct between PAE only, PTE only and their interactive effects. Analyses examining associations between patterns of PAE and PTE (e.g. QFT) were able to significantly detect brain alterations (that survived FDR correction) in this small non-clinical sample of children. These findings support the hypothesis that considering QFT and co-exposures is important for identifying brain alterations following PAE and/or PTE in a small group of young children. Current results demonstrate that teratogenic outcomes on brain structure differ as a function PAE, PTE or their co-exposures, as well as the pattern (QFT) or exposure.

Interplay of socioeconomic status, cognition, and school performance in the ABCD sample

Coming from a disadvantaged background can have negative impact on an individual's educational trajectory. Some people however seem unaffected and cope well with the demands and challenges posed by school education, despite growing up in adverse conditions, a phenomenon termed academic resilience. While it is uncertain which underlying factors make some people more likely to circumvent unfavorable odds than others, both socioeconomic status (SES) and cognitive ability have robustly been linked to school performance. The objective of the present work is to investigate if individual cognitive abilities and SES interact in their effect on grades. For this purpose, we analyzed SES, cognitive, and school performance data from 5001 participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Ordinal logistic regression models suggest similar patterns of associations between three SES measures (parental education, income-to-needs ratio, and neighborhood deprivation) and grades at two timepoints, with no evidence for interaction effects between SES and time. Parental education and income-to-needs ratio were associated with grades at both timepoints, irrespective of whether cognitive abilities were modeled or not. Neighborhood deprivation, in contrast, was only a statistically significant predictor of reported grades when cognitive abilities were not factored in. Cognitive abilities interacted with parental education level, meaning that they could be a safeguard against effects of SES on school performance.

Personalized functional brain network topography is associated with individual differences in youth cognition

Individual differences in cognition during childhood are associated with important social, physical, and mental health outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. Given that cortical surface arealization during development reflects the brain's functional prioritization, quantifying variation in the topography of functional brain networks across the developing cortex may provide insight regarding individual differences in cognition. We test this idea by defining personalized functional networks (PFNs) that account for interindividual heterogeneity in functional brain network topography in 9-10 year olds from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ Study. Across matched discovery (n = 3525) and replication (n = 3447) samples, the total cortical representation of fronto-parietal PFNs positively correlates with general cognition. Cross-validated ridge regressions trained on PFN topography predict cognition in unseen data across domains, with prediction accuracy increasing along the cortex's sensorimotor-association organizational axis. These results establish that functional network topography heterogeneity is associated with individual differences in cognition before the critical transition into adolescence.

Youth Team Sports Participation Associates With Reduced Dimensional Psychopathology Through Interaction With Biological Risk Factors

Background

Physical activity is associated with mental health benefits in youth. Here, we used causal inference and triangulation with 2 levels of biology to substantiate relationships between sports participation and dimensional psychopathology in youths.

Methods

Baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, which recruited children from 9 to 10 years of age across the United States, were included in multilevel regression models to assess relationships between lifetime participation in team sports (TS), individual sports, and nonsports activities and Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scores. We calculated polygenic risk scores for 8 psychiatric disorders to assess interactions with sports exposure on CBCL scores among European descendants. Following rigorous quality control, FreeSurfer-extracted brain magnetic resonance imaging structural data were examined for mediation of CBCL-activities relationships.

Results

Among those with complete data (N = 10,411), causal estimates using inverse probability weighting associated lifetime TS exposure with a 1.05-point reduction in CBCL total (95% CI, -1.54 to -0.56, p < .0001) a relationship that was specific to TS and strengthened with more years of exposure. Associations of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder polygenic loading with CBCL total weakened in European children with TS exposure (n = 4041; beta = -0.93, SE = 0.38, p = .013). Furthermore, TS participation and lower CBCL each associated with increased subcortical volumes (n = 8197). Subcortical volume mediated 5.5% of TS effects on CBCL total.

Conclusions

Our findings support prior associations of TS participation with lower psychopathology in youths through additional studies that demonstrate specificity, dose response, and coherence across 2 levels of biology. Longitudinal studies that further clarify causal relationships may justify interventional studies of TS for high-risk youth.

Contextualizing the impact of prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure on neurodevelopment in a South African birth cohort: an analysis from the socioecological perspective

Background

Alcohol and tobacco are known teratogens. Historically, more severe prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) have been examined as the principal predictor of neurodevelopmental alterations, with little incorporation of lower doses or ecological contextual factors that can also impact neurodevelopment, such as socioeconomic resources (SER) or adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Here, a novel analytical approach informed by a socio-ecological perspective was used to examine the associations between SER, PAE and/or PTE, and ACEs, and their effects on neurodevelopment.

Methods

N = 313 mother-child dyads were recruited from a prospective birth cohort with maternal report of PAE and PTE, and cross-sectional structural brain neuroimaging of child acquired via 3T scanner at ages 8-11 years. In utero SER was measured by maternal education, household income, and home utility availability. The child's ACEs were measured by self-report assisted by the researcher. PAE was grouped into early exposure (<12 weeks), continued exposure (>=12 weeks), and no exposure controls. PTE was grouped into exposed and non-exposed controls.

Results

Greater access to SER during pregnancy was associated with fewer ACEs (maternal education: β = -0.293,p = 0.01; phone access: β = -0.968,p = 0.05). PTE partially mediated the association between SER and ACEs, where greater SER reduced the likelihood of PTE, which was positively associated with ACEs (β = 1.110,p = 0.01). SER was associated with alterations in superior frontal (β = -1336.036, q = 0.046), lateral orbitofrontal (β = -513.865, q = 0.046), caudal anterior cingulate volumes (β = -222.982, q = 0.046), with access to phone negatively associated with all three brain volumes. Access to water was positively associated with superior frontal volume (β=1569.527, q = 0.013). PTE was associated with smaller volumes of lateral orbitofrontal (β = -331.000, q = 0.033) and nucleus accumbens regions (β = -34.800, q = 0.033).

Conclusion

Research on neurodevelopment following community-levels of PAE and PTE should more regularly consider the ecological context to accelerate understanding of teratogenic outcomes. Further research is needed to replicate this novel conceptual approach with varying PAE and PTE patterns, to disentangle the interplay between dose, community-level and individual-level risk factors on neurodevelopment.

A data-driven approach to categorizing early life adversity exposure in the ABCD Study

BACKGROUND

Adversity occurring during development is associated with detrimental health and quality of life outcomes, not just following exposure but throughout the lifespan. Despite increased research, there exists both overlapping and distinct definitions of early life adversity exposure captured by over 30 different empirically validated tools. A data-driven approach to defining and cataloging exposure is needed to better understand associated outcomes and advance the field.

METHODS

We utilized baseline data on 11,566 youth enrolled in the ABCD Study to catalog youth and caregiver-reported early life adversity exposure captured across 14 different measures. We employed an exploratory factor analysis to identify the factor domains of early life adversity exposure and conducted a series of regression analyses to examine its association with problematic behavioral outcomes.

RESULTS

The exploratory factor analysis yielded a 6-factor solution corresponding to the following distinct domains: 1) physical and sexual violence; 2) parental psychopathology; 3) neighborhood threat; 4) prenatal substance exposure; 5) scarcity; and 6) household dysfunction. The prevalence of exposure among 9-and 10-year-old youth was largely driven by the incidence of parental psychopathology. Sociodemographic characteristics significantly differed between youth with adversity exposure and controls, depicting a higher incidence of exposure among racial and ethnic minoritized youth, and among those identifying with low socioeconomic status. Adversity exposure was significantly associated with greater problematic behaviors and largely driven by the incidence of parental psychopathology, household dysfunction and neighborhood threat. Certain types of early life adversity exposure were more significantly associated with internalizing as opposed to externalizing problematic behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

We recommend a data-driven approach to define and catalog early life adversity exposure and suggest the incorporation of more versus less data to capture the nuances of exposure, e.g., type, age of onset, frequency, duration. The broad categorizations of early life adversity exposure into two domains, such as abuse and neglect, or threat and deprivation, fail to account for the routine co-occurrence of exposures and the duality of some forms of adversity. The development and use of a data-driven definition of early life adversity exposure is a crucial step to lessening barriers to evidence-based treatments and interventions for youth.

Associations of Changes in Sleep and Emotional and Behavioral Problems From Late Childhood to Early Adolescence

Importance

Sleep problems and psychopathology symptoms are highly comorbid and bidirectionally correlated across childhood and adolescence. Whether these associations are specific to discrete profiles of sleep problems and specific internalizing and externalizing phenomena is currently unclear.

Objective

To characterize individual changes in profiles of sleep problems and their prospective associations with psychopathology symptoms across the transition from childhood to adolescence.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This observational cohort study used baseline data (participant age of 9 to 11 years) and 2-year follow-up data (participant age of 11 to 13 years) from the community-setting, multicenter Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Individuals were assessed for a range of sleep problems at both waves and categorized into profiles via latent profile analysis. The stability and change in these profiles over time was assessed via latent transition analysis. Logistic regression models examined whether psychopathology symptoms were cross-sectionally associated with profile membership and whether transitions between profiles were associated with changes psychopathology symptoms over time. Data were collected from September 2016 to January 2020, and data were analyzed from August 2021 to July 2022.

Exposures

Sleep problems were assessed at both baseline and follow-up via the parent-reported Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Psychopathology symptoms at both baseline and follow-up were assessed using the internalizing and externalizing dimension scores derived from the parent-reported Child Behavior Checklist.

Results

A total of 10 313 individuals (4913 [47.6%] were female) were categorized into 4 latent profiles of sleep problems at both baseline and follow-up: a low disturbance profile, a sleep onset/maintenance problems profile, a moderate and nonspecific disturbance profile (termed mixed disturbance), and a high disturbance profile. Individuals in the 3 more severe problem profiles displayed greater risk of concurrent internalizing symptoms (sleep onset/maintenance problems: odds ratio [OR], 1.30; 95% CI, 1.25-1.35; P < .001; mixed disturbance: OR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.25-1.33; P < .001; high disturbance: OR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.40-1.49; P < .001) and externalizing symptoms (sleep onset/maintenance problems: OR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.16-1.23; P < .001; mixed disturbance: OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.14-1.20; P < .001; high disturbance: OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.21-1.28; P < .001). Transitions between sleep profiles over time were associated with prospective internalizing and externalizing symptoms, but not vice versa.

Conclusions and Relevance

There are substantial changes in sleep problems across the transition to adolescence that are associated with later internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Sleep profiles could be targeted in future intervention and treatment programs to improve sleep-related and mental health-related outcomes across development.

State-level macro-economic factors moderate the association of low income with brain structure and mental health in U.S. children

Macrostructural characteristics, such as cost of living and state-level anti-poverty programs relate to the magnitude of socioeconomic disparities in brain development and mental health. In this study we leveraged data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) study from 10,633 9-11 year old youth (5115 female) across 17 states. Lower income was associated with smaller hippocampal volume and higher internalizing psychopathology. These associations were stronger in states with higher cost of living. However, in high cost of living states that provide more generous cash benefits for low-income families, socioeconomic disparities in hippocampal volume were reduced by 34%, such that the association of family income with hippocampal volume resembled that in the lowest cost of living states. We observed similar patterns for internalizing psychopathology. State-level anti-poverty programs and cost of living may be confounded with other factors related to neurodevelopment and mental health. However, the patterns were robust to controls for numerous state-level social, economic, and political characteristics. These findings suggest that state-level macrostructural characteristics, including the generosity of anti-poverty policies, are potentially relevant for addressing the relationship of low income with brain development and mental health.

Caregiver monitoring, but not caregiver warmth, is associated with general cognition in two large sub-samples of youth

Individual differences in cognitive abilities emerge early during development, and children with poorer cognition are at increased risk for adverse outcomes as they enter adolescence. Caregiving plays an important role in supporting cognitive development, yet it remains unclear how specific types of caregiving behaviors may shape cognition, highlighting the need for large-scale studies. In the present study, we characterized replicable yet specific associations between caregiving behaviors and cognition in two large sub-samples of children ages 9-10 years old from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® (ABCD). Across both discovery and replication sub-samples, we found that child reports of caregiver monitoring (supervision or regular knowledge of the child's whereabouts) were positively associated with general cognition abilities, after covarying for age, sex, household income, neighborhood deprivation, and parental education. This association was specific to the type of caregiving behavior (caregiver monitoring, but not caregiver warmth), and was most strongly associated with a broad domain of general cognition (but not executive function or learning/memory). Additionally, we found that caregiver monitoring partially mediated the association between household income and cognition, furthering our understanding of how socioeconomic disparities may contribute to disadvantages in cognitive development. Together, these findings underscore the influence of differences in caregiving behavior in shaping youth cognition. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Caregiver monitoring, but not caregiver warmth, is associated with cognitive performance in youth Caregiver monitoring partially mediates the association between household income and cognition Results replicated across two large matched samples from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® (ABCD).

Clouding Up Cognition? Secondhand Cannabis and Tobacco Exposure Related to Cognitive Functioning in Youth

Background

Increasing legalization of cannabis, in addition to longstanding rates of tobacco use, raises concerns for possible cognitive decrements from secondhand smoke or environmental exposure, although little research exists. We investigate the relation between cognition and secondhand and environmental cannabis and tobacco exposure in youth.

Methods

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study year 2 follow-up (N = 5580; 48% female) cognitive performance and secondhand or environmental cannabis or tobacco exposure data were used. Principal components analysis identified a global cognition factor. Linear mixed-effects models assessed global cognition and individual cognitive task performance by cannabis and/or tobacco environmental exposure. Sociodemographics and other potential confounds were examined. p values were adjusted using the false discovery rate method.

Results

Global cognition was not related to any exposure group after testing corrections and considering confounds. Beyond covariates and family- and site-level factors, secondhand tobacco was related to poorer visual memory (p = .02), and environmental tobacco was associated with poorer visuospatial (p = .02) and language (p = .008) skills. Secondhand cannabis was related to cognition, but not after controlling for potential confounders (p > .05). Environmental cannabis was related to better oral reading (p = .01). Including covariates attenuated effect sizes.

Conclusions

Secondhand tobacco exposure was associated with poorer visual memory, while environmental tobacco exposure was related to poorer language and visuospatial skills. Secondhand cannabis was not related to cognition after controlling for sociodemographic factors, but environmental cannabis exposure was related to better reading. Because, to our knowledge, this is the first known study of its kind and thus preliminary, secondhand cannabis should continue to be investigated to confirm results.

Maternal perinatal depression and child neurocognitive development: A relationship still to be clarified

Pregnancy frequently is associated with emotional conditions such as anxiety and depression. Perinatal depression has an incidence of around 12%. Only recently researcher put the attention on the effects of pre- and postpartum psychopathology on infant neurocognitive development. Neurobiology studies indicate that perinatal maternal depression can significantly affect the structure and function of children's prefrontal cortex and modulate the development of cognitive abilities from intrauterine life. On the topic, the scientific literature appears ambiguous, reporting mixed results. Some studies have found no significant differences in developmental outcomes between prenatal and postpartum exposure to maternal depression, others have suggested a greater burden of depression in pregnancy than in postpartum, and still others have emphasized the role of chronicity of symptoms rather than the period of onset. Few studies have examined the effects of different developmental trajectories of maternal depression on children's neurocognitive outcomes. The assessment of maternal health has for years been limited to postpartum depression often neglecting the timing of onset, the intensity of symptoms and their chronicity. These aspects have received less attention than they deserve, especially in relation to the effects on children's neurocognitive development. The aim of this Perspective was to highlight inconsistencies and gaps that need to be filled in the approach to the study of this problem. Given the wide heterogeneity of data in the current literature, further studies are needed to clarify these interactions. This Perspective provides an overview of current progress, future directions, and a presentation of the authors' views on the topic.

Cross-national harmonization of neurocognitive assessment across five sites in a global study

OBJECTIVE

Cross-national work on neurocognitive testing has been characterized by inconsistent findings, suggesting the need for improved harmonization. Here, we describe a prospective harmonization approach in an ongoing global collaborative study.

METHOD

Visuospatial N-Back, Tower of London (ToL), Stop Signal task (SST), Risk Aversion (RA), and Intertemporal Choice (ITC) tasks were administered to 221 individuals from Brazil, India, the Netherlands, South Africa, and the USA. Prospective harmonization methods were employed to ensure procedural similarity of task implementation and processing of derived task measures across sites. Generalized linear models tested for between-site differences controlling for sex, age, education, and socioeconomic status (SES). Associations with these covariates were also examined and tested for differences by site with site-by-covariate interactions.

RESULTS

The Netherlands site performed more accurately on N-Back and ToL than the other sites, except for the USA site on the N-Back. The Netherlands and the USA sites performed faster than the other three sites during the go events in the SST. Finally, the Netherlands site also exhibited a higher tolerance for delay discounting than other sites on the ITC, and the India site showed more risk aversion than other sites on the RA task. However, effect size differences across sites on the five tasks were generally small (i.e., partial eta-squared < 0.05) after dropping the Netherlands (on ToL, N-Back, ITC, and SST tasks) and India (on the RA task). Across tasks, regardless of site, the N-Back (sex, age, education, and SES), ToL (sex, age, and SES), SST (age), and ITC (SES) showed associations with covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

Four out of the five sites showed only small between-site differences for each task. Nevertheless, despite our extensive prospective harmonization steps, task score performance deviated from the other sites in the Netherlands site (on four tasks) and the India site (on one task). Because the procedural methods were standardized across sites, and our analyses were adjusted for covariates, the differences found in cognitive performance may indicate selection sampling bias due to unmeasured confounders. Future studies should follow similar cross-site prospective harmonization procedures when assessing neurocognition and consider measuring other possible confounding variables for additional statistical control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Mediating effect of pubertal stages on the family environment and neurodevelopment: An open-data replication and multiverse analysis of an ABCD Study®

Increasing evidence demonstrates that environmental factors meaningfully impact the development of the brain (Hyde et al., 2020; McEwen and Akil, 2020). Recent work from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study® suggests that puberty may indirectly account for some association between the family environment and brain structure and function (Thijssen et al., 2020). However, a limited number of large studies have evaluated what, how, and why environmental factors impact neurodevelopment. When these topics are investigated, there is typically inconsistent operationalization of variables between studies which may be measuring different aspects of the environment and thus different associations in the analytic models. Multiverse analyses (Steegen et al., 2016) are an efficacious technique for investigating the effect of different operationalizations of the same construct on underlying interpretations. While one of the assets of Thijssen et al. (2020) was its large sample from the ABCD data, the authors used an early release that contained 38% of the full ABCD sample. Then, the analyses used several 'researcher degrees of freedom' (Gelman and Loken, 2014) to operationalize key independent, mediating and dependent variables, including but not limited to, the use of a latent factor of preadolescents' environment comprised of different subfactors, such as parental monitoring and child-reported family conflict. While latent factors can improve reliability of constructs, the nuances of each subfactor and measure that comprise the environment may be lost, making the latent factors difficult to interpret in the context of individual differences. This study extends the work of Thijssen et al. (2020) by evaluating the extent to which the analytic choices in their study affected their conclusions. In Aim 1, using the same variables and models, we replicate findings from the original study using the full sample in Release 3.0. Then, in Aim 2, using a multiverse analysis we extend findings by considering nine alternative operationalizations of family environment, three of puberty, and five of brain measures (total of 135 models) to evaluate the impact on conclusions from Aim 1. In these results, 90% of the directions of effects and 60% of the p-values (e.g. p > .05 and p < .05) across effects were comparable between the two studies. However, raters agreed that only 60% of the effects had replicated. Across the multiverse analyses, there was a degree of variability in beta estimates across the environmental variables, and lack of consensus between parent reported and child reported pubertal development for the indirect effects. This study demonstrates the challenge in defining which effects replicate, the nuance across environmental variables in the ABCD data, and the lack of consensus across parent and child reported puberty scales in youth.

Poverty, Cortical Structure, and Psychopathologic Characteristics in Adolescence

IMPORTANCE

Childhood poverty has been associated with increased internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence, a period of peak onset for psychiatric problems. The underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear because longitudinal studies of poverty, brain structure, and changes in psychiatric symptoms are lacking.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether structural differences in cortical regions mediate the association between household poverty and change in psychiatric symptoms in early adolescence.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This longitudinal cohort study used baseline and 1-year follow-up data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. Children aged 9 to 10 years in the US were enrolled between September 1, 2016, and October 15, 2018. Data analysis was performed from August 13, 2021, to September 30, 2022.

EXPOSURES

Household poverty as measured by income-to-needs ratio, which incorporates family income and adjusts for family size as a percentage of the federal poverty level.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Mediators were children's cortical surface area, thickness, and volume, obtained using magnetic resonance imaging. Internalizing and externalizing problems at 1-year follow-up were outcomes measured by maternal report using the Child Behavior Checklist. Analyses were adjusted for baseline psychiatric problems and sociodemographic variables, including sex, race and ethnicity, parental educational level, and study site.

RESULTS

Of the 7569 children (mean [SD] age, 9.91 [0.62] years; 3970 boys [52.5%]) included in the analysis, 1042 children (13.8%) lived below the poverty threshold between 2016 and 2018. Poverty was associated with increased externalizing symptoms score at 1-year follow-up (b = 1.57; 95% CI, 1.14-1.99), even after adjustment for baseline externalizing symptoms (b = 0.35; 95% CI, 0.06-0.64). The longitudinal associations of poverty with increases in externalizing problems over time were mediated by reductions in surface area in multiple cortical regions that support executive functioning (middle frontal gyrus), decision-making (lateral orbitofrontal cortex), visual processing (fusiform gyrus), auditory processing (transverse temporal gyrus), and emotion and language processing (superior temporal gyrus).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The findings of this study suggest that childhood poverty is associated with increases in externalizing problems, but not internalizing problems, over time in early adolescence. This association is mediated by reductions in cortical surface area across numerous brain regions. These findings highlight potential neurobiological mechanisms underlying the link between poverty and the emergence of externalizing problems during early adolescence.

The impact of prenatal alcohol and/or tobacco exposure on brain structure in a large sample of children from a South African birth cohort

BACKGROUND

Neuroimaging studies have emphasized the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) on brain development, traditionally in heavily exposed participants. However, less is known about how naturally occurring community patterns of PAE (including light to moderate exposure) affect brain development, particularly in consideration of commonly occurring concurrent impacts of prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE).

METHODS

Three hundred thirty-two children (ages 8 to 12) living in South Africa's Cape Flats townships underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging. During pregnancy, their mothers reported alcohol and tobacco use, which was used to evaluate PAE and PTE effects on their children's brain structure. Analyses involved the main effects of PAE and PTE (and their interaction) and the effects of PAE and PTE quantity on cortical thickness, surface area, and volume.

RESULTS

After false-discovery rate (FDR) correction, PAE was associated with thinner left parahippocampal cortices, while PTE was associated with smaller cortical surface area in the bilateral pericalcarine, left lateral orbitofrontal, right posterior cingulate, right rostral anterior cingulate, left caudal middle frontal, and right caudal anterior cingulate gyri. There were no PAE × PTE interactions nor any associations of PAE and PTE exposure on volumetrics that survived FDR correction.

CONCLUSION

PAE was associated with reduction in the structure of the medial temporal lobe, a brain region critical for learning and memory. PTE had stronger and broader associations, including with regions associated with executive function, reward processing, and emotional regulation, potentially reflecting continued postnatal exposure to tobacco (i.e., second-hand smoke exposure). These differential effects are discussed with respect to reduced PAE quantity in our exposed group versus prior studies within this geographical location, the deep poverty in which participants live, and the consequences of apartheid and racially and economically driven payment practices that contributed to heavy drinking in the region. Longer-term follow-up is needed to determine potential environmental and other moderators of the brain findings here and assess the extent to which they endure over time.

A single-nucleus and spatial transcriptomic atlas of the COVID-19 liver reveals topological, functional, and regenerative organ disruption in patients

The molecular underpinnings of organ dysfunction in acute COVID-19 and its potential long-term sequelae are under intense investigation. To shed light on these in the context of liver function, we performed single-nucleus RNA-seq and spatial transcriptomic profiling of livers from 17 COVID-19 decedents. We identified hepatocytes positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA with an expression phenotype resembling infected lung epithelial cells. Integrated analysis and comparisons with healthy controls revealed extensive changes in the cellular composition and expression states in COVID-19 liver, reflecting hepatocellular injury, ductular reaction, pathologic vascular expansion, and fibrogenesis. We also observed Kupffer cell proliferation and erythrocyte progenitors for the first time in a human liver single-cell atlas, resembling similar responses in liver injury in mice and in sepsis, respectively. Despite the absence of a clinical acute liver injury phenotype, endothelial cell composition was dramatically impacted in COVID-19, concomitantly with extensive alterations and profibrogenic activation of reactive cholangiocytes and mesenchymal cells. Our atlas provides novel insights into liver physiology and pathology in COVID-19 and forms a foundational resource for its investigation and understanding.

Prenatal exposure to maternal social disadvantage and psychosocial stress and neonatal white matter connectivity at birth

Early life adversity (social disadvantage and psychosocial stressors) is associated with altered microstructure in fronto-limbic pathways important for socioemotional development. Understanding when these associations begin to emerge may inform the timing and design of preventative interventions. In this longitudinal study, 399 mothers were oversampled for low income and completed social background measures during pregnancy. Measures were analyzed with structural equation analysis resulting in two latent factors: social disadvantage (education, insurance status, income-to-needs ratio [INR], neighborhood deprivation, and nutrition) and psychosocial stress (depression, stress, life events, and racial discrimination). At birth, 289 healthy term-born neonates underwent a diffusion MRI (dMRI) scan. Mean diffusivity (MD) and fractional anisotropy (FA) were measured for the dorsal and inferior cingulum bundle (CB), uncinate, and fornix using probabilistic tractography in FSL. Social disadvantage and psychosocial stress were fitted to dMRI parameters using regression models adjusted for infant postmenstrual age at scan and sex. Social disadvantage, but not psychosocial stress, was independently associated with lower MD in the bilateral inferior CB and left uncinate, right fornix, and lower MD and higher FA in the right dorsal CB. Results persisted after accounting for maternal medical morbidities and prenatal drug exposure. In moderation analysis, psychosocial stress was associated with lower MD in the left inferior CB among the lower-to-higher socioeconomic status (SES) (INR ≥ 200%) group, but not the extremely low SES (INR < 200%) group. Increasing access to social welfare programs that reduce the burden of social disadvantage and related psychosocial stressors may be an important target to protect fetal brain development in fronto-limbic pathways.

Adolescent Mental Health and Family Economic Hardships: The Roles of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Family Conflict

Rising and economically disproportionate rates of adverse mental health outcomes among children and youth warrant research investigating the complex pathways stemming from socioeconomic status. While adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been considered a possible mechanism linking socioeconomic status (SES) and child and youth psychopathology in previous studies, less is understood about how family environments might condition these pathways. Using data from a longitudinal, multiple-wave study, the present study addresses this gap by examining the direct relationships between family economic status and youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms, if ACEs mediate these relationships, and if conflictual family environments moderate these direct and indirect relationships. The data were obtained from 5510 youth participants [mean age at baseline = 9.52 (SD = 0.50), 47.7% female, 2.1% Asian, 10.3% Black, 17.6% Hispanic, 9.8% Multiracial/Multiethnic, 60.2% White] and their caretakers from the baseline, 1-year, and 2-year follow up waves. Conditional process analysis assessed the direct, indirect, and moderated relationships in separate, equivalent models based on youth- versus caregiver-raters of ACEs and youth psychopathology to capture potential differences based on the rater. The results of both the youth- and caregiver-rated models indicated that lower family economic status directly predicted higher levels of externalizing symptoms, and ACEs indirectly accounted for higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Additionally, family conflict moderated some, but not all, of these relationships. The study's findings highlight that lower family economic status and ACEs, directly and indirectly, contribute to early adolescent psychopathology, and conflictual family environments can further intensify these relationships. Implementing empirically supported policies and interventions that target ACEs and family environments may disrupt deleterious pathways between SES and youth psychopathology.

Association of Prenatal Exposure to Early-Life Adversity With Neonatal Brain Volumes at Birth

Importance

Exposure to early-life adversity alters the structural development of key brain regions underlying neurodevelopmental impairments. The association between prenatal exposure to adversity and brain structure at birth remains poorly understood.

Objective

To examine whether prenatal exposure to maternal social disadvantage and psychosocial stress is associated with neonatal global and regional brain volumes and cortical folding.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This prospective, longitudinal cohort study included 399 mother-infant dyads of sociodemographically diverse mothers recruited in the first or early second trimester of pregnancy and their infants, who underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging in the first weeks of life. Mothers were recruited from local obstetric clinics in St Louis, Missouri from September 1, 2017, to February 28, 2020.

Exposures

Maternal social disadvantage and psychosocial stress in pregnancy.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Confirmatory factor analyses were used to create latent constructs of maternal social disadvantage (income-to-needs ratio, Area Deprivation Index, Healthy Eating Index, educational level, and insurance status) and psychosocial stress (Perceived Stress Scale, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, Everyday Discrimination Scale, and Stress and Adversity Inventory). Neonatal cortical and subcortical gray matter, white matter, cerebellum, hippocampus, and amygdala volumes were generated using semiautomated, age-specific, segmentation pipelines.

Results

A total of 280 mothers (mean [SD] age, 29.1 [5.3] years; 170 [60.7%] Black or African American, 100 [35.7%] White, and 10 [3.6%] other race or ethnicity) and their healthy, term-born infants (149 [53.2%] male; mean [SD] infant gestational age, 38.6 [1.0] weeks) were included in the analysis. After covariate adjustment and multiple comparisons correction, greater social disadvantage was associated with reduced cortical gray matter (unstandardized β = -2.0; 95% CI, -3.5 to -0.5; P = .01), subcortical gray matter (unstandardized β = -0.4; 95% CI, -0.7 to -0.2; P = .003), and white matter (unstandardized β = -5.5; 95% CI, -7.8 to -3.3; P < .001) volumes and cortical folding (unstandardized β = -0.03; 95% CI, -0.04 to -0.01; P < .001). Psychosocial stress showed no association with brain metrics. Although social disadvantage accounted for an additional 2.3% of the variance of the left hippocampus (unstandardized β = -0.03; 95% CI, -0.05 to -0.01), 2.3% of the right hippocampus (unstandardized β = -0.03; 95% CI, -0.05 to -0.01), 3.1% of the left amygdala (unstandardized β = -0.02; 95% CI, -0.03 to -0.01), and 2.9% of the right amygdala (unstandardized β = -0.02; 95% CI, -0.03 to -0.01), no regional effects were found after accounting for total brain volume.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this baseline assessment of an ongoing cohort study, prenatal social disadvantage was associated with global reductions in brain volumes and cortical folding at birth. No regional specificity for the hippocampus or amygdala was detected. Results highlight that associations between poverty and brain development begin in utero and are evident early in life. These findings emphasize that preventive interventions that support fetal brain development should address parental socioeconomic hardships.

Age-related changes and longitudinal stability of individual differences in ABCD Neurocognition measures

Temporal stability of individual differences is an important prerequisite for accurate tracking of prospective relationships between neurocognition and real-world behavioral outcomes such as substance abuse and psychopathology. Here we report age-related changes and longitudinal test-retest stability (TRS) for the Neurocognition battery of the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, which included the NIH Toolbox (TB) Cognitive Domain and additional memory and visuospatial processing tests administered at baseline (ages 9-11) and two-year follow-up. As expected, performance improved significantly with age, but the effect size varied broadly, with Pattern Comparison and the Crystallized Cognition Composite showing the largest age-related gain (Cohen's d:.99 and.97, respectively). TRS ranged from fair (Flanker test: r = 0.44) to excellent (Crystallized Cognition Composite: r = 0.82). A comparison of longitudinal changes and cross-sectional age-related differences within baseline and follow-up assessments suggested that, for some measures, longitudinal changes may be confounded by practice effects and differences in task stimuli or procedure between baseline and follow-up. In conclusion, a subset of measures showed good stability of individual differences despite significant age-related changes, warranting their use as prospective predictors. However, caution is needed in the interpretation of observed longitudinal changes as indicators of neurocognitive development.

Socioeconomic status, BMI, and brain development in children

Low socioeconomic status (SES) in childhood is associated with deficits in executive function and changes in cortical morphology. Furthermore, rates of childhood obesity are greater among low SES children and childhood obesity is also associated with cortical alterations and impaired neurocognition, specifically in the domain of executive function. To investigate the influence of BMI on the relationships between SES and both neurocognition and brain morphology, we used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study to construct multiple linear regression models and conduct mediation analyses. Overall, SES as measured by household income, highest level of parental education, and area deprivation, was associated with lower BMI, greater total and prefrontal cortical volume, and better performance on assessments of executive function. Mediation analysis indicated that BMI had a significant indirect effect on associations between area deprivation and both total and prefrontal cortical volumes. BMI also played a mediating role in the associations between area deprivation and composite neurocognitive scores, which were driven by performance on tasks of working memory and cognitive flexibility, but not cognitive control. These findings suggest that BMI should be considered in future studies investigating the relationship between low SES and poor neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Demographic and mental health assessments in the adolescent brain and cognitive development study: Updates and age-related trajectories

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study of 11,880 youth incorporates a comprehensive range of measures assessing predictors and outcomes related to mental health across childhood and adolescence in participating youth, as well as information about family mental health history. We have previously described the logic and content of the mental health assessment battery at Baseline and 1-year follow-up. Here, we describe changes to that battery and issues and clarifications that have emerged, as well as additions to the mental health battery at the 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-year follow-ups. We capitalize on the recent release of longitudinal data for caregiver and youth report of mental health data to evaluate trajectories of dimensions of psychopathology as a function of demographic factors. For both caregiver and self-reported mental health symptoms, males showed age-related decreases in internalizing and externalizing symptoms, while females showed an increase in internalizing symptoms with age. Multiple indicators of socioeconomic status (caregiver education, family income, financial adversity, neighborhood poverty) accounted for unique variance in both caregiver and youth-reported externalizing and internalizing symptoms. These data highlight the importance of examining developmental trajectories of mental health as a function of key factors such as sex and socioeconomic environment.

Childhood disadvantage, neurocognitive development and neuropsychiatric disorders: Evidence of mechanisms

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Children living in socioeconomically disadvantaged households have excess risks of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric problems. The purpose of this review is to synthesize evidence for mechanisms that may contribute to these excess risks.

RECENT FINDINGS

The majority of the 60 studies included in our review focused on children's neurocognitive development and behavioural problems. About half conducted mediation analyses of factors in the family and neighbourhood environments, including access to resources (e.g. cognitive inputs within the home environment) and exposure to stressors (e.g. negative parenting practices), as well as neurobiological embedding of childhood disadvantage. In addition, many studies conducted moderation analyses of factors that were hypothesized to interact with (i.e. exacerbate or mitigate) the harmful effects of childhood disadvantage.

SUMMARY

Many of the factors that contribute to the excess risk of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric problems among children in disadvantaged households are potentially modifiable (e.g. cognitively stimulating materials, parental language input, cultural resources, parental stress and psychopathology, negative parenting, neighbourhood violence). If their causality is ultimately established, they could be targets for the prevention and reduction of disparities. The continued search for mechanisms should not detract from work to reduce and hopefully eliminate children's exposure to disadvantage.

Socioeconomic Status Inequalities Partially Mediate Racial and Ethnic Differences in Children's Amygdala Volume

BACKGROUND

While race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES) impact brain structures such as the amygdala, less is known on whether or not family SES partially explains why amygdala volume is smaller for racial and ethnic minority groups.

PURPOSE

This study tested the mediating effects of family SES on racial and ethnic differences in right and left amygdala volume.

METHODS

We borrowed the structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (sMRI) data of the Children Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a brain imaging investigation of childhood brain development in the US. The total sample was 8977, 9-10-year-old children. The independent variables were race and ethnicity. The primary outcomes were right and left amygdala volume. Age, sex, household size, and marital status were the covariates. Multiple SES indicators such as family income, subjective family SES, parental employment, parental education, and neighborhood income were the mediators. To analyze the data, we used regression models without and with our mediators. Sobel test was used to test if these mediational paths are statistically significant.

RESULTS

Black and Latino children had smaller amygdala sizes than non-Latino White children. The effects of race and ethnicity on amygdala volume were partially mediated by SES indicators, suggesting that one of the many reasons Black and Latino children have smaller volumes of right and left amygdala is their lower SES.

CONCLUSIONS

For American children, lower family and neighborhood SES indicators partially, but not fully, explain smaller amygdala sizes of Black and Latino children compared to non- Latino White children.