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Deng MS, Huang STZ, Xu YN, Shao L, Wang ZG, Chen LJ, Huang WH. In vivo pharmacokinetics of ginsenoside compound K mediated by gut microbiota. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0307286. [PMID: 39178246 PMCID: PMC11343376 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0307286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Compound K (GCK) is the main metabolite of natural protopanaxadiol ginsenosides with diverse pharmacological effects. Gut microbiota contributes to the biotransformation of GCK, while the effect of gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of GCK in vivo remains unclear. To illustrate the role of gut microbiota in GCK metabolism in vivo, a systematic investigation of the pharmacokinetics of GCK in specific pathogen free (SPF) and pseudo-germ-free (pseudo-GF) rats were conducted. Pseudo-GF rats were treated with non-absorbable antibiotics. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was validated for the quantification of GCK in rat plasma. Compared with SPF rats, the plasma concentration of GCK significantly increased after the gut microbiota depleted. The results showed that GCK absorption slowed down, Tmax delayed by 3.5 h, AUC0-11 increased by 1.3 times, CLz/F decreased by 0.6 times in pseudo-GF rats, and Cmax was 1.6 times higher than that of normal rats. The data indicated that gut microbiota played an important role in the pharmacokinetics of GCK in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Si Deng
- Department of Stomatology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of Orthodontics, Changsha Stomatological Hospital, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Su-tian-zi Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ya-Ni Xu
- Department of Orthodontics, Changsha Stomatological Hospital, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Li Shao
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zheng-Guang Wang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Liang-Jian Chen
- Department of Stomatology, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wei-Hua Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- FuRong Laboratory, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Morshed MN, Akter R, Karim MR, Iqbal S, Kang SC, Yang DC. Bioconversion, Pharmacokinetics, and Therapeutic Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Compound K and Its Analogues for Treating Metabolic Diseases. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:2320-2342. [PMID: 38534764 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46030148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Rare ginsenoside compound K (CK) is an intestinal microbial metabolite with a low natural abundance that is primarily produced by physicochemical processing, side chain modification, or metabolic transformation in the gut. Moreover, CK exhibits potent biological activity compared to primary ginsenosides, which has raised concerns in the field of ginseng research and development, as well as ginsenoside-related dietary supplements and natural products. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc are generally used as a substrate to generate CK via several bioconversion processes. Current research shows that CK has a wide range of pharmacological actions, including boosting osteogenesis, lipid and glucose metabolism, lipid oxidation, insulin resistance, and anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis properties. Further research on the bioavailability and toxicology of CK can advance its medicinal application. The purpose of this review is to lay the groundwork for future clinical studies and the development of CK as a therapy for metabolic disorders. Furthermore, the toxicology and pharmacology of CK are investigated as well in this review. The findings indicate that CK primarily modulates signaling pathways associated with AMPK, SIRT1, PPARs, WNTs, and NF-kB. It also demonstrates a positive therapeutic effect of CK on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and its complications, as well as osteoporosis. Additionally, the analogues of CK showed more bioavailability, less toxicity, and more efficacy against disease states. Enhancing bioavailability and regulating hazardous variables are crucial for its use in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Niaj Morshed
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Reshmi Akter
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Rezaul Karim
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Safia Iqbal
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Chan Kang
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Deok Chun Yang
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Republic of Korea
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Hu QR, Hong H, Zhang ZH, Feng H, Luo T, Li J, Deng ZY, Chen F. Methods on improvements of the poor oral bioavailability of ginsenosides: Pre-processing, structural modification, drug combination, and micro- or nano- delivery system. J Ginseng Res 2023; 47:694-705. [PMID: 38107396 PMCID: PMC10721471 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2023.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Panax ginseng Meyer is a traditional Chinese medicine that is widely used as tonic in Asia. The main pharmacologically active components of ginseng are the dammarane-type ginsenosides, which have been shown to have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, neuroprotective, and metabolic regulatory activities. Moreover, some of ginsenosides (eg, Rh2 and Rg3) have been developed into nutraceuticals. However, the utilization of ginsenosides in clinic is restrictive due to poor permeability in cells and low bioavailability in human body. Obviously, the dammarane skeleton and glycosyls of ginsenosides are responsible for these limitations. Therefore, improving the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides has become a pressing issue. Here, based on the structures of ginsenosides, we summarized the understanding of the factors affecting the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides, introduced the methods to enhance the oral bioavailability and proposed the future perspectives on improving the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-rui Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Huan Hong
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Zhi-hong Zhang
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Hua Feng
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ting Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Jing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ze-yuan Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Fang Chen
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
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Chen J, Huang L, Liao X. Protective effects of ginseng and ginsenosides in the development of osteoarthritis (Review). Exp Ther Med 2023; 26:465. [PMID: 37664679 PMCID: PMC10468808 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2023.12164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic inflammatory joint disease. Traditional chinese medicine provides a resource for drug screening for OA treatment. Ginseng and the associated bioactive compound, ginsenosides, may reduce inflammation, which is considered a risk factor for the development of OA. Specifically, ginsenosides may exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress activities, and inhibit extracellular matrix degradation by suppressing the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Notably, specific ginsenosides, such as compound K and Rk1, may physically interact with IκB kinase and inhibit the associated phosphorylation. Thus, ginsenosides exhibit potential as therapeutic candidates in the management of OA. However, the low water solubility limits the clinical applications of ginsenosides. Numerous effective strategies have been explored to improve bioavailability; however, further investigations are still required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jincai Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi 341000, P.R. China
| | - Lin Huang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ganzhou Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ganzhou, Jiangxi 341000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaofei Liao
- Department of Pharmacy, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Ganzhou, Jiangxi 341000, P.R. China
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Huang S, Shao L, Chen M, Wang L, Liu J, Zhang W, Huang W. Biotransformation differences of ginsenoside compound K mediated by the gut microbiota from diabetic patients and healthy subjects. Chin J Nat Med 2023; 21:723-729. [PMID: 37879791 DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(23)60402-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Many natural products can be bio-converted by the gut microbiota to influence pertinent efficiency. Ginsenoside compound K (GCK) is a potential anti-type 2 diabetes (T2D) saponin, which is mainly bio-transformed into protopanaxadiol (PPD) by the gut microbiota. Studies have shown that the gut microbiota between diabetic patients and healthy subjects are significantly different. Herein, we aimed to characterize the biotransformation of GCK mediated by the gut microbiota from diabetic patients and healthy subjects. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing, the results indicated the bacterial profiles were considerably different between the two groups, especially Alistipes and Parabacteroides that increased in healthy subjects. The quantitative analysis of GCK and PPD showed that gut microbiota from the diabetic patients metabolized GCK slower than healthy subjects through liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The selected strain A. finegoldii and P. merdae exhibited a different metabolic capability of GCK. In conclusion, the different biotransformation capacity for GCK may impact its anti-diabetic potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sutianzi Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
| | - Li Shao
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Manyun Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China.
| | - Weihua Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China.
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Faustino C, Pinheiro L, Duarte N. Triterpenes as Potential Drug Candidates for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1514. [PMID: 37511889 PMCID: PMC10381804 DOI: 10.3390/life13071514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease characterized by joint inflammation, swelling and pain. Although RA mainly affects the joints, the disease can also have systemic implications. The presence of autoantibodies, such as anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies and rheumatoid factors, is a hallmark of the disease. RA is a significant cause of disability worldwide associated with advancing age, genetic predisposition, infectious agents, obesity and smoking, among other risk factors. Currently, RA treatment depends on anti-inflammatory and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs intended to reduce joint inflammation and chronic pain, preventing or slowing down joint damage and disease progression. However, these drugs are associated with severe side effects upon long-term use, including immunosuppression and development of opportunistic infections. Natural products, namely triterpenes with anti-inflammatory properties, have shown relevant anti-arthritic activity in several animal models of RA without undesirable side effects. Therefore, this review covers the recent studies (2017-2022) on triterpenes as safe and promising drug candidates for the treatment of RA. These bioactive compounds were able to produce a reduction in several RA activity indices and immunological markers. Celastrol, betulinic acid, nimbolide and some ginsenosides stand out as the most relevant drug candidates for RA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia Faustino
- iMed.ULisboa, Research Institute for Medicines, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Lídia Pinheiro
- iMed.ULisboa, Research Institute for Medicines, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Noélia Duarte
- iMed.ULisboa, Research Institute for Medicines, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
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Li F, Chen MM, Zhang HM, Wu QP, Han YB. Production of ginsenoside compound K by microbial cell factory using synthetic biology-based strategy: a review. Biotechnol Lett 2023; 45:163-174. [PMID: 36550334 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-022-03326-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a major intestinal bacterial metabolite of the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside family that can be absorbed in the systemic circulation. CK possesses diverse and important pharmacological properties. The low production and high cost of traditional manufacturing methods based on the extraction and biotransformation of total ginsenosides from ginseng have limited their medical application. However, considerable progress has been made in the area of de novo CK production via microbial cell factories using synthetic biology-based strategies. By introducing key enzymes responsible for CK biosynthesis into microbial cells, CK was produced via a series of in vivo enzymatic reactions that utilize the inherent precursors in microbial cells. After systematic optimization using various metabolic engineering strategies, the yield of CK increased significantly and exceeded the traditional plant extraction-biotransformation method, implying the commercial feasibility of this approach. This review summarizes recent novel advancements in the production of CK using microbial cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for TCM Quality and Efficacy, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Meng Meng Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Hui Min Zhang
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for TCM Quality and Efficacy, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Qing Ping Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Yun Bin Han
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for TCM Quality and Efficacy, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China.
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Liu M, Zhang Y, Zhang A, Deng Y, Gao X, Wang J, Wang Y, Wang S, Liu J, Chen S, Yao W, Liu X. Compound K is a potential clinical anticancer agent in prostate cancer by arresting cell cycle. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 109:154584. [PMID: 36610114 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ginsenosides, phenolic compounds, and polysaccharides are the bioactive constituents of Panax ginseng Meyer. Compound K (CK) is a secondary ginsenoside with better bioavailability. It is also a promising anticancer agent. PURPOSE We aimed to evaluate the effect of CK on prostate cancer (PCa) and its potential mechanisms. STUDY DESIGN The proliferation, migration and cell cycle of PCa cells after CK treatment were assessed in various PCa cell lines. Docetaxel was used as a positive control drug. Unlike other published studies, the potential mechanisms of CK (50 μM) were investigated by an unbiased global transcriptome sequencing in the current study. METHODS Key CK related genes (CRGs) with prognostic significance were identified and verified by bioinformatic methods using data from the TCGA dataset and GSE21034 dataset. The role of CDK1 in the effect of CK treatment on PCa cells was investigated by overexpression of CDK1. RESULTS CK inhibited the proliferation and migration of PCa cells at concentrations (less than 25 μM) without obvious cytotoxicity. Five key CRGs with prognostic significance were identified, including CCNA2, CCNB2, CCNE2, CDK1, and PKMYT1, which are involved in cell cycle pathways. CK inhibited the expression of these 5 genes and the cell cycle of PCa cells. According to the results of bioinformatic analysis, the expression of the five key CRGs was strongly associated with poor prognosis and advanced pathological stage and grade of PCa. In addition, CK could restore androgen sensitivity in castration-resistant PCa cells, probably by inhibiting the expression of CDK1. After CDK1 overexpression, the inhibition of proliferation and migration of PCa cells by CK was decreased. The inhibition on the phosphorylation of AKT by CK was also reduced. CONCLUSION CK can inhibit PCa cells, and the mechanisms may be associated with the inhibition of cell cycle pathways through CDK1. CK is also a potential clinical anticancer agent for treating PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Department of Geriatrics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yucong Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - An Zhang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yuxuan Deng
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xintao Gao
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jiaxin Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Pharmaceutical Informatics Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shaogang Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jihong Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shaoyong Chen
- Hematology-Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Weimin Yao
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaming Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
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Ahn JC, Mathiyalagan R, Nahar J, Ramadhania ZM, Kong BM, Lee DW, Choi SK, Lee CS, Boopathi V, Yang DU, Kim BY, Park H, Yang DC, Kang SC. Transcriptome expression profile of compound-K-enriched red ginseng extract (DDK-401) in Korean volunteers and its apoptotic properties. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:999192. [PMID: 36532751 PMCID: PMC9751427 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.999192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginseng and ginsenosides have been reported to have various pharmacological effects, but their efficacies depend on intestinal absorption. Compound K (CK) is gaining prominence for its biological and pharmaceutical properties. In this study, CK-enriched fermented red ginseng extract (DDK-401) was prepared by enzymatic reactions. To examine its pharmacokinetics, a randomized, single-dose, two-sequence, crossover study was performed with eleven healthy Korean male and female volunteers. The volunteers were assigned to take a single oral dose of one of two extracts, DDK-401 or common red ginseng extract (DDK-204), during the initial period. After a 7-day washout, they received the other extract. The pharmacokinetics of DDK-401 showed that its maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) occurred at 184.8 ± 39.64 ng/mL, Tmax was at 2.4 h, and AUC0-12h was 920.3 ± 194.70 ng h/mL, which were all better than those of DDK-204. The maximum CK absorption in the female volunteers was higher than that in the male volunteers. The differentially expressed genes from the male and female groups were subjected to a KEGG pathway analysis, which showed results in the cell death pathway, such as apoptosis and necroptosis. In cytotoxicity tests, DDK-401 and DDK-204 were not particularly toxic to normal (HaCaT) cells, but at a concentration of 250 μg/mL, DDK-401 had a much higher toxicity to human lung cancer (A549) cells than DDK-204. DDK-401 also showed a stronger antioxidant capacity than DDK-204 in both the DPPH and potassium ferricyanide reducing power assays. DDK-401 reduced the reactive oxygen species production in HaCaT cells with induced oxidative stress and led to apoptosis in the A549 cells. In the mRNA sequence analysis, a signaling pathway with selected marker genes was assessed by RT-PCR. In the HaCaT cells, DDK-401 and DDK-204 did not regulate FOXO3, TLR4, MMP-9, or p38 expression; however, in the A549 cells, DDK-401 downregulated the expressions of MMP9 and TLR4 as well as upregulated the expressions of the p38 and caspase-8 genes compared to DDK-204. These results suggest that DDK-401 could act as a molecular switch for these two cellular processes in response to cell damage signaling and that it could be a potential candidate for further evaluations in health promotion studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Chan Ahn
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Ramya Mathiyalagan
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Jinnatun Nahar
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Zelika Mega Ramadhania
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Byoung Man Kong
- Department of Oriental Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | | | - Sung Keun Choi
- Daedong Korea Ginseng Co., Ltd., Geumsan-gun, South Korea
| | - Chang Soon Lee
- Daedong Korea Ginseng Co., Ltd., Geumsan-gun, South Korea
| | - Vinothini Boopathi
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | | | - Bo Yeon Kim
- Exercise Nutrition & Biochemistry Lab, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Hyon Park
- Exercise Nutrition & Biochemistry Lab, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Deok Chun Yang
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
- Department of Oriental Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
| | - Se Chan Kang
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, South Korea
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Zhou L, Zeng X, Liao J, Chen L, Ouyang D. Gut Microbiota Modulates the Protective Role of Ginsenoside Compound K Against Sodium Valproate-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rat. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:936585. [PMID: 35875589 PMCID: PMC9302921 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.936585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the potential role of gut microbiota in the hepatotoxicity of sodium valproate (SVP) and the protective effect of ginsenoside compound K (G-CK) administration against SVP-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Measurements of 16S rRNA showed that SVP supplementation led to a 140.749- and 248.900-fold increase in the relative abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) and Bifidobacterium pseudolongum (B. pseudolongum), respectively (p < 0.05). The increase in A. muciniphila was almost completely reversed by G-CK treatment. The relative abundance of A. muciniphila was strongly positively correlated with aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels (r > 0.78, p < 0.05). The PICRUSt analysis showed that G-CK could inhibit the changes of seven pathways caused by SVP, of which four pathways, including the fatty acid biosynthesis, lipid biosynthesis, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, and pyruvate metabolism, were found to be negatively correlated with AST and ALT levels (r ≥ 0.70, p < 0.01 or < 0.05). In addition, the glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and pyruvate metabolism were negatively correlated with the relative abundance of A. muciniphila (r > 0.65, p < 0.01 or < 0.05). This alteration of the gut microbiota composition that resulted in observed changes to the glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and pyruvate metabolism may be involved in both the hepatotoxicity of SVP and the protective effect of G-CK administration against SVP-induced hepatotoxicity. Our study provides new evidence linking the gut microbiota with SVP-induced hepatotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, China
- The Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Institute of Basic Medicine and Cancer (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiangchang Zeng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, China
| | - Jianwei Liao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, China
| | - Lulu Chen
- Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Lulu Chen
| | - Dongsheng Ouyang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, China
- Dongsheng Ouyang
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11
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Liu J, Wang Y, Yu Z, Lv G, Huang X, Lin H, Ma C, Lin Z, Qu P. Functional Mechanism of Ginsenoside Compound K on Tumor Growth and Metastasis. Integr Cancer Ther 2022; 21:15347354221101203. [PMID: 35615883 PMCID: PMC9152193 DOI: 10.1177/15347354221101203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenosides, as the most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. Among the ginsenosides, Compound K (CK), a rare protopanaxadiol type of ginsenoside, has been most broadly used for cancer treatment due to its high anticancer bioactivity. However, the functional mechanism of CK in cancer is not well known. This review describes the structure, transformation and pharmacological activity of CK and discusses the functional mechanisms of CK and its metabolites, which regulate signaling pathways related to tumor growth and metastasis. CK inhibits tumor growth by inducing tumor apoptosis and tumor cell differentiation, regulates the tumor microenvironment by suppressing tumor angiogenesis-related proteins, and downregulates the roles of immunosuppressive cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). There is currently much research on the potential development of CK as a new strategy when administered alone or in combination with other compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlong Liu
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yuchen Wang
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Zhun Yu
- Third Affiliated Hospital of Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Guangfu Lv
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xiaowei Huang
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - He Lin
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Chao Ma
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Zhe Lin
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Peng Qu
- National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD, USA
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12
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Jeon JH, Lee J, Park JH, Lee CH, Choi MK, Song IS. Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on the Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Ginsenosides in Mice. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1496. [PMID: 34575573 PMCID: PMC8469489 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13091496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on in vitro and in vivo metabolism and the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in mice. When the in vitro fermentation test of RGE with LAB was carried out, protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxadiol (PPD), which are final metabolites of ginsenosides but not contained in RGE, were greatly increased. Compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rh1 (GRh1), and GRg3 also increased by about 30%. Other ginsenosides with a sugar number of more than 2 showed a gradual decrease by fermentation with LAB for 7 days, suggesting the involvement of LAB in the deglycosylation of ginsenosides. Incubation of single ginsenoside with LAB produced GRg3, CK, and PPD with the highest formation rate and GRd, GRh2, and GF with the lower rate among PPD-type ginsenosides. Among PPT-type ginsenosides, GRh1 and PPT had the highest formation rate. The amoxicillin pretreatment (20 mg/kg/day, twice a day for 3 days) resulted in a significant decrease in the fecal recovery of CK, PPD, and PPT through the blockade of deglycosylation of ginsenosides after single oral administrations of RGE (2 g/kg) in mice. The plasma concentrations of CK, PPD, and PPT were not detectable without change in GRb1, GRb2, and GRc in this group. LAB supplementation (1 billion CFU/2 g/kg/day for 1 week) after the amoxicillin treatment in mice restored the ginsenoside metabolism and the plasma concentrations of ginsenosides to the control level. In conclusion, the alterations in the gut microbiota environment could change the ginsenoside metabolism and plasma concentrations of ginsenosides. Therefore, the supplementation of LAB with oral administrations of RGE would help increase plasma concentrations of deglycosylated ginsenosides such as CK, PPD, and PPT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hyeon Jeon
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| | - Jaehyeok Lee
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| | - Jin-Hyang Park
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| | - Chul-Haeng Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - Im-Sook Song
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
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13
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Personalized bioconversion of Panax notoginseng saponins mediated by gut microbiota between two different diet-pattern healthy subjects. Chin Med 2021; 16:60. [PMID: 34301288 PMCID: PMC8306348 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-021-00476-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) as the main effective substances from P. notoginseng with low bioavailability could be bio-converted by human gut microbiota. In our previous study, PNS metabolic variations mediated by gut microbiota have been observed between high fat, high protein (HF-HP) and low fat, plant fiber-rich (LF-PF) dietary subjects. In this study, we aimed to correspondingly characterize the relationship between distinct gut microbial species and PNS metabolites. Methods Gut microbiota were collected from HF-HP and LF-PF dietary healthy adults and profiled by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. PNS were incubated with gut microbiota in vitro. A LC–MS/MS method was developed to quantify the five main metabolites yields including ginsenoside F1 (GF1), ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2), ginsenoside compound K (GC-K), protopanaxatriol (PPT) and protopanaxadiol (PPD). The selected microbial species, Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, were employed to metabolize PNS for the corresponding metabolites. Results The five main metabolites were significantly different between the two diet groups. Compared with HF-HP group, the microbial genus Blautia, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Dorea, Enhydrobacter, Lactobacillus, Roseburia, Ruminococcus, SMB53, Streptococcus, Treponema and Weissella were enriched in LF-PF group, while Phascolarctobacterium and Oscillospira were relatively decreased. Furthermore, Spearman’s correlative analysis revealed gut microbials enriched in LF-PF and HF-HP groups were positively and negatively associated with the five metabolites, respectively. Conclusions Our data showed gut microbiota diversity led to the personalized bioconversion of PNS. Graphic Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13020-021-00476-5. Panax notoginseng saponins could be biotransformed to generate five main metabolites, including GF1, GRh2, GC-K, PPT and PPD, by human gut microbiota. Gut microbiota profiles were significantly different in high protein, high fat and low fat, plant fiber-rich diet-pattern groups. Correlation analysis revealed potential relationships between metabolites and gut microbial species. Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Lactobacillus rhamnosus were selected as a representative species to metabolize PNS for the concerned metabolites.
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14
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Zhou L, Zeng X, Rao T, Tan Z, Zhou G, Ouyang D, Chen L. Evaluating the protective effects of individual or combined ginsenoside compound K and the downregulation of soluble epoxide hydrolase expression against sodium valproate-induced liver cell damage. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2021; 422:115555. [PMID: 33915122 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2021.115555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Sodium valproate (SVP) is one of the most commonly prescribed antiepileptic drugs. However, SVP is known to induce hepatotoxicity, which limits its clinical application for treating various neurological disorders. Previously, we found that ginsenoside compound K (G-CK) demonstrated protective effects against SVP-induced hepatotoxicity by mitigating oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage, as well as downregulating the expression of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) in rats. This study aimed to assess the effect of G-CK on SVP-induced cytotoxicity in human hepatocytes (L02 cell line), as well as the effect of the downregulation of sEH expression on both the hepatotoxicity of SVP and the hepatoprotective effects of G-CK. We observed that G-CK significantly ameliorated the decrease of cell viability, elevated ALT, AST and ALP activities, significant oxidative stress, and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential induced by SVP in L02 cells. G-CK also inhibited the SVP-mediated upregulation of sEH expression. Transfection of the L02 cells with siRNA-sEH led to a partial improvement in the L02 cytotoxicity caused by SVP by mitigating cellular oxidative stress without recovering the reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, the combination of siRNA-sEH and G-CK had better inhibitory effects on the SVP-induced changes of all detection indices except mitochondrial membrane potential than G-CK alone. Together, our results demonstrated that the combination of siRNA-sEH and G-CK better suppressed the SVP-induced cytotoxicity in L02 cells compared to either G-CK or siRNA-sEH alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, , Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, PR China
| | - Xiangchang Zeng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, , Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, PR China
| | - Tai Rao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, , Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, PR China
| | - Zhirong Tan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, , Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, PR China
| | - Gan Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, , Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, PR China; Institution of Drug Clinical Trial, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, PR China
| | - Dongsheng Ouyang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, , Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, PR China; Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha 410000, PR China.
| | - Lulu Chen
- Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha 410000, PR China.
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15
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Kuang YY, Gao X, Niu YJ, Shi XL, Zhou W. Polymorphic Characterization, Pharmacokinetics, and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Ginsenoside Compound K Polymorphs. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26071983. [PMID: 33915860 PMCID: PMC8037814 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymorphism exhibits different physicochemical properties, which can impact the bioavailability and bioactivity of solid drugs. This study focused on identifying the polymorphs of ginsenoside compound K (CK) and studying their different behaviors in pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD). Four CK polymorphs (form I, II, III, and IV) from organic solvents were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). A feasible LC-MS/MS method was exploited to determine the PK parameters. Form II displayed the most exposure, followed by form I, III, and IV. Notably, all forms showed sex dimorphism, and the bioavailability in the female group was about two-fold higher than in the male group. The PD properties were investigated in carrageenan-induced acute paw inflammation, and form II at 20 mg/kg showed significant inhibition of edema by 42.7%. This study clarified the polymorphic, PK, and PD characters of four crystal forms of CK, and the data suggested that form II had the best efficacy for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Yan Kuang
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, 2005 Songhu Road, Shanghai 200438, China;
| | - Xuan Gao
- Children’s Hospital, Fudan University, 399 Wanyuan Road, Shanghai 201102, China;
| | - Yi-Jun Niu
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China; (Y.-J.N.); (X.-L.S.)
| | - Xun-Long Shi
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China; (Y.-J.N.); (X.-L.S.)
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, 2005 Songhu Road, Shanghai 200438, China;
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +86-21-5423-7431
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16
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Systematic optimization of the yeast cell factory for sustainable and high efficiency production of bioactive ginsenoside compound K. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2021; 6:69-76. [PMID: 33869813 PMCID: PMC8040117 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2021.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Compound K (CK) has been recognized as a major functional component that is absorbed into the systemic circulation after oral administration of ginseng. CK demonstrates diverse bioactivities. A phase I clinical study indicated that CK was a potential candidate for arthritis therapy. However, a phase II clinical study was suspended because of the high cost associated with the present CK manufacturing approach, which is based on the traditional planting-extracting-biotransforming process. We previously elucidated the complete CK biosynthetic pathway and realized for the first time de novo biosynthesis of CK from glucose by engineered yeast. However, CK production was not sufficient for industrial application. Here, we systematically engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae to achieve high titer production of CK from glucose using a previously constructed protopanaxadiol (PPD)-producing chassis, optimizing UGTPg1 expression, improving UDP-glucose biosynthesis, and tuning down UDP-glucose consumption. Our final engineered yeast strain produced CK with a titer of 5.74 g/L in fed-batch fermentation, which represents the highest CK production in microbes reported to date. Once scaled-up, this high titer de novo microbial biosynthesis platform will enable a robust and stable supply of CK, thus facilitating study and medical application of CK.
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17
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Guo YP, Shao L, Wang L, Chen MY, Zhang W, Huang WH. Bioconversion variation of ginsenoside CK mediated by human gut microbiota from healthy volunteers and colorectal cancer patients. Chin Med 2021; 16:28. [PMID: 33731196 PMCID: PMC7968294 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-021-00436-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ginsenoside CK (GCK) serves as the potential anti-colorectal cancer (CRC) protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type saponin, which could be mainly bio-converted to yield PPD by gut microbiota. Meanwhile, the anti-CRC effects of GCK could be altered by gut microbiota due to their different diversity in CRC patients. We aimed to investigate the bioconversion variation of GCK mediated by gut microbiota from CRC patients by comparing with healthy subjects. Methods Gut microbiota profiled by 16S rRNA gene sequencing were collected from healthy volunteers and CRC patients. GCK was incubated with gut microbiota in vitro. A LC-MS/MS method was validated to quantify GCK and PPD after incubation at different time points. Results The bioconversion of GCK in healthy subjects group was much faster than CRC group, as well as the yield of PPD. Moreover, significant differences of PPD concentration between healthy subjects group and CRC group could be observed at 12 h, 48 h and 72 h check points. According to 16S rRNA sequencing, the profiles of gut microbiota derived from healthy volunteers and CRC patients significantly varied, in which 12 differentially abundant taxon were found, such as Bifidobacterium, Roseburia, Bacteroides and Collinsella. Spearman’s correlation analysis showed bacteria enriched in healthy subjects group were positively associated with the biotransformation of GCK, while bacteria enriched in CRC group displayed non correlation character. Among them, Roseburia which could secrete β-glycosidase showed the strongest positive association with the bioconversion of GCK. Conclusions The bioconversion of GCK in healthy subjects was much faster than CRC patients mediated by gut microbiota, which might alter the anti-CRC effects of GCK. ![]() Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13020-021-00436-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Ping Guo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Li Shao
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410128, Hunan, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Man-Yun Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Wei-Hua Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China. .,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, China. .,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, 410008, Changsha, China. .,NHC Key Laboratory of Birth Defect for Research and Prevention (Hunan Provincial Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital), Changsha, 410008, Hunan, China.
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18
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Ginsenoside compound K- a potential drug for rheumatoid arthritis. Pharmacol Res 2021; 166:105498. [PMID: 33609698 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease, if prescription of effective delayed, the articular disturbances may lead to disability. Ginsenoside compound K (GCK) is the main degradation product of oral ginsenosides in the human intestine. Numerous researches in vitro and in vivo have recorded the anti-arthritic effect of GCK, we discuss the mechanisms from the following three aspects, including anti-inflammatory, immune-regulatory, and bone-protective, respectively, in this review, and the anti-arthritic mechanism of GCK may be related to the effect on TNF-α-TNFR2, glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and β-arrestin1/2. We also describe the anti-anemia effect of GCK to open the possibility that GCK can be used as an effective disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug (DMARD).
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19
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Sharma A, Lee HJ. Ginsenoside Compound K: Insights into Recent Studies on Pharmacokinetics and Health-Promoting Activities. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E1028. [PMID: 32664389 PMCID: PMC7407392 DOI: 10.3390/biom10071028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is an herb popular for its medicinal and health properties. Compound K (CK) is a secondary ginsenoside biotransformed from major ginsenosides. Compound K is more bioavailable and soluble than its parent ginsenosides and hence of immense importance. The review summarizes health-promoting in vitro and in vivo studies of CK between 2015 and 2020, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, anti-aging/skin protective, and others. Clinical trial data are minimal and are primarily based on CK-rich fermented ginseng. Besides, numerous preclinical and clinical studies indicating the pharmacokinetic behavior of CK, its parent compound (Rb1), and processed ginseng extracts are also summarized. With the limited evidence available from animal and clinical studies, it can be stated that CK is safe and well-tolerated. However, lower water solubility, membrane permeability, and efflux significantly diminish the efficacy of CK and restrict its clinical application. We found that the use of nanocarriers and cyclodextrin for CK delivery could overcome these limitations as well as improve the health benefits associated with them. However, these derivatives have not been clinically evaluated, thus requiring a safety assessment for human therapy application. Future studies should be aimed at investigating clinical evidence of CK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshul Sharma
- Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Bionanotechnology, Gachon University, Gyeonggi-do 13120, Korea;
| | - Hae-Jeung Lee
- Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Bionanotechnology, Gachon University, Gyeonggi-do 13120, Korea;
- Institute for Aging and Clinical Nutrition Research, Gachon University, Gyeonggi-do 13120, Korea
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20
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Guo YP, Shao L, Chen MY, Qiao RF, Zhang W, Yuan JB, Huang WH. In Vivo Metabolic Profiles of Panax notoginseng Saponins Mediated by Gut Microbiota in Rats. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:6835-6844. [PMID: 32449854 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Panax notoginseng saponins (PNSs) are the major health-beneficial components of P. notoginseng with very low oral bioavailability, which could be biotransformed by gut microbiota in vitro. However, in vivo biotransformation of PNS mediated by gut microbiota is not well known. This study aimed to characterize the in vivo metabolic profiles of PNS mediated by gut microbiota. The saponins and yielded metabolites in rat feces were identified and relatively quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Seventy-three PNS metabolites had been identified in the normal control group, but only 11 PNS metabolites were determined in the pseudo germ-free (GF) group. In addition, the main biotransformation pathway of PNS metabolism was hydrolytic and dehydration reactions. The results indicated that a significant metabolic difference was observed between the normal control group and pseudo GF group, while gut microbiota played a profound role in the biotransformation of PNS in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Ping Guo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Li Shao
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Man-Yun Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Ri-Fa Qiao
- Key Laboratory of Modern Preparation of TCM, Ministry of Education, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Jin-Bin Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Modern Preparation of TCM, Ministry of Education, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Wei-Hua Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 110, Changsha 410008, China
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21
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Pharmacokinetics and Intestinal Metabolism of Compound K in Rats and Mice. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12020129. [PMID: 32028741 PMCID: PMC7076525 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12020129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to investigate the plasma concentration, tissue distribution, and elimination of compound K following the intravenous administration of compound K (2 mg/kg) in rats and mice. The plasma concentrations of compound K in mice were much higher (about five-fold) than those in rats. In both rats and mice, compound K was mainly distributed in the liver and underwent biliary excretion. There was 28.4% fecal recovery of compound K in mice and 13.8% in rats, whereas its renal recovery was less than 0.1% in both rats and mice. Relative quantification of compound K and its metabolite protopanaxadiol (PPD) in rat bile and intestinal feces indicated that the metabolism from compound K into PPD occurred in the intestine but not in the plasma. Therefore, PPD detected in the plasma samples could have been absorbed from the intestine after metabolism in control rats, while PPD could not be detected in the plasma samples from bile duct cannulated rats. In conclusion, mice and rats shared common features such as exclusive liver distribution, major excretion pathway via biliary route, and intestinal metabolism to PPD. However, there were significant differences between rats and mice in the plasma concentrations of compound K and the fecal recovery of compound K and PPD.
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Zhou L, Chen L, Zeng X, Liao J, Ouyang D. Ginsenoside compound K alleviates sodium valproate-induced hepatotoxicity in rats via antioxidant effect, regulation of peroxisome pathway and iron homeostasis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2019; 386:114829. [PMID: 31734319 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sodium valproate (SVP) is a first-line treatment for various forms of epilepsy; however, it can cause severe liver injury. Ginsenoside compound K (G-CK) is the main active ingredient of the traditional herbal medicine ginseng. According to our previous research, SVP-induced elevation of ALT and AST levels, as well as pathological changes of liver tissue, was believed to be significantly reversed by G-CK in LiCl-pilocarpine induced epileptic rats. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the protective effect of G-CK on hepatotoxicity caused by SVP. The rats treated with SVP showed liver injury with evident increases in hepatic index, transaminases activity, alkaline phosphatase level, hepatic triglyceride and lipid peroxidation; significant decreases in plasma albumin level and antioxidant capacity; and obvious changes in histopathological and subcellular structures. All of these changes could be mitigated by co-administration with G-CK. Proteomic analysis indicated that hepcidin, soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH, UniProt ID P80299), and the peroxisome pathway were involved in the hepatoprotective effect of G-CK. Changes in protein expression of hepcidin and sEH were verified by ELISA and Western blot analysis, respectively. In addition, we observed that the hepatic iron rose in SVP group and decreased in the combination group. In summary, our findings demonstrate the clear hepatoprotective effect of G-CK against SVP-induced hepatotoxicity through the antioxidant effect, regulation of peroxisome pathway relying on sEH (P80299) downregulation, as well as regulation of iron homeostasis dependent on hepcidin upregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, P.R. China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Lulu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, P.R. China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, Hunan, P.R. China; Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, Hunan 410000, P.R. China
| | - Xiangchang Zeng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, P.R. China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Jianwei Liao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, P.R. China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Dongsheng Ouyang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, P.R. China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410078, P.R. China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, Hunan, P.R. China; Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, Hunan 410000, P.R. China.
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Guo YP, Chen MY, Shao L, Zhang W, Rao T, Zhou HH, Huang WH. Quantification of Panax notoginseng saponins metabolites in rat plasma with in vivo gut microbiota-mediated biotransformation by HPLC-MS/MS. Chin J Nat Med 2019; 17:231-240. [PMID: 30910060 DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(19)30026-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are the major components of Panax notoginseng, with multiple pharmacological activities but poor oral bioavailability. PNS could be metabolized by gut microbiota in vitro, while the exact role of gut microbiota of PNS metabolism in vivo remains poorly understood. In this study, pseudo germ-free rat models were constructed by using broad-spectrum antibiotics to validate the gut microbiota-mediated transformation of PNS in vivo. Moreover, a high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) was developed for quantitative analysis of four metabolites of PNS, including ginsenoside F1 (GF1), ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2), ginsenoside compound K (GCK) and protopanaxatriol (PPT). The results showed that the four metabolites could be detected in the control rat plasma, while they could not be determined in pseudo germ-free rat plasma. The results implied that PNS could not be biotransformed effectively when gut microbiota was disrupted. In conclusion, gut microbiota plays an important role in biotransformation of PNS into metabolites in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Ping Guo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Man-Yun Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Li Shao
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Tai Rao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Hong-Hao Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Wei-Hua Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China.
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Cui CH, Jeon BM, Fu Y, Im WT, Kim SC. High-density immobilization of a ginsenoside-transforming β-glucosidase for enhanced food-grade production of minor ginsenosides. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:7003-7015. [PMID: 31289903 PMCID: PMC6690934 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09951-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Use of recombinant glycosidases is a promising approach for the production of minor ginsenosides, e.g., Compound K (CK) and F1, which have potential applications in the food industry. However, application of these recombinant enzymes for food-grade preparation of minor ginsenosides are limited by the lack of suitable expression hosts and low productivity. In this study, Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC13032, a GRAS strain that has been used extensively for the industrial-grade production of additives for foodstuffs, was employed to express a novel β-glucosidase (MT619) from Microbacterium testaceum ATCC 15829 with high ginsenoside-transforming activity. A cellulose-binding module was additionally fused to the N-terminus of MT619 for immobilization on cellulose, which is an abundant and safe material. Via one-step immobilization, the fusion protein in cell lysates was efficiently immobilized on regenerated amorphous cellulose at a high density (maximum 984 mg/g cellulose), increasing the enzyme concentration by 286-fold. The concentrated and immobilized enzyme showed strong conversion activities against protopanaxadiol- and protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides for the production of CK and F1. Using gram-scale ginseng extracts as substrates, the immobilized enzyme produced 7.59 g/L CK and 9.42 g/L F1 in 24 h. To the best of our knowledge, these are the highest reported product concentrations of CK and F1, and this is the first time that a recombinant enzyme has been immobilized on cellulose for the preparation of minor ginsenosides. This safe, convenient, and efficient production method could also be effectively exploited in the preparation of food-processing recombinant enzymes in the pharmaceutical, functional food, and cosmetics industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Hao Cui
- Intelligent Synthetic Biology Center, 291 Daehak-Ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, 305-701, Korea.,The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, No. 101 Shanghai Road, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, People's Republic of China
| | - Byeong-Min Jeon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-Ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, 305-701, Korea
| | - Yaoyao Fu
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, No. 101 Shanghai Road, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, People's Republic of China
| | - Wan-Taek Im
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hankyong National University, 327 Chungang-Ro, Anseong City, Kyonggi-Do, 456-749, Korea
| | - Sun-Chang Kim
- Intelligent Synthetic Biology Center, 291 Daehak-Ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, 305-701, Korea. .,Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-Ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, 305-701, Korea. .,KAIST Institute for Biocentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-Ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, 305-701, Korea.
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Kim JK, Choi MS, Jeung W, Ra J, Yoo HH, Kim DH. Effects of gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides Rd, Rg3, F2, and compound K in healthy volunteers treated orally with red ginseng. J Ginseng Res 2019; 44:611-618. [PMID: 32617041 PMCID: PMC7322745 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is well recognized that gut microbiota is involved in the biotransformation of ginsenosides by converting the polar ginsenosides to nonpolar bioactive ginsenosides. However, the roles of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in humans have not yet been fully elucidated. Methods Red ginseng (RG) or fermented red ginseng was orally administered to 34 healthy Korean volunteers, and the serum concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the fecal ginsenoside Rd- and compound K (CK)-forming activities were measured. Then, the correlations between the pharmacokinetic profiles of the ginsenosides and the fecal ginsenoside-metabolizing activities were investigated. Results For the RG group, the area under the serum concentration-time curve values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 8.20 ± 11.95 ng·h/mL, 4.54 ± 3.70 ng·h/mL, 36.40 ± 19.68 ng·h/mL, and 40.30 ± 29.83 ng·h/mL, respectively. For the fermented red ginseng group, the the area under curve from zero to infinity (AUC∞) values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 187.90 ± 95.87 ng·h/mL, 30.24 ± 41.87 ng·h/mL, 28.68 ± 14.27 ng·h/mL, and 137.01 ± 96.16 ng·h/mL, respectively. The fecal CK-forming activities of the healthy volunteers were generally proportional to their ginsenoside Rd-forming activities. The area under the serum concentration-time curve value of CK exhibited an obvious positive correlation (r = 0.566, p < 0.01) with the fecal CK-forming activity. Conclusion The gut microbiota may play an important role in the bioavailability of the nonpolar RG ginsenosides by affecting the biotransformation of the ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeon-Kyung Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Sun Choi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Woonhee Jeung
- R&BD Center, Korea Yakult Co. Ltd., Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Jehyeon Ra
- R&BD Center, Korea Yakult Co. Ltd., Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Hyun Yoo
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dong-Hyun Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
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LC-MS/MS determination of ginsenoside compound K and its metabolite 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol in human plasma and urine: applications in a clinical study. Bioanalysis 2019; 11:365-380. [PMID: 30873858 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2018-0185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is considered to be a potential therapeutic drug for rheumatoid arthritis because of its good anti-inflammatory activity. The purpose of this work was to establish a rapid, sensitive and specific method for determination of CK and its active metabolite 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (20(S)-PPD). Materials & methods: The analytes and internal standards were extracted by liquid-liquid extraction. Then, were separated by high performance liquid phase and determined by triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. RESULTS A LC-MS/MS using liquid-liquid extraction was developed for determining CK over the concentration range 1.00-1002.00 ng/ml and 0.15-54.30 ng/ml for 20(S)-PPD. The lower limits of quantification for CK and 20(S)-PPD were 1.00 and 0.15 ng/ml, respectively. CONCLUSION This method was successfully validated for detecting both CK and 20(S)-PPD in the human plasma and urine, and was proved to be suitable for the pharmacokinetic study of CK in healthy Chinese volunteers. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER ChiCTR-TRC-14004824.
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Zong W, Zeng X, Chen S, Chen L, Zhou L, Wang X, Gao Q, Zeng G, Hu K, Ouyang D. Ginsenoside compound K attenuates cognitive deficits in vascular dementia rats by reducing the Aβ deposition. J Pharmacol Sci 2019; 139:223-230. [PMID: 30799178 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2019.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is the main metabolite of protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides and has been demonstrated to exert neuroprotective and cognition-enhancing effects. The effects of CK on cognitive function in vascular dementia (VD) has not been elucidated. Therefore, the present study aims to elucidate the effects of CK on memory function as well as its potential mechanism in VD rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion (CCH) by permanent bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (2VO). CCH induced neuronal damage and aggravated the aggregation of Amyloid-β1-42 peptides (Aβ1-42), which plays a critical role in the neurotoxicity and cognitive impairment. CK treatment attenuated CCH-induced Aβ1-42 deposition and ameliorated cognition impairment. Furthermore, CK enhanced the activity of the pSer9-Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (pSer9-GSK3β) and the insulin degrading enzyme (IDE), which mainly involved the production and clearance of Aβ1-42. Moreover, CK treatment enhanced the activity of protein kinase B (PKB/Akt), a key kinase in phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway that can regulate the activity of GSK-3β and IDE. In short, our findings provide the first evidence that CK might attenuate cognitive deficits and Aβ1-42 deposition in the hippocampus via enhancing the expression of pSer9-GSK-3β and IDE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Zong
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangchang Zeng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Siyu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Lulu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China; Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, Hunan, 410000, People's Republic of China
| | - Luping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Xintong Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Gao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Guirong Zeng
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, 410331, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Hu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Dongsheng Ouyang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China; Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, Hunan, 410000, People's Republic of China.
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Zeng X, Hu K, Chen L, Zhou L, Luo W, Li C, Zong W, Chen S, Gao Q, Zeng G, Jiang D, Li X, Zhou H, Ouyang DS. The Effects of Ginsenoside Compound K Against Epilepsy by Enhancing the γ-Aminobutyric Acid Signaling Pathway. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1020. [PMID: 30254585 PMCID: PMC6142013 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The imbalance between the GABA-mediated inhibition and the glutamate-mediated excitation is the primary pathological mechanism of epilepsy. GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission have become the most important targets for controlling epilepsy. Ginsenoside compound K (GCK) is a main metabolic production of the ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, and Rc in the intestinal microbiota. Previous studies show that GCK promoted the release of GABA from the hippocampal neurons and enhanced the activity of GABAA receptors. GCK is shown to reduce the expression of NMDAR and to attenuate the function of the NMDA receptors in the brain. The anti-seizure effects of GCK have not been reported so far. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of GCK on epilepsy and its potential mechanism. The rat model of seizure or status epilepticus (SE) was established with either Pentylenetetrazole or Lithium chloride-pilocarpine. The Racine's scale was used to evaluate seizure activity. The levels of the amino acid neurotransmitters were detected in the pilocarpine-induced epileptic rats. The expression levels of GABAARα1, NMDAR1, KCC2, and NKCC1 protein in the hippocampus were determined via western blot or immunohistochemistry after SE. We found that GCK had deceased seizure intensity and prolonged the latency of seizures. GCK increased the contents of GABA, while the contents of glutamate remained unchanged. GCK enhanced the expression of GABAARα1 in the brain and exhibited a tendency to decrease the expression of NMDAR1 protein in the hippocampus. The expression of KCC2 protein was elevated by the treatment of GCK after SE, while the expression of NKCC1 protein was reversely down-regulated. These findings suggested that GCK exerted anti-epileptic effects by promoting the hippocampal GABA release and enhancing the GABAAR-mediated inhibitory synaptic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangchang Zeng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Kai Hu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lulu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Luping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wei Luo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Chaopeng Li
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wenjing Zong
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Siyu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Qing Gao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Guirong Zeng
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China
| | - Dejian Jiang
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaohui Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha Duxact Biotech Co., Ltd., Changsha, China
| | - Honghao Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Dong-Sheng Ouyang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha Duxact Biotech Co., Ltd., Changsha, China
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Kim EH, Kim W. An Insight into Ginsenoside Metabolite Compound K as a Potential Tool for Skin Disorder. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2018; 2018:8075870. [PMID: 30046346 PMCID: PMC6036801 DOI: 10.1155/2018/8075870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenosides are the major bioactive natural compounds derived from Panax ginseng. Several studies report the pharmaceutical benefits of several ginsenosides, including antidementia, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory activity. Biotransformations by gut microbiome contribute to the biological function of these ginsenosides. After ingestion ginsenosides are hydrolyzed to Rg2, Rg3, compound K, and others by human gut flora. Compound K is considered the representative active metabolite after oral administration of ginseng or ginsenosides. Various studies report the diverse biological functions of compound K, such as antitumor, antidiabetic, antiallergic, and anti-inflammatory activity. Recent clinical trial and in vitro studies demonstrate the antiaging activities of ginsenosides in human skin. Ginsenosides have been considered as an important natural dermatological agent. In this review, we will cover the modern tools and techniques to understand biotransformation and delivery of compound K. Also the biological function of compound K on skin disorder and its potential dermatological application will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- En Hyung Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Cheil General Hospital and Women's Healthcare Center, Dankook University College of Medicine, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Wonnam Kim
- Division of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Semyung University, Jecheon, Republic of Korea
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Impact of NR1I2, adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters genetic polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenoside compound K in healthy Chinese volunteers. J Ginseng Res 2018; 43:460-474. [PMID: 31308818 PMCID: PMC6606825 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a promising drug candidate for rheumatoid arthritis. This study examined the impact of polymorphisms in NR1I2, adenosine triphosphate–binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes on the pharmacokinetics of CK in healthy Chinese individuals. Methods Forty-two targeted variants in seven genes were genotyped in 54 participants using Sequenom MassARRAY system to investigate their association with major pharmacokinetic parameters of CK and its metabolite 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD). Subsequently, molecular docking was simulated using the AutoDock Vina program. Results ABCC4 rs1751034 TT and rs1189437 TT were associated with increased exposure of CK and decreased exposure of 20(S)-PPD, whereas CFTR rs4148688 heterozygous carriers had the lowest maximum concentration (Cmax) of CK. The area under the curve from zero to the time of the last quantifiable concentration (AUClast) of CK was decreased in NR1I2 rs1464602 and rs2472682 homozygous carriers, while Cmax was significantly reduced only in rs2472682. ABCC4 rs1151471 and CFTR rs2283054 influenced the pharmacokinetics of 20(S)-PPD. In addition, several variations in ABCC2, ABCC4, CFTR, and NR1I2 had minor effects on the pharmacokinetics of CK. Quality of the best homology model of multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4) was assessed, and the ligand interaction plot showed the mode of interaction of CK with different MRP4 residues. Conlusion ABCC4 rs1751034 and rs1189437 affected the pharmacokinetics of both CK and 20(S)-PPD. NR1I2 rs1464602 and rs2472682 were only associated with the pharmacokinetics of CK. Thus, these hereditary variances could partly explain the interindividual differences in the pharmacokinetics of CK.
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Chen L, Zhou L, Huang J, Wang Y, Yang G, Tan Z, Wang Y, Zhou G, Liao J, Ouyang D. Single- and Multiple-Dose Trials to Determine the Pharmacokinetics, Safety, Tolerability, and Sex Effect of Oral Ginsenoside Compound K in Healthy Chinese Volunteers. Front Pharmacol 2018; 8:965. [PMID: 29375375 PMCID: PMC5769417 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and objectives: Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a candidate drug for rheumatoid arthritis therapy. The objective of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetic properties, safety and tolerability of CK. Methods: In randomized, double-blind trials, 76 healthy Chinese subjects received 1 of 7 single oral doses (25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800 mg) of CK or placebo under fasting condition, and another 36 subjects received repeated oral doses (100, 200, or 400 mg) of CK or placebo for up to 9 days a week after a corresponding single dose, after breakfast. Both sexes were equally represented in the two trials. Pharmacokinetic parameters of CK and its metabolite 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD) were calculated and statistically analyzed according to the plasma concentration data. Tolerability was evaluated by adverse events (AEs) and laboratory examinations. Results: The range of time to maximum concentration (Tmax) was 1.5–6.0 h, with a linear increase in the exposure of CK over the dose range of 100–400 mg. Steady state was reached after the 7th administration, and the accumulation index range was 2.60–2.78. Sex differences were characterized by a higher exposure in females than males with the single administration after breakfast. In addition, no severe AEs were observed. Conclusion: CK was safe and well-tolerated over the treatment period. The sex- and food-related impacts on CK pharmacokinetics need further investigations to be validated. (Registration number: ChiCTR-TRC-14004824 and ChiCTR-IPR-15006107, http://www.chictr.org.cn/index.aspx).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Luping Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yaqin Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Guoping Yang
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhirong Tan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yicheng Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Gan Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jianwei Liao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Dongsheng Ouyang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory for Bioanalysis of Complex Matrix Samples, Changsha, China
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