Nitric Oxide, Iron and Neurodegeneration

Dolichocarpols G-X: Previously undescribed macrocyclic humulene sesquiterpenoids from Anaxagorea dolichocarpa

Eleven previously undescribed macrocyclic humulene sesquiterpenoids, dolichocarpols G-Q (1-11), five undescribed bicyclic, dolichocarpols R-V (12-16) and two undescribed norsesquiterpenes, dolichocarpols W-X (17-18) were isolated from the roots of Anaxagorea dolichocarpa. Their structures were unequivocally determined by the analysis of NMR, HRESIMS, and IR data, along with NMR and ECD quantum-mechanical calculations, followed by the application of the DP4+ method. Most compounds possess an ether bridge between different carbons, whereas compounds 13/14 and 15/16 are diastereomers isomerized at C-7/C-10 and at C-7/C-10/C-12, respectively. The antineuroinflammatory activity of compounds 1-18 was tested in an LPS/IFN-γ-stimulated BV2 microglial cell line. Compounds 1, 5, 8, 9 and 14 significantly reduced nitric oxide (NO) levels in a concentration-dependent manner (25-200 μM). Moreover, possible interactions between these bioactive compounds and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were predicted via in silico studies. NO is known as an inflammatory mediator in neurodegenerative diseases; therefore, the effects of these compounds indicate their potential antineuroinflammatory activity.

Multifunctionality and Possible Medical Application of the BPC 157 Peptide-Literature and Patent Review

BPC 157, known as the "Body Protection Compound", is a pentadecapeptide isolated from human gastric juice that demonstrated its pleiotropic beneficial effects in various preclinical models mimicking medical conditions, such as tissue injury, inflammatory bowel disease, or even CNS disorders. Unlike many other drugs, BPC 157 has a desirable safety profile, since only a few side effects have been reported following its administration. Nevertheless, this compound was temporarily banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 2022 (it is not currently listed as banned by the WADA). However, it has not been approved for use in standard medicine by the FDA and other global regulatory authorities due to the absence of sufficient and comprehensive clinical studies confirming its health benefits in humans. In this review, we summarize information on the biological activities of BPC 157, with particular reference to its mechanism of action and probable toxicity. This generated the attention of experts, as BPC 157 has been offered for sale on many websites. We also present recent interest in BPC 157 as reflected in a number of patent applications and granted patents.

L-Arginine and Intermittent Hypoxia Are Stress-Limiting Factors in Male Wistar Rat Models

The aim of this study was to evaluate the combined effects of L-arginine, intermittent hypoxia training (IHT), and acute stress on oxygen-dependent processes in rats, including mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, microsomal oxidation, and the intensity of lipoperoxidation processes. In addition, our study investigated how the modulatory effect of the NO synthase mechanism on the concentration of catecholamines (CA), such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, and their biosynthetic precursors (DOPA, dopamine) varies depending on the cholinergic (acetylcholine, Ach-acetylcholinesterase, AChE) status in rats. This study investigated the protective stress-limiting effects of L-arginine impact and IHT in the blood and liver of rats. The results showed that L-arginine promoted the maintenance of NAD-dependent oxidation in mitochondria, which was detrimental compared to succinate oxidation, and was accompanied by depletion of respiratory activity reserves under stress induced by high concentrations of CA. The interdependence of SC-dependent oxidation and the functional role of NAD-dependent substrate oxidation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain in stress conditions induced using inhibitors revealed the importance of the NO system. Administration of L-arginine during the IHT course prior to stress exposure increased the compensatory capacity of the organism. L-arginine increased the compensatory capacity of the sympathoadrenal system in stress-exposed rats. In the early stages of IHT, modulation of the CA concentration was observed with a concomitant increase in lipoperoxidation processes, and in the final stages of IHT, the CA concentrations increased, but there was also an inhibition of lipoperoxidation, which was particularly enhanced by the administration of L-arginine. The increase in blood concentrations of CA and ACh was accompanied by a decrease in AChE activity at different stages of adaptation to hypoxia induced by IHT (days 5, 10, and 14). Thus, the IHT method significantly mobilises the reserve capacity of oxygen-dependent processes through the system of CA, ACh-AChE mediated by nitric oxide.

Nitric Oxide Signaling and Sensing in Age-Related Diseases

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key signaling molecule involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes within the human body. This review specifically examines the involvement of NO in age-related diseases, focusing on the cardiovascular, nervous, and immune systems. The discussion delves into the mechanisms of NO signaling in these diseases, emphasizing the post-translational modifications of involved proteins, such as S-nitrosation and nitration. The review also covers the dual nature of NO, highlighting both its protective and harmful effects, determined by concentration, location, and timing. Additionally, potential therapies that modulate NO signaling, including the use of NO donors and nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) inhibitors in the treatment of cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, and oncological diseases, are analyzed. Particular attention is paid to the methods for the determination of NO and its derivatives in the context of illness diagnosis and monitoring. The review underscores the complexity and dual role of NO in maintaining cellular balance and suggests areas for future research in developing new therapeutic strategies.

The role of iron transporters and regulators in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: Pathophysiological insights and therapeutic prospects

Brain iron homeostasis plays a vital role in maintaining brain development and controlling neuronal function under physiological conditions. Many studies have shown that the imbalance of brain iron homeostasis is closely related to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent advances have revealed the importance of iron transporters and regulatory molecules in the pathogenesis and treatment of NDs. This review summarizes the research progress on brain iron overload and the aberrant expression of several key iron transporters and regulators in AD and PD, emphasizes the pathological roles of these molecules in the pathogenesis of AD and PD, and highlights the therapeutic prospects of targeting these iron transporters and regulators to restore brain iron homeostasis in the treatment of AD and PD. A comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiological roles of iron, iron transporters and regulators, and their regulations in NDs may provide new therapeutic avenues for more targeted neurotherapeutic strategies for treating these diseases.

Targeting and activation of macrophages in leishmaniasis. A focus on iron oxide nanoparticles

Macrophages play a pivotal role as host cells for Leishmania parasites, displaying a notable functional adaptability ranging from the proinflammatory, leishmanicidal M1 phenotype to the anti-inflammatory, parasite-permissive M2 phenotype. While macrophages can potentially eradicate amastigotes through appropriate activation, Leishmania employs diverse strategies to thwart this activation and redirect macrophages toward an M2 phenotype, facilitating its survival and replication. Additionally, a competition for iron between the two entities exits, as iron is vital for both and is also implicated in macrophage defensive oxidative mechanisms and modulation of their phenotype. This review explores the intricate interplay between macrophages, Leishmania, and iron. We focus the attention on the potential of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) as a sort of immunotherapy to treat some leishmaniasis forms by reprogramming Leishmania-permissive M2 macrophages into antimicrobial M1 macrophages. Through the specific targeting of iron in macrophages, the use of IONPs emerges as a promising strategy to finely tune the parasite-host interaction, endowing macrophages with an augmented antimicrobial arsenal capable of efficiently eliminating these intrusive microbes.

The Changes of Blood and CSF Ion Levels in Depressed Patients: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Micronutrient deficiencies and excesses are closely related to developing and treating depression. Traditional and effective antidepressants include tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and lithium. There is no consensus on the fluctuation of zinc (Zn2+), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), copper (Cu2+), iron (Fe2+), and manganese (Mn2+) ion levels in depressed individuals before and after therapy. In order to determine whether there were changes in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of these ions in depressed patients compared with healthy controls and depressed patients treated with TCAs, SSRIs, or lithium, we applied a systematic review and meta-analysis. Using the Stata 17.0 software, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the changes in ion levels in human samples from healthy controls, depressive patients, and patients treated with TCAs, SSRIs, and lithium, respectively. By searching the PubMed, EMBASE, Google Scholar, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and WAN FANG databases, 75 published analyzable papers were chosen. In the blood, the levels of Zn2+ and Mg2+ in depressed patients had decreased while the Ca2+ and Cu2+ levels had increased compared to healthy controls, Fe2+ and Mn2+ levels have not significantly changed. After treatment with SSRIs, the levels of Zn2+ and Ca2+ in depressed patients increased while Cu2+ levels decreased. Mg2+ and Ca2+ levels were increased in depressed patients after Lithium treatment. The findings of the meta-analysis revealed that micronutrient levels were closely associated with the onset of depression and prompted more research into the underlying mechanisms as well as the pathophysiological and therapeutic implications.

The biotoxic effects of heavy metals exposure in miners and non-miners

Since little is known about the comparison of the biotoxic effects of heavy metals exposure on biochemical and hematological parameters in miners and non-miners, the current study aimed to compare the effects of arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu) in both groups. Demographic information and blood samples were collected from all participants and measures of As, Pb and Cu were obtained using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. As and Pb mean concentrations in miners and Cu concentration were greater in non-miners. Miners also showed significantly higher level of RBC, HBG and HCT. In the adjusted model, cholesterol showed a positively association with Pb and Cu levels. Triglycerides, GGT, ALP, WBC and PLT positively and HDL-cholesterol negatively were associated with Cu. Creatinine was negatively associated with group variable. In conclusion, miners' high blood heavy metals concentrations can impact biochemical and hematological indices. These observations make monitoring of heavy metals necessary in miners.

Association between Parkinson disease and selenium levels in the body: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Parkinson disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder, but its pathogenesis is still not entirely understood. While some trace elements, such as selenium, iron, and copper, are considered pivotal in PD onset due to their role in oxidative stress, the association between selenium concentrations and PD susceptibility remains ambiguous.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in adherence to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines and framed by the Patient, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome paradigm. Data were sourced from 4 prominent electronic databases: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. Eligible studies must have had a PD case group and a control group, both of which presented data on selenium concentrations. The quality of the studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.

RESULTS

Of 1541 initially identified articles, 12 studies comprising a total of 597 PD cases and 733 controls were selected for the meta-analysis. Pronounced heterogeneity was observed among these studies. When assessing blood selenium levels, no significant difference was found between patients with PD and the controls. However, when examining the cerebrospinal fluid, selenium levels in PD patients were significantly elevated compared to controls (standard mean difference = 1.21, 95% CI 0.04-2.39, P < .05). Subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, and evaluation of publication bias were performed to ensure data robustness.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated selenium levels in cerebrospinal fluid may be associated with a higher risk of Parkinson. Further prospective research is required to solidify this potential link and to offer avenues for novel therapeutic interventions or preventive measures.

Melatonin: a ferroptosis inhibitor with potential therapeutic efficacy for the post-COVID-19 trajectory of accelerated brain aging and neurodegeneration

The unprecedented pandemic of COVID-19 swept millions of lives in a short period, yet its menace continues among its survivors in the form of post-COVID syndrome. An exponentially growing number of COVID-19 survivors suffer from cognitive impairment, with compelling evidence of a trajectory of accelerated aging and neurodegeneration. The novel and enigmatic nature of this yet-to-unfold pathology demands extensive research seeking answers for both the molecular underpinnings and potential therapeutic targets. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death, is a strongly proposed underlying mechanism in post-COVID-19 aging and neurodegeneration discourse. COVID-19 incites neuroinflammation, iron dysregulation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, antioxidant system repression, renin-angiotensin system (RAS) disruption, and clock gene alteration. These events pave the way for ferroptosis, which shows its signature in COVID-19, premature aging, and neurodegenerative disorders. In the search for a treatment, melatonin shines as a promising ferroptosis inhibitor with its repeatedly reported safety and tolerability. According to various studies, melatonin has proven efficacy in attenuating the severity of certain COVID-19 manifestations, validating its reputation as an anti-viral compound. Melatonin has well-documented anti-aging properties and combating neurodegenerative-related pathologies. Melatonin can block the leading events of ferroptosis since it is an efficient anti-inflammatory, iron chelator, antioxidant, angiotensin II antagonist, and clock gene regulator. Therefore, we propose ferroptosis as the culprit behind the post-COVID-19 trajectory of aging and neurodegeneration and melatonin, a well-fitting ferroptosis inhibitor, as a potential treatment.

Neuroprotective responses of quercetin in regulation of biochemical, structural, and neurobehavioral effects in 28-day oral exposure of iron in rats

BACKGROUND

Iron is one of the essential metals that functions as a cofactor in various biological cascades in the brain. However, excessive iron accumulation in the brain may lead to neurodegeneration and may show toxic effects. Quercetin, a pigment flavonoid compound, has been proven to be a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory that can inhibit lipid peroxidation during metal-induced neurotoxicity. Although iron-induced neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration have been reported in many studies, but the proof for its exact mechanisms needs to be explored.

PURPOSE

The key target of the study was to explore the neuroprotective effect of quercetin after oral exposure of iron in rats and explore its underlying molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

The outcomes of the study have shown that oral exposure to ferrous sulfate may modulate behavioral paradigms such as locomotor activity, neuromuscular coordination, and increased anxiety level. The pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6), apoptotic protein (caspase 3), beta-amyloid and phosphorylated tau were found to be increased on iron exposure. Also, the expressions of ferritin heavy and light chain, BACE-1 and GFAP expressions were altered. These behavioral, structural, and biochemical alterations in the brain were significantly and dose-dependently reversed by treatment with quercetin.

CONCLUSION

The current study provides a fundamental understanding of molecular signaling pathways, and structural proteins implicated in iron-induced neurotoxicity along with the ameliorative effects of quercetin.

Correlation Between Substantia Nigra Hyperechogenicity and Iron Metabolism in the Postural Instability Gait Difficulty Subtype of Parkinson's Disease

OBJECTIVE

The correlation between substantia nigra (SN) hyperechogenicity on transcranial sonography (TCS) and serum iron metabolism parameters in patients with the postural instability gait difficulty (PIGD) subtype of Parkinson's disease (PD) was investigated so as to explore the pathological mechanism of SN hyperechogenicity.

METHODS

The study enrolled 95 PIGD patients recruited by the Parkinson's Disease Specialty in the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University during June 2019-2021. On the basis of the TCS results, the PIGD patients were assigned to the PD with SN hyperechogenicity (SN+) group (n = 60) and PD without SN hyperechogenicity (SN-) group (n = 35). Meanwhile, 49 sex- and age-matched healthy individuals were included in the control group. All participants underwent blood tests. Differences in the iron metabolism parameters among the three groups and the correlation between SN hyperechogenicity and serum iron metabolism parameters were analyzed.

RESULTS

Serum ferritin, ceruloplasmin and transferrin levels were lower in the SN+ and SN- groups than in the control group (all p values <0.001). The serum ceruloplasmin level was lower in the SN+ group (0.23 [0.20, 0.25] g/L) than in the SN- group (0.25 [0.22, 0.29] g/L) (p = 0.001), and the proportion of patients with an abnormal ceruloplasmin level was higher in the SN+ group than in the SN- group (43.3% [26/60] vs. 14.3% [5/35], χ2 = 8.484, p = 0.004). Moreover, the SN hyperechogenicity area was negatively correlated with the serum transferrin level (r = -0.428, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Decreased serum ceruloplasmin levels may be associated with SN hyperechogenicity development in PIGD patients. The SN hyperechogenicity area is negatively correlated with the serum transferrin level.

Datura metel stramonium exacerbates behavioral deficits, medial prefrontal cortex, and hippocampal neurotoxicity in mice via redox imbalance

BACKGROUND

Datura metel (DM) stramonium is a medicinal plant often abused by Nigerians due to its psychostimulatory properties. Hallucinations, confusion, agitation, aggressiveness, anxiety, and restlessness are reported amongst DM users. Earlier studies suggest that DM induces neurotoxicity and affect brain physiology. However, the exact neurological effects of DM extract in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampal morphology have not been elucidated. In this study, we evaluated the hypothesis that oral exposure to DM extract exerts a neurotoxic effect by increasing oxidative stress in the mPFC and the hippocampus and induces behavioral deficits in mice.

RESULTS

DM methanolic extract exposure significantly increased MDA and NO levels and reduced SOD, GSH, GPx and CAT activities in mice brains. In addition, our results showed that DM exposure produced cognitive deficits, anxiety, and depressive-like behaviour in mice following oral exposure for 28 days. Moreover, the mPFC and hippocampus showed neurodegenerative features, loss of dendritic and axonal arborization, a dose-dependent decrease in neuronal cell bodies' length, width, area, and perimeter, and a dose-dependent increase in the distance between neuronal cell bodies.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral exposure to DM in mice induces behavioural deficits, mPFC and hippocampal neuronal degenerations via redox imbalance in the brain of mice. These observations confirm the neurotoxicity of DM extracts and raises concerns on the safety and potential adverse effects of DM in humans.

The Role of Gasotransmitter-Dependent Signaling Mechanisms in Apoptotic Cell Death in Cardiovascular, Rheumatic, Kidney, and Neurodegenerative Diseases and Mental Disorders

Cardiovascular, rheumatic, kidney, and neurodegenerative diseases and mental disorders are a common cause of deterioration in the quality of life up to severe disability and death worldwide. Many pathological conditions, including this group of diseases, are based on increased cell death through apoptosis. It is known that this process is associated with signaling pathways controlled by a group of gaseous signaling molecules called gasotransmitters. They are unique messengers that can control the process of apoptosis at different stages of its implementation. However, their role in the regulation of apoptotic signaling in these pathological conditions is often controversial and not completely clear. This review analyzes the role of nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) in apoptotic cell death in cardiovascular, rheumatic, kidney, and neurodegenerative diseases. The signaling processes involved in apoptosis in schizophrenia, bipolar, depressive, and anxiety disorders are also considered. The role of gasotransmitters in apoptosis in these diseases is largely determined by cell specificity and concentration. NO has the greatest dualism; scales are more prone to apoptosis. At the same time, CO, H₂S, and SO₂ are more involved in cytoprotective processes.

The contribution of an imbalanced redox signalling to neurological and neurodegenerative conditions

Nitric oxide and other redox active molecules such as oxygen free radicals provide essential signalling in diverse neuronal functions, but their excess production and insufficient scavenging induces cytotoxic redox stress which is associated with numerous neurodegenerative and neurological conditions. A further component of redox signalling is mediated by a homeostatic regulation of divalent metal ions, the imbalance of which contributes to neuronal dysfunction. Additional antioxidant molecules such as glutathione and enzymes such as super oxide dismutase are involved in maintaining a physiological redox status within neurons. When cellular processes are perturbed and generation of free radicals overwhelms the antioxidants capacity of the neurons, a resulting redox damage leads to neuronal dysfunction and cell death. Cellular sources for production of redox-active molecules may include NADPH oxidases, mitochondria, cytochrome P450 and nitric oxide (NO)-generating enzymes, such as endothelial, neuronal and inducible NO synthases. Several neurodegenerative and developmental neurological conditions are associated with an imbalanced redox state as a result of neuroinflammatory processes leading to nitrosative and oxidative stress. Ongoing research aims at understanding the causes and consequences of such imbalanced redox homeostasis and its role in neuronal dysfunction.

Physiopathological changes of ferritin mRNA density and distribution in hippocampal astrocytes in the mouse brain

Astrocytes are thought to play a crucial role in brain iron homeostasis. How they accomplish this regulation in vivo is unclear. In a recent transcriptomic analysis, we showed that polysomal Ftl1 and Fth1 mRNAs, encoding the ferritin light (Ftl) and heavy (Fth) chains that assemble into ferritin, a critical complex for iron storage and reduction, are enriched in perisynaptic astrocytic processes as compared to astrocytic soma. These data suggested that ferritin translation plays a specific role at the perisynaptic astrocytic interface and is tighly regulated by local translation. Here, we used our recently described AstroDot 3D in situ methodology to study the density and localization of ferritin mRNAs in astrocytes in the hippocampus in three different contexts in which local or systemic iron overload has been documented: aging, the hepcidin knock-out mouse model of hemochromatosis and the APP/PS1dE9 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our results showed that in wild type mice, Fth1 mRNA density was higher than Ftl1 and that both mRNAs were mostly distributed in astrocyte fine processes. Aging and absence of hepcidin caused an increased Fth1/Ftl1 ratio in astrocytes and in the case of aging, led to a redistribution of Fth1 mRNAs in astrocytic fine processes. In contrast, in AD mice, we observed a lower Fth1/Ftl1 ratio. Fth1 mRNAs became more somatic and Ftl1 mRNAs redistributed in large processes of astrocytes proximal to Amyloid beta (Aß) deposits. Hence, we propose that regulation of ferritin mRNA density and distribution in astrocytes contribute to iron homeostasis in physiology and pathophysiology.

Calcium is a noncompetitive inhibitor of DMT1 on the intestinal iron absorption process: empirical evidence and mathematical modeling analysis

Iron absorption is a complex and highly controlled process where DMT1 transports nonheme iron through the brush-border membrane of enterocytes to the cytoplasm but does not transport alkaline-earth metals such as calcium. However, it has been proposed that high concentrations of calcium in the diet could reduce iron bioavailability. In this work, we investigate the effect of intracellular and extracellular calcium on iron uptake by Caco-2 cells, as determined by calcein fluorescence quenching. We found that extracellular calcium inhibits iron uptake by Caco-2 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Chelation of intracellular calcium with BAPTA did not affect iron uptake, which indicates that the inhibitory effect of calcium is not exerted through intracellular calcium signaling. Kinetic studies performed, provided evidence that calcium acts as a reversible noncompetitive inhibitor of the iron transport activity of DMT1. Based on these experimental results, a mathematical model was developed that considers the dynamics of noncompetitive inhibition using a four-state mechanism to describe the inhibitory effect of calcium on the DMT1 iron transport process in intestinal cells. The model accurately predicts the calcein fluorescence quenching dynamics observed experimentally after an iron challenge. Therefore, the proposed model structure is capable of representing the inhibitory effect of extracellular calcium on DMT1-mediated iron entry into the cLIP of Caco-2 cells. Considering the range of calcium concentrations that can inhibit iron uptake, the possible inhibition of dietary calcium on intestinal iron uptake is discussed.

Aging accentuates decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity associated with the increase in the motor impairment in a model of reserpine-induced parkinsonism

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive dopaminergic neuron loss. Animal models have been used to develop a better understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms of PD. However, these models are usually conducted with young animals diverging of the age of PD patients, suggesting a bias in translational science. Thus, the aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of the age on rats in a progressive parkinsonism model induced by reserpine (RES). Adult (6 - 8 month-old) or elderly (18 - 24 month-old) male rats were assigned to six groups: control-elderly (CTL-ELDERLY), reserpine-elderly (RES-ELDERLY), reserpine-elderly withdrawal (RES-ELDERLY WITHDRAWAL), control-adult (CTL-ADULT), reserpine-adult (RES-ADULT), and reserpine-adult withdrawal (RES-ADULT WITHDRAWAL). Animals received 15 injections every other day of RES (0.1 mg / kg) or vehicle during 30 days. Throughout treatment, animals were evaluated in the catalepsy test (every 48 h) and open field test (24 h after the second injection), and weight assessment (every 4 days) was also made. Upon completion of behavioral tests, rat brains were collected for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunohistochemical analysis. Main results demonstrated that RES-treated animals spent more time in the catalepsy bar compared with control groups, moreover the RES-elderly group showed a longer catalepsy time compared with the RES-ADULT group. A shorter time from RES treatment to the development of symptoms was observed in the RES-ADULT group, compared with the RES-ELDERLY group. In addition, RES-induced weight loss in both RES-ELDERLY and RES-ADULT when compared with their corresponding controls. Cessation of RES treatment was followed by weight gain only in the RES-ADULT group. A significant decrease in TH-immunoreactive cells was observed in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and dorsal striatum (STR) in the rats in both the RES-ADULT and RES-ELDERLY groups and in the ventral tegmental area in rats in the RES-ADULT group. Furthermore, TH immunoreactivity decrease was not reversible in SNpc and STR in the RES-ELDERLY. These results show that RES has an age-dependent effect in rats, suggesting a greater sensitivity of the dopaminergic pathway to RES with advancing age. These suggest that the RES rat model of parkinsonism can be useful in improving our knowledge on the effect of aging on neurodegeneration.

Electroacupuncture Reduces Cerebral Hemorrhage Injury in Rats by Improving Cerebral Iron Metabolism

Objective

To study the effects of electroacupuncture at Baihui and Dazhui points on the expression of hepcidin (Hepc), transferrin (Tf), transferrin receptor (TfR), and ferritin (Ft) in rats with cerebral hemorrhage to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of cerebral hemorrhage with acupuncture.

Method

The model of cerebral hemorrhage in rats was established by autologous blood injection method and treated by electroacupuncture (EA) at the acupoints of Baihui and Dazhui. Hepc siRNA was injected into the lateral ventricle 30 min before model preparation to produce the cerebral hemorrhage model. The modified neurological severity score (mNSS) was used to assess the neurological function, and the total iron content in brain tissue was determined using atomic absorption spectrometry; the expression of Hepc, Ft, Tf, and TfR in perihematoma tissue was detected using immunohistochemistry; the interference efficiency of Hepc siRNA was detected using western blot and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).

Results

The degree of neurological deficit showed a downward trend at 3 days, 7 days, and 14 days, and electroacupuncture significantly reduced the neurological deficit score at each time point (P < 0.01). Regarding total iron content in brain tissue, on the 3rd day, the 7th day, and the 14th day, the iron content of the hematoma tissue after intracerebral hemorrhage was reduced by electroacupuncture (P < 0.01). Regarding immunohistochemical results. Hepc, Ft, Tf, and TfR protein expressions on day 14 were significantly higher after cerebral hemorrhage (P < 0.01). After electroacupuncture, the expression of Hepc, Ft, Tf, and TfR protein was significantly reduced (P < 0.01). Western blot and RT-PCR revealed that the interference efficiency of Hepc siRNA was statistically significant (P < 0.01).

Conclusion

Electroacupuncture can reduce neurological severity scores in rats with cerebral hemorrhage and may exert cerebral protective effects by reducing Hepc protein and gene expression; lowering Ft, Tf, and TfR protein expression; and promoting iron metabolism in the brain of rats with cerebral hemorrhage.

Iron dyshomeostasis and time-course changes in iron-uptake systems and ferritin level in relation to pro-inflammatory microglia polarization in sepsis-induced encephalopathy

Encephalopathy is a frequent and lethal consequence of sepsis. Recently, a growing body of evidence has provided important insights into the role of iron dyshomeostasis in the context of inflammation. The molecular mechanisms underlying iron dyshomeostasis and its relationship with macrophage phenotypes are largely unknown. Here, we aimed to characterize the changes in iron-transporter and storage proteins and the microglia phenotype that occur during the course of sepsis, as well as their relationship with sepsis-induced encephalopathy. We used a cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) murine model that closely resembles sepsis-induced encephalopathy. Rats were subjected to CLP or sham laparotomy, then were neurologically assessed at 6 h, 24 h, and 3 days after sepsis induction. The serum and brain were collected for subsequent biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical assessment. Here, an iron excess was observed at time points that followed the pro-inflammatory macrophage polarization in CLP-induced encephalopathy. Our results revealed that the upregulation of non-transferrin-bound iron uptake (NTBI) and ferritin reduction appeared to be partially responsible for the excess free iron detected within the brain tissues. We further demonstrated that the microglia were shifted toward the pro-inflammatory phenotype, leading to persistent neuro-inflammation and neuronal damage after CLP. Taken together, these findings led us to conclude that sepsis increased the susceptibility of the brain to the iron burden via the upregulation of NTBI and the reduction of ferritin, which was concomitantly and correlatively associated with dominance of pro-inflammatory microglia and could explain the neurological dysfunction observed during sepsis.

Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping of Brain Iron Deposition in Patients With Recurrent Depression

OBJECTIVE

Recurrence is the most significant feature of depression and the relationship between iron and recurrent depression is still lack of direct evidence in vivo.

METHODS

Twenty-one patients with depression and twenty control subjects were included. Gradient-recalled echo, T1 and T2 images were acquired using a 3.0T MRI system. After quantitative susceptibility mapping were reconstructed and standardized, a whole-brain and the regions of interest were respectively analyzed.

RESULTS

Significant increases in susceptibility were found in multiple recurrent depression patients, which involved several brain regions (frontal lobes, temporal lobe structures, occipital lobes hippocampal regions, putamen, thalamus, cingulum, and cerebellum). Interestingly, no susceptibility changes after treatment compared to pre-treatment (all p>0.05) and no significant correlation between susceptibility and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were found. Besides, it was close to significance that those with a higher relapse frequency or a longer mean duration of single episode had a higher susceptibility in the putamen, thalamus, and hippocampus. Further studies showed susceptibility across the putamen (ρ2=0.27, p<0.001), thalamus (ρ2=0.21, p<0.001), and hippocampus (ρ2=0.19, p<0.001) were strongly correlated with total course of disease onset.

CONCLUSION

Brain iron deposition is related to the total course of disease onset, but not the severity of depression, which suggest that brain iron deposition may be a sign of brain damage in multiple recurrent depression.

Iron-induced cellular in vitro neurotoxic responses in rat C6 cell line

Iron is an essential metal critical for normal cellular and biochemical function and it is used as a cofactor in many vital biological pathways within the brain. However, accumulation of excess iron in brain is commonly associated with several neurodegenerative and neurotoxic adverse effects. Chronic exposure of iron leads to an increased risk for several neurodegenerative diseases. The exact mechanism of iron-induced neurotoxicity is still unclear. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate the mechanism of neurotoxic and neurodegenerative effects through in vitro exposure of ferrous sulphate in rat C6 cell line. The findings of our study have indicated that ferrous sulphate exposure may lead to induction of molecular markers of neuronal inflammation, apoptotic neuronal cell death, amyloid-beta and hyperphosphorylated tau levels. This study provides a basic mechanistic understanding of signaling pathway and biomarkers involved during iron-induced neurotoxicity.

Proteomic Assessment of C57BL/6 Hippocampi after Non-Selective Pharmacological Inhibition of Nitric Oxide Synthase Activity: Implications of Seizure-like Neuronal Hyperexcitability Followed by Tauopathy

Nitric oxide (NO) is a small gaseous signaling molecule responsible for maintaining homeostasis in a myriad of tissues and molecular pathways in neurology and the cardiovasculature. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the potential interaction between arterial stiffness (AS), an independent cardiovascular risk factor, and neurodegenerative syndromes given increasingly epidemiological study reports. For this reason, we previously investigated the mechanistic convergence between AS and neurodegeneration via the progressive non-selective inhibition of all nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) in C57BL/6 mice. Our previous results showed progressively increased AS in vivo and impaired visuospatial learning and memory in L-NAME-treated C57BL/6 mice. In the current study, we sought to further investigate the progressive molecular signatures in hippocampal tissue via LC–MS/MS proteomic analysis. Our data implicate mitochondrial dysfunction due to progressive L-NAME treatment. Two weeks of L-NAME treatment implicates altered G-protein-coupled-receptor signaling in the nerve synapse and associated presence of seizures and altered emotional behavior. Furthermore, molecular signatures implicate the cerebral presence of seizure-related hyperexcitability after short-term (8 weeks) treatment followed by ribosomal dysfunction and tauopathy after long-term (16 weeks) treatment.

Assessment of Neurodegenerative Changes in Turkeys Fed Diets with Different Proportions of Arginine and Methionine Relative to Lysine

Simple Summary

It is important to take care of a properly balanced amino acid composition in the diet in order to inhibit or delay the occurrence of processes and changes related to the destruction of nervous tissue. Therefore, an attempt was made in this manuscript to evaluate the effect of different ratios of the key amino acids arginine and methionine, relative to lysine, in relation to two turkey feeding standards. The amino acid guidelines formulated by British United Turkeys (BUT) suggest higher levels of lysine (Lys) in turkey diets than those recommended by the National Research Council (NRC). In order to assess the impact of such supplementation, we analyzed the level of indicators informing the presence or degree of advancement of neurodegenerative processes in the nervous tissue (the level of acetylcholinesterase and amyloid-β; the concentration of AChE complexes with amyloid-β and Tau protein, called glycosylated acetylcholinesterase (GAChE), indicative of the destruction of neurons). The level of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1, or LRP-1, which facilitates the breakdown of toxic amyloid-β, was also assessed. In addition, the effect of different doses of these amino acids on neurodegenerative changes in DNA, especially the degree of methylation of histone proteins resulting from covalent modifications was compared between lysine and arginine residues.

Abstract

We postulated that the use of optimal levels and proportions of Arg and Met relative to a low or high concentration of Lys in diets for meat turkeys would reduce the occurrence of metabolic disturbances in the nervous tissue that can lead to neurodegenerative changes. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of various proportions of Lys, Arg, and Met in diets for turkeys, with a low content of Lys in accordance with NRC (Experiment 1) recommendations, and in diets with high Lys levels that are close to the recommendations of breeding companies (Experiment 2) on selected indicators of potential neurodegenerative effects in the brain and liver of turkeys. The Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 was conducted using 864 day-old turkey chicks randomly assigned to six groups, in eight replicates (6 groups × 18 birds × 8 replicates). A full description of the methodology can be found in previously published papers using the same experimental design. Indicators informing about the presence or advancement of neurodegenerative processes in the nervous tissue were determined in the brain and liver (level of: AChE, amyloid-β, GAChE, Tau protein, LRP1, and the degree of DNA methylation). It was established that in the case of both a low (National Research Council, NRC) and a high (British United Turkeys, BUT) level of Lys in the diet of turkeys, the Arg level can be reduced to 90% of the Lys level and Met to 30% of the Lys level, because this does not cause neurodegenerative changes in turkeys. Unfavorable neurodegenerative changes may appear if the Arg level is increased from 100 to 110% of the Lys level recommended by the NRC. However, due to the lack of such a relationship when Arg is increased from 100 to 110% of the Lys level recommended by BUT, at this stage of research no definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding the risk of neurodegenerative changes caused by increasing Arg in the diet of turkeys.

Transcriptomic Profiling Reveals That HMGB1 Induces Macrophage Polarization Different from Classical M1

Macrophages are key inflammatory immune cells that display dynamic phenotypes and functions in response to their local microenvironment. In different conditions, macrophage polarization can be induced by high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a nuclear DNA-binding protein that activates innate immunity via the Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), and C-X-C chemokine receptor (CXCR) 4. This study investigated the phenotypes of murine bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) stimulated with different HMGB1 redox isoforms using bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq). Disulfide HMGB1 (dsHMGB1)-stimulated BMDMs showed a similar but distinct transcriptomic profile to LPS/IFNγ- and LPS-stimulated BMDMs. Fully reduced HMGB1 (frHMGB1) did not induce any significant transcriptomic change. Interestingly, compared to LPS/IFNγ- and LPS-, dsHMGB1-stimulated BMDMs showed lipid metabolism and foam cell differentiation gene set enrichment, and oil red O staining revealed that both dsHMGB1 and frHMGB1 alleviated oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-induced foam cells formation. Overall, this work, for the first time, used transcriptomic analysis by RNA-Seq to investigate the impact of HMGB1 stimulation on BMDM polarization. Our results demonstrated that dsHMGB1 and frHMGB1 induced distinct BMDM polarization phenotypes compared to LPS/IFNγ- and LPS- induced phenotypes.

Neuronal Death Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategy in Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke caused by intracranial vascular occlusion has become increasingly prevalent with considerable mortality and disability, which gravely burdens the global economy. Current relatively effective clinical treatments are limited to intravenous alteplase and thrombectomy. Even so, patients still benefit little due to the short therapeutic window and the risk of ischemia/reperfusion injury. It is therefore urgent to figure out the neuronal death mechanisms following ischemic stroke in order to develop new neuroprotective strategies. Regarding the pathogenesis, multiple pathological events trigger the activation of cell death pathways. Particular attention should be devoted to excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses. Thus, in this article, we first review the principal mechanisms underlying neuronal death mediated by these significant events, such as intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis, ferroptosis, parthanatos, pyroptosis, necroptosis, and autophagic cell death. Then, we further discuss the possibility of interventions targeting these pathological events and summarize the present pharmacological achievements.

Ethanol Extract of Elaeagnus glabra f. oxyphylla Branches Alleviates the Inflammatory Response Through Suppression of Cyclin D3/Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 11p58 Coupled to Lipopolysaccharide-Activated BV-2 Microglia

Neuroinflammation plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and is characterized by microglial dysregulation. Here, we explored the beneficial effects of a leaf extract of Elaeagnus glabra f. oxyphylla (EGFO), a native medicinal plant to Korea, South China, Japan, and Taiwan, on neuroinflammation using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV-2 microglia. Levels of the inflammatory mediators were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction. The phospho levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases, which are key kinase molecules in the inflammatory signaling pathway in microglia, were analyzed by Western blotting. Treatment with EGFO significantly suppressed the LPS-mediated induction of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2. Consistently, EGFO treatment in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells markedly reduced the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels. The best concentration of EGFO that could reduce TNF-α and IL-6 was 100 μg/mL. EGFO relatively reduced the messenger RNA expression of TNF-α and IL-6 by 0.36 and 0.32-fold ratio, respectively, compared to LPS treatment. Moreover, EGFO markedly reduced the phospho levels of p38 and the c-jun N-terminal kinase. Furthermore, antibody microarray and immunoblotting data revealed that the pharmacological mechanisms driving the antineuroinflammatory action of EGFO involve prevention of the cyclin D3/cyclin-dependent kinase 11p58 (CDK11p58) interaction. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that EGFO alleviates the inflammatory response through the suppression of cyclin D3/CDK11p58 coupling in LPS-activated BV-2 microglia. We propose the potential of EGFO as a novel drug candidate for neurodegenerative diseases by targeting neuroinflammation.

Mitochondrial iron metabolism and neurodegenerative diseases

Iron is a key element for mitochondrial function and homeostasis, which is also crucial for maintaining the neuronal system, but too much iron promotes oxidative stress. A large body of evidence has indicated that abnormal iron accumulation in the brain is associated with various neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Friedreich's ataxia. However, it is still unclear how irregular iron status contributes to the development of neuronal disorders. Hence, the current review provides an update on the causal effects of iron overload in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases and discusses important roles of mitochondrial iron homeostasis in these disease conditions. Furthermore, this review discusses potential therapeutic targets for the treatments of iron overload-linked neurodegenerative diseases.

Serum fractalkine and 3-nitrotyrosine levels correlate with disease severity in Parkinson's disease: a pilot study

Parkinson's disease (PD) and Parkinsonian syndromes; Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), and Multiple system atrophy (MSA) are debilitating neurodegenerative disorders. Fractalkine is a chemokine involved in neuroinflammation, whereas, 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) is a marker of early neurodegenerative cellular-damage. We measured Fractalkine and 3-NT levels in the serum of these patients to examine the neuroinflammation hypothesis and also to decipher the propensity of these biologics to be used as early (5 years from onset) biochemical markers in neurodegenerative Parkinsonism. The diagnoses of PD, PSP and MSA were performed as per the respective clinical criteria. 21 PD, 9 PSP and 8 MSA patients along with controls participated in this study. Serum concentrations of Fractalkine and 3-NT were measured by ELISA. Fractalkine levels were increased in PD, PSP and MSA cohorts in comparison with controls with p < 0.001, p < 0.05 and p < 0.05 respectively. Levels of 3-NT also showed elevation in PD (p < 0.01) vs. controls. However, Pearson plot showed that Fractalkine levels were high in the patients with unified Parkinson's disease rating scale (UPDRS) part III motor score of 1, meaning slight disability, but gradually dropped in patients with motor score of 4, which is a measure of severe motor disability. This negative correlation (- .565, p < .0.01) also accentuates the neuroprotectant/anti-inflammatory nature of Fractalkine in PD. Continuous rise of 3-NT in PD, positively correlating (.512, p < 0.05) with worsening motor symptoms points to deleterious consequences of nitrosative stress. To our knowledge, this is the first report providing evidence that serum Fractalkine and 3-NT have early diagnostic/prognostic significance as PD biomarkers.

Rethinking IRPs/IRE system in neurodegenerative disorders: Looking beyond iron metabolism

Iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) and iron regulatory element (IRE) systems are well known in the progression of neurodegenerative disorders by regulating iron related proteins. IRPs are also regulated by iron homeostasis. However, an increasing number of studies have suggested a close relationship between the IRPs/IRE system and non-iron-related neurodegenerative disorders. In this paper, we reviewed that the IRPs/IRE system is not only controlled by iron ions, but also regulated by such factors as post-translational modification, oxygen, nitric oxide (NO), heme, interleukin-1 (IL-1), and metal ions. In addition, by regulating the transcription of non-iron related proteins, the IRPs/IRE system functioned in oxidative metabolism, cell cycle regulation, abnormal proteins aggregation, and neuroinflammation. Finally, by emphasizing the multiple regulations of IRPs/IRE system and its potential relationship with non-iron metabolic neurodegenerative disorders, we provided new strategies for disease treatment targeting IRPs/IRE system.

Long-Term Pharmacological Inhibition of the Activity of All NOS Isoforms Rather Than Genetic Knock-Out of Endothelial NOS Leads to Impaired Spatial Learning and Memory in C57BL/6 Mice

Increasing epidemiological and experimental evidence points to a link between arterial stiffness and rapid cognitive decline. However, the underlying mechanism linking the two diseases is still unknown. The importance of nitric oxide synthases in both diseases is well-defined. In this study, we introduced arterial stiffness in both genetic (eNOS^−/−, endothelial nitric oxide synthase knockout) and pharmacological (N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) treatment) NO dysfunction models to study their association with cognitive decline. Our findings demonstrate that the non-selective inhibition of NOS activity with L-NAME induces cardiac dysfunction, arterial stiffness, and a decline in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. This outcome demonstrates the importance of neuronal NOS (nNOS) in both cardiovascular and neurological pathophysiology and its potential contribution in the convergence between arterial stiffness and cognitive decline.

Research Progress on the Role of Inflammatory Mechanisms in the Development of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), as one of the common postoperative complications, mainly occurs after surgery and anesthesia, especially in the elderly. It refers to cognitive function changes such as decreased learning and memory ability and inability to concentrate. In severe cases, there could be personality changes and a decline in social behavior. At present, a great deal of research had been carried out on POCD, but its specific mechanism remains unclear. The release of peripheral inflammation-related factors, the degradation and destruction of the blood-brain barrier, the occurrence of central inflammation, and the neuronal apoptosis and synaptic loss could be promoted by neuroinflammation indicating that inflammatory mechanisms may play key roles in the occurrence of POCD.

The Reactive Species Interactome in the Brain

Significance: Redox pioneer Helmut Sies attempted to explain reactive species' challenges faced by organelles, cells, tissues, and organs via three complementary definitions: (i) oxidative stress, that is, the disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant defense balance in favor of the prooxidants; (ii) oxidative eustress, the low physiological exposure to prooxidants; and (iii) oxidative distress, the supraphysiological exposure to prooxidants. Recent Advances: Identification, concentration, and interactions are the most important elements to improve our understanding of reactive species in physiology and pathology. In this context, the reactive species interactome (RSI) is a new multilevel redox regulatory system that identifies reactive species families, reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and reactive sulfur species, and it integrates their interactions with their downstream biological targets. Critical Issues: We propose a united view to fully combine reactive species identification, oxidative eustress and distress, and the RSI system. In this view, we also propose including the forgotten reactive carbonyl species, an increasingly rediscovered reactive species family related to the other reactive families, and key enzymes within the RSI. We focus on brain physiology and pathology to demonstrate why this united view should be considered. Future Directions: More studies are needed for an improved understanding of the contributions of reactive species through their identification, concentration, and interactions, including in the brain. Appreciating the RSI in its entirety should unveil new molecular players and mechanisms in physiology and pathology in the brain and elsewhere.

Calcium channels and iron metabolism: A redox catastrophe in Parkinson's disease and an innovative path to novel therapies?

Autonomously spiking dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) are exquisitely specialized and suffer toxic iron-loading in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the molecular mechanism involved remains unclear and critical to decipher for designing new PD therapeutics. The long-lasting (L-type) Ca_V1.3 voltage-gated calcium channel is expressed at high levels amongst nigral neurons of the SNpc, and due to its role in calcium and iron influx, could play a role in the pathogenesis of PD. Neuronal iron uptake via this route could be unregulated under the pathological setting of PD and potentiate cellular stress due to its redox activity. This Commentary will focus on the role of the Ca_V1.3 channels in calcium and iron uptake in the context of pharmacological targeting. Prospectively, the audacious use of artificial intelligence to design innovative Ca_V1.3 channel inhibitors could lead to breakthrough pharmaceuticals that attenuate calcium and iron entry to ameliorate PD pathology.

Nanodelivery of oxiracetam enhances memory, functional recovery and induces neuroprotection following concussive head injury

Military personnel are the most susceptible to concussive head injury (CHI) caused by explosion, blast or missile or blunt head trauma. Mild to moderate CHI could induce lifetime functional and cognitive disturbances causing significant decrease in quality of life. Severe CHI leads to instant death and lifetime paralysis. Thus, further exploration of novel therapeutic agents or new features of known pharmacological agents are needed to enhance quality of life of CHI victims. Previous reports from our laboratory showed that mild CHI induced by weight drop technique causing an impact of 0.224N results in profound progressive functional deficit, memory impairment and brain pathology from 5h after trauma that continued over several weeks of injury. In this investigation we report that TiO2 nanowired delivery of oxiracetam (50mg/kg, i.p.) daily for 5 days after CHI resulted in significant improvement of functional deficit on the 8th day. This was observed using Rota Rod treadmill, memory improvement assessed by the time spent in finding hidden platform under water. The motor function improvement is seen in oxiracetam treated CHI group by placing forepaw on an inclined mesh walking and foot print analysis for stride length and distance between hind feet. TiO2-nanowired oxiracetam also induced marked improvements in the cerebral blood flow, reduction in the BBB breakdown and edema formation as well as neuroprotection of neuronal, glial and myelin damages caused by CHI at light and electron microscopy on the 7th day after 5 days TiO2 oxiracetam treatment. Adverse biochemical events such as upregulation of CSF nitrite and nitrate, IL-6, TNF-a and p-Tau are also reduced significantly in oxiracetam treated CHI group. On the other hand post treatment of 100mg/kg dose of normal oxiracetam in identical conditions after CHI is needed to show slight but significant neuroprotection together with mild recovery of memory function and functional deficits on the 8th day. These observations are the first to point out that nanowired delivery of oxiracetam has superior neuroprotective ability in CHI. These results indicate a promising clinical future of TiO2 oxiracetam in treating CHI patients for better quality of life and neurorehabilitation, not reported earlier.

Clozapine Regulates Microglia and Is Effective in Chronic Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Objective

Progressive multiple sclerosis is characterized by chronic inflammation with microglial activation, oxidative stress, accumulation of iron and continuous neurodegeneration with inadequate effectiveness of medications used so far. We now investigated effects of iron on microglia and used the previously identified neuroprotective antipsychotic clozapine in vitro and in chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

Methods

Microglia were treated with iron and clozapine followed by analysis of cell death and response to oxidative stress, cytokine release and neuronal phagocytosis. Clozapine was investigated in chronic EAE regarding optimal dosing and therapeutic effectiveness in different treatment paradigms. Animals were scored clinically by blinded raters. Spinal cords were analyzed histologically for inflammation, demyelination, microglial activation and iron accumulation and for transcription changes of regulators of iron metabolism and inflammation. Effects on immune cells were analyzed using flow cytometry.

Results

Iron impaired microglial function in vitro regarding phagocytosis and markers of inflammation; this was regulated by clozapine, reflected in reduced release of IL-6 and normalization of neuronal phagocytosis. In chronic EAE, clozapine dose-dependently attenuated clinical signs and still had an effect if applied in a therapeutic setting. Early mild sedative effects habituated over time. Histologically, demyelination was reduced by clozapine and positive effects on inflammation strongly correlated with reduced iron deposition. This was accompanied by reduced expression of DMT-1, an iron transport protein.

Conclusions

Clozapine regulates microglial function and attenuates chronic EAE, even in a therapeutic treatment paradigm. This well-defined generic medication might therefore be considered as promising add-on therapeutic for further development in progressive MS.

Citrulline supplementation improves spatial memory in a murine model for Alzheimer's disease

OBJECTIVES

Alzheimer's disease (AD) correlates with the dysfunction of metabolic pathways that translates into neurological symptoms. An arginine deficiency, a precursor of nitric oxide (NO), has been reported for patients with AD. We aimed to evaluate the effect of citrulline oral supplementation on cognitive decline in an AD murine model.

METHODS

Three-month citrulline or water supplementation was blindly given to male and female wild-type and 3 × Tg mice with AD trained and tested in the Morris water maze. Cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue were collected. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography was used for arginine determinations and the Griess method for NO.

RESULTS

Eight-month-old male 3 × Tg mice with AD supplemented with citrulline performed significantly better in the Morris water maze task. Arginine levels increased in the cerebrospinal fluid although no changes were seen in brain tissue and only a tendency of increase of NO was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Citrulline oral administration is a viable treatment for memory improvement in the early stages of AD, pointing to NO as a viable, efficient target for memory dysfunction in AD.

Opioid Modulation of Neuronal Iron and Potential Contributions to NeuroHIV

Opioid use has substantially increased over recent years and remains a major driver of new HIV infections worldwide. Clinical studies indicate that opioids may exacerbate the symptoms of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), but the mechanisms underlying opioid-induced cognitive decline remain obscure. We recently reported that the μ-opioid agonist morphine increased neuronal iron levels and levels of ferritin proteins that store iron, suggesting that opioids modulate neuronal iron homeostasis. Additionally, increased iron and ferritin heavy chain protein were necessary for morphine's ability to reduce the density of thin and mushroom dendritic spines in cortical neurons, which are considered critical mediators of learning and memory, respectively. As altered iron homeostasis has been reported in HAND and related neurocognitive disorders like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease, understanding how opioids regulate neuronal iron metabolism may help identify novel drug targets in HAND with potential relevance to these other neurocognitive disorders. Here, we review the known mechanisms of opioid-mediated regulation of neuronal iron and corresponding cellular responses and discuss the implications of these findings for patients with HAND. Furthermore, we discuss a new molecular approach that can be used to understand if opioid modulation of iron affects the expression and processing of amyloid precursor protein and the contributions of this pathway to HAND.

Trace Elements as Immunoregulators in SARS-CoV-2 and Other Viral Infections

Nutritional deficiency is associated with impaired immunity and increased susceptibility to infections. The complex interactions of trace elements with the macromolecules trigger the effective immune response against the viral diseases. The outcome of various viral infections along with susceptibility is affected by trace elements such as zinc, selenium, iron, copper, etc. due to their immuno-modulatory effects. Available electronic databases have been comprehensively searched for articles published with full text available and with the key words “Trace elements”, “COVID-19”, “Viral Infections” and “Immune Response” (i.e. separately Zn, Se, Fe, Cu, Mn, Mo, Cr, Li, Ni, Co) appearing in the title and abstract. On the basis of available articles we have explored the role of trace elements in viral infections with special reference to COVID-19 and their interactions with the immune system. Zinc, selenium and other trace elements are vital to triggerT_H1 cells and cytokine-mediated immune response for substantial production of proinflammatory cytokines. The antiviral activity of some trace elements is attributed to their inhibitory effect on viral entry, replication and other downstream processes. Trace elements having antioxidants activity not only regulate host immune responses, but also modify the viral genome. Adequate dietary intake of trace elements is essential for activation, development, differentiation and numerous functions.

Astrocytes in heavy metal neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration

With the industrial development and progressive increase in environmental pollution, the mankind overexposure to heavy metals emerges as a pressing public health issue. Excessive intake of heavy metals, such as arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), aluminium (Al), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe), is neurotoxic and it promotes neurodegeneration. Astrocytes are primary homeostatic cells in the central nervous system. They protect neurons against all types of insults, in particular by accumulating heavy metals. However, this makes astrocytes the main target for heavy metals neurotoxicity. Intake of heavy metals affects astroglial homeostatic and neuroprotective cascades including glutamate/GABA-glutamine shuttle, antioxidative machinery and energy metabolism. Deficits in these astroglial pathways facilitate or even instigate neurodegeneration. In this review, we provide a concise outlook on heavy metal-induced astrogliopathies and their association with major neurodegenerative disorders. In particular, we focus on astroglial mechanisms of iron-induced neurotoxicity. Iron deposits in the brain are detected in main neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Accumulation of iron in the brain is associated with motor and cognitive impairments and iron-induced histopathological manifestations may be considered as the potential diagnostic biomarker of neurodegenerative diseases. Effective management of heavy metal neurotoxicity can be regarded as a potential strategy to prevent or retard neurodegenerative pathologies.

L-Citrulline Level and Transporter Activity Are Altered in Experimental Models of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive motor neuron disease caused by the death of the neurons regulating the voluntary muscles which leads to the progressive paralysis. We investigated the difference of transport function of L-citrulline in ALS disease model (NSC-34/hSOD1^G93A, MT) and a control model (NSC-34/hSOD1^wt, WT). The [¹⁴C]L-citrulline uptake was significantly reduced in MT cells as compared with that of control. The Michaelis-Menten constant (K_m) for MT cells was 0.67 ± 0.05 mM, whereas it was 1.48 ± 0.21 mM for control. On the other hand, the V_max values for MT and control were 10.9 ± 0.8 nmol/mg protein/min and 18.3 ± 2.9 nmol/mg protein/min, respectively. The K_m and V_max values showed the high affinity and low capacity for MT as compared with control. Moreover, the uptake of [¹⁴C]L-citrulline was significantly inhibited by 2-aminobicyclo-(2,2,1)-heptane-2-carboxylic acid (BCH) and harmaline which is the inhibitor of the large neutral amino acid transporter1 (LAT1) in NSC-34 cell lines. Furthermore, [¹⁴C]L-citrulline uptakes took place in Na⁺-independent manner. It was also inhibited by the neutral amino acids such as citrulline and phenylalanine. Likewise, L-dopa, gabapentin, and riluzole significantly inhibited the [¹⁴C]L-citrulline uptake. It shows the competitive inhibition for L-dopa in ALS cell lines. On the other hand, [¹⁴C]L-citrulline uptake in the presence of riluzole showed competitive inhibition in WT cells, whereas it was uncompetitive for MT cells. The small interfering RNA experiments showed that LAT1 is involved in the [¹⁴C]L-citrulline uptake in NSC-34 cell lines. On the other hand, in the examination of the alteration in the expression level of LAT1, it was significantly lower in MT cells as compared with that of control. Similarly, in the spinal cord of ALS, transgenic mice revealed a slight but significant decrease in LAT1 immunoreactivity in motor neurons of ALS mice compared with control. However, the LAT1 immunoreactivity in non-motor neurons and in astrocytes was relatively increased in the spinal cord gray matter of ALS mice. The experimental evidences of our results suggest that the change of transport activity of [¹⁴C]L-citrulline may be partially responsible for the pathological alteration in ALS.

Nitrodi thermal water downregulates protein S‑nitrosylation in RKO cells

Balneotherapy and spa therapy have been used in the treatment of ailments since time immemorial. Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that the beneficial effects of thermal water continue for months following the completion of treatment. The mechanisms through which thermal water exerts its healing effects remain unknown. Both balneological and hydroponic therapy at 'the oldest spa in the world', namely, the Nitrodi spring on the Island of Ischia (Southern Italy) are effective in a number of diseases and conditions. The aim of the present study was to investigate the molecular basis underlying the therapeutic effects of Nitrodi spring water in low-grade inflammation and stress-related conditions. For this purpose, an in vitro model was devised in which RKO colorectal adenocarcinoma cells were treated with phosphate-buffered saline or phosphate-buffered saline prepared with Nitrodi water for 4 h daily, 5 days a week for 6 weeks. The RKO cells were then subjected to the following assays: 3-(4,5- Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assay, Transwell migration assay, western blot analysis, the fluorimetric detection of protein S-nitrosothiols and S-nitrosylation western blot analysis. The results revealed that Nitrodi spring water promoted cell migration and cell viability, and downregulated protein S-nitrosylation, probably also the nitrosylated active form of the cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 protein. These results concur with all the previously reported therapeutic properties of Nitrodi spring water, and thus rein-force the concept that this natural resource is an important complementary therapy to traditional medicine.

Updates on Versatile Role of Putative Gasotransmitter Nitric Oxide: Culprit in Neurodegenerative Disease Pathology

Nitric oxide (NO) is a versatile gasotransmitter that contributes in a range of physiological and pathological mechanims depending on its cellular levels. An appropriate concentration of NO is essentially required for cellular physiology; however, its increased level triggers pathological mechanisms like altered cellular redox regulation, functional impairment of mitochondrion, and modifications in cellular proteins and DNA. Its increased levels also exhibit post-translational modifications in protein through S-nitrosylation of their thiol amino acids, which critically affect the cellular physiology. Along with such modifications, NO could also nitrosylate the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-membrane located sensors of ER stress, which subsequently affect the cellular protein degradation capacity and lead to aggregation of misfolded/unfolded proteins. Since protein aggregation is one of the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative disease, NO should be taken into account during development of disease therapies. In this Review, we shed light on the diverse role of NO in both cellular physiology and pathology and discussed its involvement in various pathological events in the context of neurodegenerative diseases.

Exogenous hydrogen sulfide alleviates surgery-induced neuroinflammatory cognitive impairment in adult mice by inhibiting NO signaling

Background

To investigate the effect and mechanisms of exogenous hydrogen sulfide in surgery-induced neuroinflammatory cognitive dysfunction.

Methods

C57BL/6 J male mice (n = 140) were used and randomly divided into seven groups: the sham group, surgery group, GYY4137 group, L-NAME group, surgery+GYY4137 group, surgery +L-NAME group, and surgery+GYY4137 + L-NAME group. After the interventions, open field tests (OFT) and the Morris water maze (MWM) test were conducted to evaluate learning and memory abilities in the mice. ELISAs, nitrate reductase assays, and Western blots (WB) were conducted to evaluate interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Furthermore, the expression level of microglial marker ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (IBA) in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas was detected by an immunohistochemical (IHC) assay and apoptotic cells were observed using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP end-labeling (TUNEL) staining kits.

Results

We found that surgery induced neuroinflammatory cognitive dysfunction, oxidative stress, microglial activation, and cell apoptosis in the hippocampus. Moreover, following surgery, NO and iNOS levels were elevated in the hippocampus. Notably, all the effects caused by surgery were reversed by the H₂S donor GYY4137 or the iNOS inhibitor N(gamma)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME). However, the combined application of GYY4137 and L-NAME was not superior to treatment with either agent alone and the effect of GYY4137 was similar to that of L-NAME.

Conclusion

The long-acting hydrogen sulfide donor GYY4137 had an ability to reversed the cognitive deficits and inflammation caused by carotid artery exposure surgery. This implies that NO signaling pathways might participate in this process. These results indicate that exogenous H₂S may be a promising therapy for POCD.

The role of iron in Parkinson's disease monkeys assessed by susceptibility weighted imaging and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

Mounting evidences indicated that elevated iron levels in the substantia nigra (SN) have been concerned as the underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). The present study used the 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6 -tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated cynomolgus monkeys for PD to evaluate the usability of SWI for assessing iron deposition in the cerebral nuclei of PD. The results showed that susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) phase values of the ipsilateral (MPTP-lesion side) SN of MPTP-treated monkeys were lower than those in the contralateral SN of MPTP-treated monkeys and the same side of Control monkeys, suggesting that iron deposition were elevated in the affected side SN of MPTP-treated monkeys. Whereas MPTP has not effects on the SWI phase values in other detected brain regions of monkeys, including red nucleus (RN), putamen (PUT) and caudate nucleus (CA). Furthermore, ICP-MS results showed that MPTP increased the iron levels in MPTP injection side, but no in the ipsilateral striatum. Additionally, MPTP treatment did not affect the calcium and manganese levels in the detected brain regions of monkeys. However, Pearson correlation analysis results indicated that there were not relationship between SWI phase values in MPTP-lesion side of SN with the behavioral score, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells number and iron levels in the MPTP-lesion side of midbrain. Taken together, the results confirm the involvement of SN iron accumulations in the MPTP-treated monkey models for PD, and indirectly verify the usability of SWI for the measurement of iron deposition in the cerebral nuclei of PD.

Propofol prevents oxidative stress and apoptosis by regulating iron homeostasis and targeting JAK/STAT3 signaling in SH-SY5Y cells

The present study aimed to test the hypothesis that propofol (PRO) could exert a neuroprotective effect via inhibiting oxidative stress induced by iron accumulation. Human SH-SY5Y cells were pretreated with ferric citrate (FAC), and then were protected by PRO. Cell viability was measured by MTT method. Iron levels were assayed by ICP-MS. Cell apoptosis was examined by TUNEL and digital holographic technique. Malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) depolarization were measured by MDA, DCFH-DA and JC-1 kits, respectively. The expression of proteins or genes involved in iron metabolism such as ferritin, TfR1, DMT1, Fpn1 and hepcidin, and other apoptosis-related proteins including Bcl2, Bax, Bid, Cox2, IL-6, JAK1 and STAT3 were detected by western blot. Our results showed low concentration of PRO (5 μM) could significantly prevent FAC induced apoptosis via inhibiting oxidative stress and iron accumulation. PRO suppressed the increase of ROS and MDA and decrease of MMP induced by FAC. PRO significantly down-regulated the expression of ferritin and up-regulated the expression of TfR1and Fpn1, but had no effect of DMT1. Furthermore, this effect was not done by PRO chelating iron. Meanwhile, PRO suppressed the inflammatory response through inhibiting IL-6 and Cox2 expression and activating JAK/STAT3 signaling induced by iron overload. In conclusion, here we demonstrated a new antioxidation mechanism of PRO. PRO could protect against nerve cell injury induced by overload of iron through regulating iron metabolism and inhibiting stress oxidative and inflammation reaction pathways by targeting JAK/STAT3 signaling.