The Essential Oils and Eucalyptol From Artemisia vulgaris L. Prevent Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury by Activating Nrf2-Keap1 and Enhancing APAP Clearance Through Non-Toxic Metabolic Pathway

Protective effects of Lavandula stoechas and Thymus numidicus essential oils against deltamethrin-induced hematological and biochemical toxicity in female rabbits

Recent studies have shown that essential oils (EOs) extracted from medicinal and aromatic plants have herbicidal and/or insecticidal properties, helping to mitigate the toxicity experienced by living organisms exposed to pesticides. Moreover, the primary compounds isolated from these EOs also have the potential to reduce pesticide-induced damage. The present work aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Thymus numidicus (TNEO) and Lavandula stoechas (LSEO) against Deltamethrin-induced toxicity in female rabbits. The results obtained by GC/MS analysis showed that monoterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes were the main components of the EOs extracted from the aerial parts of Thymus numidicus and Lavandula stoechas. The use of the pesticide Deltamethrin caused significant damage to the liver and kidneys (p < 0.05), together with blood disorders, signs of restlessness and tremors. However, females treated with TNEO showed better tolerance than the group treated with LSEO. The combination of both oils showed more pronounced protective effects. This suggests a potential synergistic effect in reducing deltamethrin-induced toxicity.

Alpinia officinarum Hance Essential Oil as Potent Antipseudomonal Agent: Chemical Profile, Antibacterial Activity, and Computational Study

Alpinia officinarum Hance, is an aromatic and medicinal herb with a very interesting history and prominent chemical and biological prospects. We aimed to investigate the antibacterial activity of Alpinia officinarum essential oil and the preferred molecular targets of its constituents together with their pharmacokinetic properties and toxicity profile. According to GC-MS analysis, eucalyptol was the main compound (27.52 %) identified in Alpinia officinarum essential oil, followed by α-terpineol, and β-sesquiphellandrene. As opposed to the weak antiradical activity estimated by DPPH and ABTS tests, the essential oil caused inhibition of all the bacteria following well-diffusion and microdilution methods, especially the gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. It displayed exceptionally remarkable activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa by totally inhibiting its growth on the agar plate exceeding the effect of chloramphenicol standard. This bactericidal effect was confirmed by very low MIC and MBC values of 0.82 and 6.562 μg/mL, respectively. The molecular docking showed interesting binding affinity between the major compounds and various drug targets in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, also good pharmacokinetic and toxicity behavior. These encouraging findings are particularly relevant in light of the increasingly pressing challenge to find alternative substances with antibacterial aptitude to address the issue of antibiotic resistance among infectious bacteria.

Protective effects of Lavandula stoechas and Thymus numidicus essential oils against deltamethrin-induced hematological and biochemical toxicity in female rabbits

Recent studies have shown that essential oils (EOs) extracted from medicinal and aromatic plants have herbicidal and/or insecticidal properties, helping to mitigate the toxicity experienced by living organisms exposed to pesticides. Moreover, the primary compounds isolated from these EOs also have the potential to reduce pesticide-induced damage. The present work aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Thymus numidicus (TNEO) and Lavandula stoechas (LSEO) against Deltamethrin-induced toxicity in female rabbits. The results obtained by GC/MS analysis showed that monoterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes were the main components of the EOs extracted from the aerial parts of Thymus numidicus and Lavandula stoechas. The use of the pesticide Deltamethrin caused significant damage to the liver and kidneys (p < 0.05), together with blood disorders, signs of restlessness and tremors. However, females treated with TNEO showed better tolerance than the group treated with LSEO. The combination of both oils showed more pronounced protective effects. This suggests a potential synergistic effect in reducing deltamethrin-induced toxicity.

Protective effects of chlorogenic acid against cyclophosphamide induced liver injury in mice

We investigated possible protective effects of chlorogenic acid (CGA) against cyclophosphamide (CP) induced hepatic injury in mice. We measured aminotransferase alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) levels in the serum. We assayed catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in hepatic tissue. We assessed expression of nuclear transcription factor 2 (Nrf2) and Kelch sample related protein-1 (keap1) proteins in hepatic tissues using immunohistochemistry. The relative mRNA expression levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NADH quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were determined using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Hematoxylin & eosin staining was used to assess liver histopathology. We found that administration of CGA prior to induction of injury by CP decreased serum ALT, AST and MDA expressions in hepatic tissue, while CAT, SOD, GSH and GSH-Px concentrations were increased. We found that hepatocytes of animals administered CGA gradually returned to normal morphology. CGA increased the protein expression of Nrf2 in murine hepatic tissue. Administration of CGA up-regulated mRNA expression levels of HO-1, NQO1, TNF-α and IL-6 in hepatic tissue. CGA exhibited a marked protective effect on CP induced liver injury in mice.

Procedures to evaluate potential of plants as natural food preservatives: Phytochemical characterization, novel extraction technology, and safety evaluation-A comprehensive review

There is increasing demand for natural food preservative in food manufacturing industry as it is the key to meet consumers' preferences toward healthier food choice. Plant is listed among the most important resources of bioactive components to be utilized as the green and natural food preservatives. There are more than 10,000 kinds of bioactive components in plants that possess antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Artemisia with potential antimicrobial and antioxidant attributes, as well as functional and medicinal properties, is one of the most important plant species. The manuscript presents a comprehensive review of the potential of the Artemisia species as natural food preservatives. The current challenges and ways forward in using Artemisia EOs and extracts as food preservatives are also discussed. This topic is timely and important considering the natural preservatives used to replace chemical ingredients, sustaining quality, healthy properties, and shelf life of food products as well as efficient and novel extraction techniques.

Artemvulactone E isolated from Artemisia vulgaris L. ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in both RAW264.7 and zebrafish model

Introduction

Natural plants are valuable resources for exploring new bioactive compounds. Artemisia vulgaris L. is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb that has been historically used for treating multiple diseases. Active compounds isolated and extracted from A. vulgaris L. typically possess immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Artemvulactone E (AE) is a new sesquiterpene lactone isolated and extracted from A. vulgaris L. with unclear biological activities.

Methods

The immunoregulatory effects of AE on macrophages were assessed by ELISA, RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence, and western blot assay. The effect of AE on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -relates signaling pathways was examined by western blot assay. In zebrafish models, the larvae were yolk-microinjected with LPS to establish inflammation model and the effect of AE was evaluated by determining the survival rate, heart rate, yolk sac edema size, neutrophils and macrophages infiltration of zebrafish. The interaction between AE and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was examined by molecular docking and dynamic stimulation.

Results

AE reduced the expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), inflammatory mediators iNOS and COX-2, as well as decreases the production of intracellular NO and ROS in LPS-stimulated macrophages. In addition, AE exerted its anti-inflammatory effect synergistically by inhibiting MAPK/JAK/STAT3-NF-κB signaling pathways. Furthermore, AE enhanced the survival rate and attenuated inflammatory response in zebrafish embryos treated with LPS. Finally, the molecular dynamics results indicate that AE forms stable complexes with LPS receptor TLR4 through the Ser127 residue, thus completely impairing the subsequent activation of MAPK-NF-κB signaling.

Conclusion

AE exhibits notable anti-inflammatory activity and represents as a potential agent for treating inflammation-associated diseases.

Deciphering Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity: The Crucial Role of Transcription Factors like Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 as Genetic Determinants of Susceptibility to Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Acetaminophen (APAP) is the most commonly used over-the-counter medication throughout the world. At therapeutic doses, APAP has potent analgesic and antipyretic effects. The efficacy and safety of APAP are influenced by multifactorial processes dependent upon dosing, namely frequency and total dose. APAP poisoning by repeated ingestion of supratherapeutic doses, depletes glutathione stores in the liver and other organs capable of metabolic bioactivation, leading to hepatocellular death due to exhausted antioxidant defenses. Numerous genes, encompassing transcription factors and signaling pathways, have been identified as playing pivotal roles in APAP toxicity, with the liver being the primary organ studied due to its central role in APAP metabolism and injury. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and its array of downstream responsive genes are crucial in counteracting APAP toxicity. NRF2, along with its negative regulator Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1, plays a vital role in regulating intracellular redox homeostasis. This regulation is significant in modulating the oxidative stress, inflammation, and hepatocellular death induced by APAP. In this review, we provide an updated overview of the mechanisms through which NRF2 activation and signaling critically influence the threshold for developing APAP toxicity. We also describe how genetically modified rodent models for NRF2 and related genes have been pivotal in underscoring the significance of this antioxidant response pathway. While NRF2 is a primary focus, the article comprehensively explores other genetic factors involved in phase I and phase II metabolism of APAP, inflammation, oxidative stress, and related pathways that contribute to APAP toxicity, thereby providing a holistic understanding of the genetic landscape influencing susceptibility to this condition. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review summarizes the genetic elements and signaling pathways underlying APAP-induced liver toxicity, focusing on the crucial protective role of the transcription factor NRF2. This review also delves into the genetic intricacies influencing APAP safety and potential liver harm. It also emphasizes the need for deeper insight into the molecular mechanisms of hepatotoxicity, especially the interplay of NRF2 with other pathways.

Psilostachyin C reduces malignant properties of hepatocellular carcinoma cells by blocking CREBBP-mediated transcription of GATAD2B

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality globally. Many herbal medicines and their bioactive compounds have shown anti-tumor properties. This study was conducted to examine the effect of psilostachyin C (PSC), a sesquiterpenoid lactone isolated from Artemisia vulgaris L., in the malignant properties of HCC cells. CCK-8, flow cytometry, wound healing, and Transwell assays revealed that 25 μM PSC treatment significantly suppressed proliferation, cell cycle progression, migration, and invasion of two HCC cell lines (Hep 3B and Huh7) while promoting cell apoptosis. Bioinformatics prediction suggests CREB binding protein (CREBBP) as a promising target of PSC. CREBBP activated transcription of GATA zinc finger domain containing 2B (GATAD2B) by binding to its promoter. CREBBP and GATAD2B were highly expressed in clinical HCC tissues and the acquired HCC cell lines, but their expression was reduced by PSC. Either upregulation of CREBBP or GATAD2B restored the malignant properties of HCC cells blocked by PSC. Collectively, this evidence demonstrates that PSC pocessess anti-tumor functions in HCC cells by blocking CREBBP-mediated transcription of GATAD2B.

Genome-Wide Analysis of Aux/IAA Gene Family in Artemisia argyi: Identification, Phylogenetic Analysis, and Determination of Response to Various Phytohormones

Artemisia argyi is a traditional herbal medicine plant, and its folium artemisia argyi is widely in demand due to moxibustion applications globally. The Auxin/indole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA, or IAA) gene family has critical roles in the primary auxin-response process, with extensive involvement in plant development and stresses, controlling various essential traits of plants. However, the systematic investigation of the Aux/IAA gene family in A. argyi remains limited. In this study, a total of 61 Aux/IAA genes were comprehensively identified and characterized. Gene structural analysis indicated that 46 Aux/IAA proteins contain the four typical domains, and 15 Aux/IAA proteins belong to non-canonical IAA proteins. Collinear prediction and phylogenetic relationship analyses suggested that Aux/IAA proteins were grouped into 13 distinct categories, and most Aux/IAA genes might experience gene loss during the tandem duplication process. Promoter cis-element investigation indicated that Aux/IAA promoters contain a variety of plant hormone response and stress response cis-elements. Protein interaction prediction analysis demonstrated that AaIAA26/29/7/34 proteins are possibly core members of the Aux/IAA family interaction. Expression analysis in roots and leaves via RNA-seq data indicated that the expression of some AaIAAs exhibited tissue-specific expression patterns, and some AaIAAs were involved in the regulation of salt and saline-alkali stresses. In addition, RT-qPCR results indicated that AaIAA genes have differential responses to auxin, with complex response patterns in response to other hormones, indicating that Aux/IAA may play a role in connecting auxin and other hormone signaling pathways. Overall, these findings shed more light on AaIAA genes and offer critical foundational knowledge toward the elucidation of their function during plant growth, stress response, and hormone networking of Aux/IAA family genes in A. argyi.

The Fate of 1,8-cineole as a Chemical Penetrant: A Review

The stratum corneum continues to pose the biggest obstacle to transdermal drug delivery. Chemical penetrant, the first generation of transdermal drug delivery system, offers a lot of potential. In order to fully examine the permeation mechanism of 1,8-cineole, a natural monoterpene, this review summarizes the effects of permeation-enhancing medications on drugs that are lipophilic and hydrophilic as well as the toxicity of this substance on the skin and other tissues. For lower lipophilic drugs, 1,8-cineole appears to have a stronger osmotic-enhancing impact. An efficient and secure tactic would be to combine enhancers and dose forms. 1,8-cineole is anticipated to be further developed in the transdermal drug delivery system and even become a candidate drug for brain transport due to its permeability and low toxicity.

Artemdubinoids A-N: novel sesquiterpenoids with antihepatoma cytotoxicity from Artemisia dubia

In pursuit of effective agents for hepatocellular carcinoma derived from the Artemisia species, this study built upon initial findings that an ethanol (EtOH) extract and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction of the aerial parts of Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess. exhibited cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells with inhibitory rates of 57.1% and 84.2% (100 μg·mL-1), respectively. Guided by bioactivity, fourteen previously unidentified sesquiterpenes, artemdubinoids A-N (1-14), were isolated from the EtOAc fraction. Their structural elucidation was achieved through comprehensive spectroscopic analyses and corroborated by the comparison between the experimental and calculated ECD spectra. Single crystal X-ray diffraction provided definitive structure confirmation for artemdubinoids A, D, F, and H. Artemdubinoids A and B (1-2) represented unique sesquiterpenes featuring a 6/5-fused bicyclic carbon scaffold, and their putative biosynthetic pathways were discussed; artemdubinoid C (3) was a novel guaianolide derivative that might be formed by the [4 + 2] Diels-Alder reaction; artemdubinoids D and E (4-5) were rare 1,10-seco-guaianolides; artemdubinoids F-K (6-11) were chlorine-containing guaianolides. Eleven compounds exhibited cytotoxicity against three human hepatoma cell lines (HepG2, Huh7, and SK-Hep-1) with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values spanning 7.5-82.5 μmol·L-1. Artemdubinoid M (13) exhibited the most active cytotoxicity with IC50 values of 14.5, 7.5 and 8.9 μmol·L-1 against the HepG2, Huh7, and SK-Hep-1 cell lines, respectively, which were equivalent to the positive control, sorafenib.

1,8-cineole (eucalyptol): A versatile phytochemical with therapeutic applications across multiple diseases

1,8-cineole (Eucalyptol), a naturally occurring compound derived from botanical sources such as eucalyptus, rosemary, and camphor laurel, has a long history of use in traditional medicine and exhibits an array of biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, bronchodilatory, analgesic, and pro-apoptotic effects. Recent evidence has also indicated its potential role in managing conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, neuropathic pain, and cancer. This review spotlights the health advantages of 1,8-cineole, as demonstrated in clinical trials involving patients with respiratory disorders, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, bronchitis, and rhinosinusitis. In addition, we shed light on potential therapeutic applications of 1,8-cineole in various conditions, such as depression, epilepsy, peptic ulcer disease, diarrhea, cardiac-related heart diseases, and diabetes mellitus. A comprehensive understanding of 1,8-cineole's pharmacodynamics and safety aspects as well as developing effective formulations, might help to leverage its therapeutic value. This thorough review sets the stage for future research on diverse health benefits and potential uses of 1,8-cineole in tackling complex medical conditions.

Application of the herbal chemical marker ranking system (Herb MaRS) to the standardization of herbal raw materials: a case study

INTRODUCTION

Phytochemical standardization of herbal materials involves establishing consistent levels of one or more active ingredients or markers. It ensures the authenticity and quality of herbal materials, extracts, and their products. This research aimed to apply the herbal chemical marker ranking system (Herb MaRS) originally proposed for quality assurance of complex herbal products to establish markers for controlling the quality of herbal raw materials.

METHODS

The assessment of compounds for suitability as markers was based on the Herb MaRS, with minor modifications as follows: for more objective scoring, evidence of biological activity of the potential marker compound(s) was determined at three levels based on the number of symptoms of the disease condition a compound can treat or alleviate: (i) one symptom (1 point), two symptoms (2 points), and 3 or more symptoms (3 points). The reported concentrations of the compounds were also scored as follows: concentration not determined (0 points), concentration ≥ 5 ppm (1 point), concentration ≥ 50 ppm (2 points) and availability of analytical standards (1 point). Finally, the compounds were scored for the availability of an analytical method (1 point). The compounds were scored from 0 to 8, where 8 indicated the most suitable chemical marker.

RESULTS

The selected markers were as follows: aromadendrine, α-terpineol, globulol, and 1,8-cineol (in Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ); aloin, aloe emodin, acemannan (in Aloe barbadensis (L.) Burm.f. ), lupeol, lupenone, betulinic acid, betulin, and catechin (in Albizia coriaria Oliv.); mangiferin, catechin, quercetin, and gallic acid (in Mangifera indica L.); polygodial (in Warburgia ugandensis Sprague); azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbidin (in Azadirachta indica A. Juss. ); and 6,8,10-gingerols, and 6-shogaol (in Zingiber officinalis Roscoe).

CONCLUSIONS

Herb MaRS can be efficiently applied to select marker compounds for quality control of herbal materials. However, for herbs whose phytochemicals have not been sufficiently researched, it is difficult to establish evidence of activity, and there are no analytical standards and/or methods; this is the case for plants exclusively used in Africa. The markers identified should be incorporated into chromatographic fingerprints, their quantitative methods developed, and evaluated for applicability at the various stages of the production chain of herbal medicines; then, they can be included in future local plant monographs. There is also a need to build local capacity to isolate marker compounds, particularly those that are not sold by current vendors.

Fabrication of a protein-dextran conjugates formed oral nanoemulsion and its application to deliver the essential oil from Alpinia zerumbet Fructus

The injury of vascular endothelial cells caused by high glucose (HG) is one of the driving factors of vascular complications of diabetes. Oral administration is the most common route of administration for the treatment of diabetes and its vascular complications. Essential oil extracts from Chinese medicine possess potential therapeutic effects on vascular endothelial injury. However, low solubility and volatility of essential oils generally result in poor oral absorption. Development of nanocarriers for essential oils is a promising strategy to overcome the physiological barriers of oral absorption. In this study, a nanoemulsion composed of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-dextran sulfate (DS) conjugate and sodium deoxycholate (SD) was constructed. The nanoemulsions were verified with promoted oral absorption and prolonged circulation time. After the primary evaluation of the nanoemulsion, essential oil from Alpinia zerumbet Fructus (EOFAZ)-loaded nanoemulsion (denoted as EOFAZ@BD5/S) was prepared and characterized. Compared to the free EOFAZ, EOFAZ@BD5/S increased the protective effects on HG-induced HUVEC injury in vitro and ameliorative effects on the vascular endothelium disorder and tunica media fibroelastosis in a T2DM mouse model. Collectively, this study provides a nanoemulsion for the oral delivery of essential oils, which holds strong promise in the treatment of diabetes-induced vascular endothelial injury.

A Biomimetic Nanoparticle Exerting Protection against Acute Liver Failure by Suppressing CYP2E1 Activity and Scavenging Excessive ROS

Acute liver failure (ALF) is a severe liver disease caused by many reasons. One of them is the overdosed acetaminophen (APAP), which is metabolized into N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), an excessive toxic metabolite, by CYP2E1, resulting in excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), exhausted glutathione (GSH), and thereafter hepatocyte necrosis. N-acetylcysteine is the Food and Drug Administration-approved drug for detoxification of APAP, but it has limited clinical application due to the short therapeutic time window and concentration-related adverse effects. In this study, a carrier-free and bilirubin dotted nanoparticle (B/BG@N) is developed, which is formed using bilirubin and 18β-Glycyrrhetinic acid, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) is then adsorbed to mimic the in vivo behavior of the conjugated bilirubin for hitchhiking. The results demonstrate that B/BG@N can effectively reduce the production of NAPQI as well as exhibit antioxidant effects against intracellular oxidative stress via regulating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 signal axis and reducing the production of inflammatory factors. In vivo study shows that B/BG@N can effectively improve the clinical symptom of the mice model. This study suggests that B/BG@N own increases circulation half-life, improves accumulation in the liver, and dual detoxification, providing a promising strategy for clinical ALF treatment.

The hepatoprotective effect of Sophora viciifolia fruit extract against acetaminophen-induced liver injury in mice

This research demonstrated the protective effect and possible mechanism of the Sophora viciifolia extract (SVE) against acetaminophen-induced liver injury in mice. The levels of ALT and AST in the serum and antioxidant enzyme activity in the liver were measured. We used immunohistochemistry to detect CYP2E1, Nrf2, and Keap1 protein expression in the liver. The mRNA expression in the liver of TNF-α, NF-κB, and IL-6, Nrf2 and its downstream genes HO-1 and GCLC were measured by qRT-PCR. We found that SVE could decrease the ALT and AST levels, promote the activities of SOD, CAT, GSH-Px, and GSH, and ameliorate pathological liver lesions. SVE could down-regulate the mRNA expression of inflammatory factors and up-regulate Nrf2, HO-1 and GCLC. SVE reduced the protein expression of the CYP2E1 and increased the Nrf2 and Keap1. SVE has been shown to have a protective effect against APAP-induced liver injury, possibly through activation of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway.

A chromosome-scale genome assembly of Artemisia argyi reveals unbiased subgenome evolution and key contributions of gene duplication to volatile terpenoid diversity

Artemisia argyi Lévl. et Vant., a perennial Artemisia herb with an intense fragrance, is widely used in traditional medicine in China and many other Asian countries. Here, we present a chromosome-scale genome assembly of A. argyi comprising 3.89 Gb assembled into 17 pseudochromosomes. Phylogenetic and comparative genomic analyses revealed that A. argyi underwent a recent lineage-specific whole-genome duplication (WGD) event after divergence from Artemisia annua, resulting in two subgenomes. We deciphered the diploid ancestral genome of A. argyi, and unbiased subgenome evolution was observed. The recent WGD led to a large number of duplicated genes in the A. argyi genome. Expansion of the terpene synthase (TPS) gene family through various types of gene duplication may have greatly contributed to the diversity of volatile terpenoids in A. argyi. In particular, we identified a typical germacrene D synthase gene cluster within the expanded TPS gene family. The entire biosynthetic pathways of germacrenes, (+)-borneol, and (+)-camphor were elucidated in A. argyi. In addition, partial deletion of the amorpha-4,11-diene synthase (ADS) gene and loss of function of ADS homologs may have resulted in the lack of artemisinin production in A. argyi. Our study provides new insights into the genome evolution of Artemisia and lays a foundation for further improvement of the quality of this important medicinal plant.

Pectolinarigenin ameliorates acetaminophen-induced acute liver injury via attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory response in Nrf2 and PPARa dependent manners

BACKGROUND

Cirsii Japonici Herba Carbonisata (Dajitan in Chinese) has been used to treat liver disorders in Asian countries. Pectolinarigenin (PEC), an abundant constituent in Dajitan, has been found to possess a wide range of biological benefits, including hepatoprotective effects. However, the effects of PEC on acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury (AILI) and the underlying mechanisms have not been studied.

PURPOSES

To explore the role and mechanisms of PEC in protecting against AILI.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The hepatoprotective benefits of PEC were studied using a mouse model and HepG2 cells. PEC was tested for its effects by injecting it intraperitoneally before APAP administration. To assess liver damage, histological and biochemical tests were performed. The levels of inflammatory factors in the liver were measured using RT-PCR and ELISA. Western blotting was used to measure the expression of a panel of key proteins involved in APAP metabolism, as well as Nrf2 and PPARα. PEC mechanisms on AILI were investigated using HepG2 cells, while the Nrf2 inhibitor (ML385) and PPARα inhibitor (GW6471) were used to validate the importance of either Nrf2 and PPARα in the hepatoprotective effects of PEC.

RESULTS

PEC treatment decreased serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels in the liver. PEC pretreatment increased the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) while decreasing malondialdehyde production (MDA). PEC could also up-regulate two important APAP detoxification enzymes (UGT1A1 and SULT1A1). Further research revealed that PEC reduced hepatic oxidative damage and inflammation, and up-regulated APAP detoxification enzymes in hepatocytes by activating the Nrf2 and PPARα signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

PEC ameliorates AILI by decreasing hepatic oxidative stress and inflammation while increasing phase Ⅱ detoxification enzymes related to APAP harmless metabolism through activation of Nrf2 and PPARα signaling. Hence, PEC may serve as a promising therapeutic drug against AILI.

8-methoxypsoralen protects against acetaminophen-induced liver injury by antagonising Cyp2e1 in mice

This study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) on acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. The study found that one hour after intraperitoneal injection of 300 mg/kg APAP, treatment with 40 mg/kg,80 mg/kg and 120 mg/kg 8-MOP could reduce serum transaminase level and histopathological liver necrosis area. Elevated mRNA expression of liver inflammatory mediators caused by excessive APAP was also reversed. 8-MOP significantly reduced APAP-induced hepatotoxicity dose-dependently, and the highest therapeutic dose of 8-MOP (120 mg/kg) had no harmful effects on the liver. Cocktail probe assay revealed that 8-MOP can inhibit Cyp2e1 enzymatic activities of mice, thereby reducing the production of acetaminophen-cysteine (APAP-CYS), a toxic metabolite of APAP. 8-MOP had no significant effect on the protein and gene expression of Cyp2e1. The three-dimensional structures of mouse Cyp2e1 were constructed by homologous modeling. Molecular docking showed that 8-MOP had a good binding effect on the enzyme activity site of Cyp2e1. In summary, 8-MOP dose-dependently attenuated APAP-induced hepatotoxicity by binding to Cyp2e1 and occupying the active center of the enzyme, thus competitively inhibiting the oxidative metabolism of APAP, and reducing the generation of toxic product APAP-CYS.

Molecular Docking Identifies 1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol) as A Novel PPARγ Agonist That Alleviates Colon Inflammation

Inflammatory bowel disease, comprising Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is often debilitating. The disease etiology is multifactorial, involving genetic susceptibility, microbial dysregulation, abnormal immune activation, and environmental factors. Currently, available drug therapies are associated with adverse effects when used long-term. Therefore, the search for new drug candidates to treat IBD is imperative. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) is highly expressed in the colon. PPARγ plays a vital role in regulating colonic inflammation. 1,8-cineole, also known as eucalyptol, is a monoterpene oxide present in various aromatic plants which possess potent anti-inflammatory activity. Molecular docking and dynamics studies revealed that 1,8-cineole binds to PPARγ and if it were an agonist, that would explain the anti-inflammatory effects of 1,8-cineole. Therefore, we investigated the role of 1,8-cineole in colonic inflammation, using both in vivo and in vitro experimental approaches. Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis was used as the in vivo model, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)-stimulated HT-29 cells as the in vitro model. 1,8-cineole treatment significantly decreased the inflammatory response in DSS-induced colitis mice. 1,8-cineole treatment also increased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) translocation into the nucleus to induce potent antioxidant effects. 1,8-cineole also increased colonic PPARγ protein expression. Similarly, 1,8-cineole decreased proinflammatory chemokine production and increased PPARγ protein expression in TNFα-stimulated HT-29 cells. 1,8-cineole also increased PPARγ promoter activity time-dependently. Because of its potent anti-inflammatory effects, 1,8-cineole may be valuable in treating IBD.

Kaempferol prevents acetaminophen-induced liver injury by suppressing hepatocyte ferroptosis via Nrf2 pathway activation

Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury (AILI) has become a growing public health problem. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of cell death associated with lipid peroxide accumulation, has been recently implicated in AILI. The activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway is a potential therapy for AILI. Kaempferol (KA), a flavonoid widely existing in edible plants, has been reported to exert profound anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. This study aimed to investigate whether KA exerts anti-AILI effects via the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Mice were fasted for 22 h and injected intraperitoneally with APAP (250 mg kg^-1) to induce AILI. Mice were pre-injected intragastrically with KA for 2 h followed by APAP injection. The hepatic injury was observed by H&E staining. Biochemical parameters of the serum and liver were measured using kits. KA alleviated hepatic injury and inflammatory response in AILI mice and ameliorated APAP-induced hepatic iron overload and oxidative stress in mice. In addition, the protective effects of KA against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity were examined in L02 cells in vitro. Cell viability was assayed by the CCK8 assay. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) in L02 cells were detected by MitoSox fluorescence. KA reversed the APAP-induced decrease in cell viability and GSH levels and inhibited the accumulation of intracellular ROS. Furthermore, KA activated the Nrf2 pathway and upregulated Gpx4 in mouse livers and L02 cells to inhibit ferroptosis induced by APAP. Finally, molecular docking indicated the potential interaction of KA with Keap1. Taken together, KA ameliorated oxidative stress and ferroptosis-mediated AILI by activating Nrf2 signaling.

Chemical Composition of Essential Oils of Seven Polygonum Species from Turkey: A Chemotaxonomic Approach

Medicinal plants and herbal preparations are gaining attention in the scientific community today, as they are often used intermittently in the treatment of various diseases. The genus of Polygonum (Polygonaceae), known locally as “madimak”, is an aromatic plant widely used in world flavors. The chemical composition of the essential oils of dried aerial parts of seven of Polygonum was analyzed by GC-MS. These species are Polygonum lapathifolium L., Polygonum persicaria L., Polygonum arenastrum Bor., Polygonum bellardii All., Polygonum arenarium Waldst. Et Kit., Polygonum aviculare L., and Polygonum cognatum Meissn. Qualitative and quantitative differences were found in the essential oil analysis of the seven Polygonum species. The major compounds were determined as (E)-β-farnesene (19. 46%), dodecanal (15.92%), β-caryophyllene (12.95%), in P. aviculare; (E)-β-farnesene (25.00%), dodecanal (20.45%), β-caryophyllene (9.38%), and caryophyllene oxide (8. 26%) in P. persicaria; dodecanal (25.65%), caryophyllene oxide (13.35%), β-caryophyllene (7.95%), and (E)-β-farnesene (6.20%) in P. lapathifolium, and dodecanal (19.65%), (E)-β-farnesene (13.86%), β-caryophyllene (8.06%), and α-terpineol (7.2%) in P. arenarium, dodecanal (16.23%), β-caryophyllene (16.09%), (E)-β-farnesene (12.26%), caryophyllene oxide (7.94%) in P. bellardii, (E)-β-farnesene (20.75%), dodecanal (17.96%), β-caryophyllene (13.01%), α-terpineol (4.97%) in P. arenastrum, (E)-β-farnesene (9.49%), dodecanal (14.01%), β-caryophyllene (11.92%), geranyl acetate (9.49%), and undecanal (7.35%) in P. cognatum. This study is the most comprehensive study conducted to determine the essential oil components of Polygonum species. In addition, a literature review on the composition of the essential oils of these Polygonum taxa was performed. The essential oil components of the species in our study were revealed for the first time with this study.

Short-term but not long-term perennial mugwort cropping increases soil organic carbon in Northern China Plain

Perennial cropping has been an alternative land use type due to its widely accepted role in increasing soil carbon sequestration. However, how soil organic carbon (SOC) changes and its underlying mechanisms under different cropping years are still elusive. A chronosequence (0-, 3-, 6-, 20-year) of perennial mugwort cropping was chosen to explore the SOC dynamics and the underlying mechanisms in agricultural soils of Northern China Plain. The results revealed that SOC first increased and then decreased along the 20-year chronosequence. The similar patterns were also found in soil properties (including soil ammonium nitrogen, total nitrogen and phosphorus) and two C-degrading hydrolytic enzyme activities (i.e., α-glucosidase and β-glucosidase). The path analysis demonstrated that soil ammonium nitrogen, total nitrogen, and plant biomass affected SOC primarily through the indirect impacts on soil pH, total phosphorus availability, and C-degrading hydrolytic enzyme activities. In addition, the contributions of soil properties are greater than those of biotic factors (plant biomass) to changes in SOC across the four mugwort cropping years. Nevertheless, the biotic factors may play more important roles in regulating SOC than abiotic factors in the long run. Moreover, SOC reached its maximum and was equaled to that under the conventional rotation when cropping mugwort for 7.44 and 14.88 years, respectively, which has critical implications for sustainable C sequestration of agricultural soils in Northern China Plain. Our observations suggest that short-term but not long-term perennial mugwort cropping is an alternative practice benefiting soil C sequestration and achieving the Carbon Neutrality goal in China.

Investigation of Chemical Compounds and Evaluation of Toxicity, Antibacterial, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Three Selected Essential Oils and Their Mixtures with Moroccan Thyme Honey

Throughout history, honey has been used to treat various diseases. The present work examined and assessed the in vivo anti-inflammatory potential of Moroccan thyme honey and its association with essential oils from three selected plants: Origanum vulgare L.; Mentha spicata L.; Eucalyptus globulus L. The chemical composition of the essential oils was studied, and preliminary toxicity, in vitro anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial tests were conducted. Then the anti-inflammatory effect was determined by applying carrageenan and an experimental trauma-induced paw edema test in rats. The essential oils were rich in phytochemicals and showed significant antibacterial activity against four selected ATCC bacterial strains. The results revealed the significant anti-inflammatory potential of honey and mixtures with essential oils and indicated higher efficiency of mixtures compared to honey alone. It can be concluded that the mixtures of honey and essential oils have advantageous anti-inflammatory effects and may be used for treating different types of inflammation in humans after certain clinical trials.

Hepatic, Extrahepatic and Extracellular Vesicle Cytochrome P450 2E1 in Alcohol and Acetaminophen-Mediated Adverse Interactions and Potential Treatment Options

Alcohol and several therapeutic drugs, including acetaminophen, are metabolized by cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) into toxic compounds. At low levels, these compounds are not detrimental, but higher sustained levels of these compounds can lead to life-long problems such as cytotoxicity, organ damage, and cancer. Furthermore, CYP2E1 can facilitate or enhance the effects of alcohol-drug and drug-drug interactions. In this review, we discuss the role of CYP2E1 in the metabolism of alcohol and drugs (with emphasis on acetaminophen), mediating injury/toxicities, and drug-drug/alcohol-drug interactions. Next, we discuss various compounds and various nutraceuticals that can reduce or prevent alcohol/drug-induced toxicity. Additionally, we highlight experimental outcomes of alcohol/drug-induced toxicity and potential treatment strategies. Finally, we cover the role and implications of extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing CYP2E1 in hepatic and extrahepatic cells and provide perspectives on the clinical relevance of EVs containing CYP2E1 in intracellular and intercellular communications leading to drug-drug and alcohol-drug interactions. Furthermore, we provide our perspectives on CYP2E1 as a druggable target using nutraceuticals and the use of EVs for targeted drug delivery in extrahepatic and hepatic cells, especially to treat cellular toxicity.

Integrated metabolite profiling and transcriptome analysis reveals tissue-specific regulation of terpenoid biosynthesis in Artemisia argyi

Artemisia argyi L. is a widely distributed medicinal plant in China. The major bioactive substances of essential oils extracted from leaves are terpenoids. Although many researches have studied the pharmacological effects of the essential oils, the tissue-specific accumulation of terpenoid biosynthesis and the regulatory networks in A. argyi are poorly understood. This study conducted an integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis of roots, stems, and leaves to investigate the tissue-specific regulatory network of terpenoid biosynthesis in A. argyi. We identified 77 unigenes putatively involved in terpenoid backbone biosynthesis. Three rate-determining enzyme genes (DXS, DXR, and HDR) of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway were predominantly expressed in leaves, and strongly co-expressed with eight transcription factors (2 MYBs, 4 WRKYs, and 2 AP2s). An metabolite-transcript correlation analysis revealed 26 putative cytochrome P450s related to terpenoid metabolism in leaves. These results provide a foundation for the future metabolic engineering of useful terpenoids in A. argyi.

Odorant Binding Protein C17 Contributes to the Response to Artemisia vulgaris Oil in Tribolium castaneum

The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (T. castaneum), generates great financial losses to the grain storage and food processing industries. Previous studies have shown that essential oil (EO) from Artemisia vulgaris (A. vulgaris) has strong contact toxicity to larvae of the beetle, and odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) contribute to the defense of larvae against A. vulgaris. However, the functions of OBPs in insects defending against plant oil is still not clear. Here, expression of one OBP gene, TcOBPC17, was significantly induced 12–72 h after EO exposure. Furthermore, compared to the control group, RNA interference (RNAi) against TcOBPC17 resulted in a higher mortality rate after EO treatment, which suggests that TcOBPC17 involves in the defense against EO and induces a declining sensitivity to EO. In addition, the tissue expression profile analysis revealed that the expression of TcOBPC17 was more abundant in the metabolic detoxification organs of the head, fat body, epidermis, and hemolymph than in other larval tissue. The expression profile of developmental stages showed that TcOBPC17 had a higher level in early and late adult stages than in other developmental stages. Taken together, these results suggest that TcOBPC17 could participate in the sequestration process of exogenous toxicants in T. castaneum larvae.

Ethnopharmacological Survey and Comparative Study of the Healing Activity of Moroccan Thyme Honey and Its Mixture with Selected Essential Oils on Two Types of Wounds on Albino Rabbits

Wound healing consists of several continuous phases involving various cells and chemical intermediates. As a rich source of nutrition elements, honey has proved to have potential benefits in the treatment of various diseases. The present study was designed to investigate the healing effect of a honey mixture with selected essential oils on chemical and thermal wound models in rabbits. Dressing mixtures of Thymus vulgaris honey with three essential oils (Origanum vulgare, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus vulgaris) were prepared and applied daily in the treatment groups. These essential oils were rich in phytochemicals and had significant antibacterial activity against four selected ATCC bacterial strains. Madecasol ointment was used as a standard control. The healing effect of the mixtures was evaluated by measuring wound surface area and comparing healing time. The results showed that the healing rate in the treatment groups was significantly higher than that of the untreated group and standard group. The best healing effect for burns was seen in the mixture of honey and Thymus vulgaris essential oil, which had wound closure rates of 85.21% and 82.14% in thermal- and chemical-induced burns, respectively, and showed the shortest healing time (14 days) in comparison to other groups. Therefore, it can be concluded that honey mixtures have significant beneficial effects on skin wound healing and, thus, they may be used as a healing agent in different types of wounds in humans after specific clinical trials.

Knockdown of Uridine Diphosphate Glucosyltransferase 86Dg Enhances Susceptibility of Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to Artemisia vulgaris (Asterales: Asteraceae) Essential Oil

Uridine diphosphate glucosyltransferases (UGTs), which are phase II detoxification enzymes, are found in various organisms. These enzymes play an important role in the detoxification mechanisms of plant allelopathy and in insects. Artemisia vulgaris L. (Asterales: Asteraceae: Artemisia) essential oil has strong contact toxicity to Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae. However, the effect of A. vulgaris essential oil on UGTs is unclear. In this study, A. vulgaris essential oil was shown to significantly induce the expression of the TcUgt86Dg transcript. Furthermore, treatment of TcUgt86Dg-silenced individuals with A. vulgaris essential oil resulted in higher mortality than for the control individuals, indicating that TcUgt86Dg is involved in detoxification of A. vulgaris essential oil in T. castaneum. The developmental expression profile showed that the expression of TcUgt86Dg in late adults was higher than in other developmental stages. Furthermore, the expression profile in adult tissues revealed higher expression of TcUgt86Dg in the head, antenna, fat body, and accessory gland than in other tissues. These data show that TcUgt86Dg may be involved in the metabolism of exogenous toxins by T. castaneum; thus, our results have elucidated one possible mechanism of resistance to A. vulgaris essential oil and provide a theoretical basis for a control scheme for T. castaneum.

Recommendations for the use of the acetaminophen hepatotoxicity model for mechanistic studies and how to avoid common pitfalls

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug, which is safe at therapeutic doses but can cause severe liver injury and even liver failure after overdoses. The mouse model of APAP hepatotoxicity recapitulates closely the human pathophysiology. As a result, this clinically relevant model is frequently used to study mechanisms of drug-induced liver injury and even more so to test potential therapeutic interventions. However, the complexity of the model requires a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology to obtain valid results and mechanistic information that is translatable to the clinic. However, many studies using this model are flawed, which jeopardizes the scientific and clinical relevance. The purpose of this review is to provide a framework of the model where mechanistically sound and clinically relevant data can be obtained. The discussion provides insight into the injury mechanisms and how to study it including the critical roles of drug metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, necrotic cell death, autophagy and the sterile inflammatory response. In addition, the most frequently made mistakes when using this model are discussed. Thus, considering these recommendations when studying APAP hepatotoxicity will facilitate the discovery of more clinically relevant interventions.

1,8-Cineole: a review of source, biological activities, and application

1,8-Cineole (also known as eucalyptol) is mostly extracted from the essential oils of plants, which showed extensively pharmacological properties including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mainly via the regulation on NF-κB and Nrf2, and was used for the treatment of respiratory diseases and cardiovascular, etc. Although various administration routes have been used in the application of 1.8-cineole, few formulations have been developed to improve its stability and bioavailability. This review retrospects the researches on the source, biological activities, mechanisms, and application of 1,8-cineole since 2000, which provides a view for the further studies on the application and formulations of 1,8-cineole.

Modulation of cigarette smoke extract-induced human bronchial epithelial damage by eucalyptol and curcumin

Smoking is one of the most important leading death cause worldwide. From a toxicological perspective, cigarette smoke serves hazards especially for the human being exposed to passive smoke. Over the last decades, the effects of natural compounds on smoking-mediated respiratory diseases such as COPD, asthma, and lung cancer have been under investigation, as well as the mechanistic aspects of disease progression. In the present study, the protective mechanism of eucalyptol (EUC), curcumin (CUR), and their combination on BEAS-2B cells were investigated in vitro to understand their impact on cell death, oxidative cell injury, and inflammatory response induced by 3R4F reference cigarette extract (CSE). According to the present findings, EUC, CUR, and their combination improved cell viability, attenuated CSE-induced apoptosis, and LC3B expression. Further, CSE-induced oxidative damage and inflammatory response in human bronchial epithelial cells were remarkably reduced by the combination treatment through modification of enzymatic antioxidant activity, GSH, MDA, and intracellular ROS levels as well as nitrite and IL-6 levels. In addition, nuclear translocation of Nrf2, a regulatory protein involved in the indirect antioxidant response, was remarkably up-regulated with the combination pre-treatment. In conclusion, EUC and CUR in combination might be a potential therapeutic against smoking-induced lung diseases through antioxidant and inflammatory pathways and results represent valuable background for future in vivo pulmonary toxicity studies.

Emodin Attenuates Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity via the cGAS-STING Pathway

Emodin is a natural bioactive compound from traditional Chinese herbs that exerts anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. However, the protective effects of emodin in acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity are not clear. The present study examined the effects of emodin on APAP-induced hepatotoxicity and investigated the potential molecular mechanisms. C57BL/6 mice were pretreated with emodin (15 and 30 mg/kg) for 5 consecutive days and then given APAP (300 mg/kg) to establish an APAP-induced liver injury model. Mice were sacrificed to detect the serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and albumin (ALB) and the liver tissue levels of glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Histological assessment, Western blotting, and ELISA were performed. Emodin pretreatment significantly reduced the levels of ALT, AST, and ALP; increased the levels of ALB; alleviated hepatocellular damage and apoptosis; attenuated the exhaustion of GSH and SOD and the accumulation of MDA; and increased the expression of antioxidative enzymes, including nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), and NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1). Emodin also inhibited the expression of NLRP3 and reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory factors, including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Emodin inhibited interferon (IFN)-α, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS), and its downstream signaling effector stimulator of interferon genes (STING) expression to protect the liver against APAP-induced inflammatory responses and apoptosis. These results suggest that emodin protected hepatocytes from APAP-induced liver injury via the upregulation of the Nrf2-mediated antioxidative stress pathway, the inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and the downregulation of the cGAS-STING signaling pathway.

Full-Length Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Candidate Genes Involved in Terpenoid Biosynthesis in Artemisia argyi

Artemisia argyi is an important medicinal plant widely utilized for moxibustion heat therapy in China. The terpenoid biosynthesis process in A. argyi is speculated to play a key role in conferring its medicinal value. However, the molecular mechanism underlying terpenoid biosynthesis remains unclear, in part because the reference genome of A. argyi is unavailable. Moreover, the full-length transcriptome of A. argyi has not yet been sequenced. Therefore, in this study, de novo transcriptome sequencing of A. argyi's root, stem, and leaf tissues was performed to obtain those candidate genes related to terpenoid biosynthesis, by combining the PacBio single-molecule real-time (SMRT) and Illumina sequencing NGS platforms. And more than 55.4 Gb of sequencing data and 108,846 full-length reads (non-chimeric) were generated by the Illumina and PacBio platform, respectively. Then, 53,043 consensus isoforms were clustered and used to represent 36,820 non-redundant transcripts, of which 34,839 (94.62%) were annotated in public databases. In the comparison sets of leaves vs roots, and leaves vs stems, 13,850 (7,566 up-regulated, 6,284 down-regulated) and 9,502 (5,284 up-regulated, 4,218 down-regulated) differentially expressed transcripts (DETs) were obtained, respectively. Specifically, the expression profile and KEGG functional enrichment analysis of these DETs indicated that they were significantly enriched in the biosynthesis of amino acids, carotenoids, diterpenoids and flavonoids, as well as the metabolism processes of glycine, serine and threonine. Moreover, multiple genes encoding significant enzymes or transcription factors related to diterpenoid biosynthesis were highly expressed in the A. argyi leaves. Additionally, several transcription factor families, such as RLK-Pelle_LRR-L-1 and RLK-Pelle_DLSV, were also identified. In conclusion, this study offers a valuable resource for transcriptome information, and provides a functional genomic foundation for further research on molecular mechanisms underlying the medicinal use of A. argyi leaves.

Improving protection effects of eucalyptol via carboxymethyl chitosan-coated lipid nanoparticles on hyperglycaemia-induced vascular endothelial injury in rats

Hyperglycaemia is responsible for the major pathophysiological factor of diabetes-associated vascular endothelial injury, which mainly resulted from the disturbance of equilibrium between ROS generation and elimination. Eucalyptol was verified with exact anti-oxidation effects via stimulating the secretion of endogenous antioxidant enzymes against ROS. However, the volatility, instability and poor water solubility of eucalyptol limited its pharmacological activities in vivo. In this study, we developed carboxymethyl chitosan-coated lipid nanoparticles for eucalyptol (CMC/ELN) to facilitate oral administration. A thin lipid film dispersion method was used to prepare the ELN. After CMC coating, the diameter of ELN increased from 166 nm to 177 nm and charge reversal was observed. The nanocarrier enhanced the protective effects of eucalyptol both in the high level of glucose (HG)-damaged HUVECs and endothelial injury in type I diabetes mellitus (T1DM) rat model. Furthermore, the mechanism of eucalyptol on the promotion of Nrf2 and HO-1 and reduction on Keap1 expression have been verified both in the in vitro and in vivo model. Besides, the pharmacokinetics data were verified the promotion of the oral eucalyptol absorption by the nanocarrier. Taken together, we established an optimal oral delivery system that promoted oral administration of eucalyptol to exert protective effects on hyperglycaemia-induced vascular endothelial injury.

Kaempferol from Penthorum chinense Pursh suppresses HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) is one of the safest and most effective over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics and antipyretics, but excessive doses of APAP will induce hepatotoxicity with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Kaempferol (KA), a flavonoid compound derived from the medicinal and edible plant of Penthorum chinense Pursh, has been reported to exert a profound anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. In this study, we explored the protective effect and novel mechanism of KA against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity. The results revealed that KA pretreatment significantly reduced the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), relieved hepatocellular damage and apoptosis, attenuated the exhaustion of glutathione (GSH) and accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA), increased the expression of antioxidative enzymes (e.g., heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1)), and thus restrained APAP-induced oxidative damage in the liver. KA suppressed the expression of NLRP3 and reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory factors, including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Moreover, KA remarkably inhibited high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression as well as nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) activation for liver protection against APAP-induced inflammatory responses and apoptosis. Taken together, our findings suggested that KA could effectively protect hepatocytes from APAP hepatotoxicity through the up-regulation of HO-1 and NQO1 expression, the down-regulation of NLRP3 expression, and the inhibition of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Nicotinamide improves NAD+ levels to protect against acetaminophen-induced acute liver injury in mice

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose causes acute liver injury (ALI). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is an essential coenzyme, and NAD⁺ is oxidized type which synthesized from nicotinamide (NAM). The present study aimed to investigate the role of NAD⁺ in ALI and protective property of NAM. The mice were subjected to different doses APAP. After 8 hours, the serum activities of alaninetransaminase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), the hepatic NAD⁺ level and nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) expression were determined. Then, the mice were pretreated with NAM (800 mg/kg), the hepatoprotective effects and the key antioxidative molecules were evaluated. Our findings indicated that APAP resulted in remarkable NAD⁺ depletion in a dose-dependent manner accompanied by NAMPT downregulation, and NAM pretreatment significantly elevated the NAD⁺ decline due to upregulation of NAMPT. Moreover, the downregulated Kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1 (Keap1), upregulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its translocation activation after NAM administration were confirmed, which were in accordance with improved superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) levels. Finally, NAM dramatically exhibited hepatoprotective effects by reducing the liver index and necrotic area. This study has suggested that APAP impairs liver NAD⁺ level and NAM is able to improve hepatic NAD⁺ to activate antioxidant pathway against APAP-induced ALI.

Polygonum minus essential oil modulates cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity through inflammatory and apoptotic pathways

Oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis are thought as primary mediators of cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity. The objective of this study was to determine the protective effect of Polygonum minus essential oil in cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity. A total of forty-two male rats were randomly divided into seven groups: control, cisplatin, β-caryophyllene 150 mg/kg (BCP), PmEO 100 mg/kg + cisplatin (PmEO100CP), PmEO 200 mg/kg + cisplatin (PmEO200CP), PmEO 400 mg/kg + cisplatin (PmEO400CP) and PmEO 400 mg/kg (PmEO400). Rats in the BCP, PmEO100CP, PmEO200CP, PmEO400CP and PmEO400 group received respective treatment orally for 14 consecutive days prior to cisplatin injection. All animals except for those in the control group and PmEO400 were administered with a single dose of cisplatin (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally on day 15 and all animals were sacrificed on day 18. PmEO100CP pretreatment protected against cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity by decreasing CYP2E1 and indicators of oxidative stress including malondialdehyde, 8-OHdG and protein carbonyl which was accompanied by increased antioxidant status (glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase) as compared to cisplatin group. PmEO100CP pretreatment also modulated changes in liver inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10). PmEO100CP administration also notably reduced cisplatin-induced apoptosis significantly as compared to cisplatin group. In conclusion, our results suggested that P. minus essential oil at a dose of 100 mg/kg may protect against cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity possibly via inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis.

Odorant-Binding Proteins Contribute to the Defense of the Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium castaneum, Against Essential Oil of Artemisia vulgaris

The function of odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) in insect chemodetection has been extensively studied. However, the role of OBPs in the defense of insects against exogenous toxic substances remains elusive. The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, a major pest of stored grains, causes serious economic losses for the agricultural grain and food processing industries. Here, biochemical analysis showed that essential oil (EO) from Artemisia vulgaris, a traditional Chinese medicine, has a strong contact killing effect against larvae of the red flour beetle. Furthermore, one OBP gene, TcOBPC11, was significantly induced after exposure to EO. RNA interference (RNAi) against TcOBPC11 led to higher mortality compared with the controls after EO treatment, suggesting that this OBP gene is associated with defense of the beetle against EO and leads to a decrease in sensitivity to the EO. Tissue expression profiling showed that expression of TcOBPC11 was higher in the fat body, Malpighian tubule, and hemolymph than in other larval tissues, and was mainly expressed in epidermis, fat body, and antennae from the early adult. The developmental expression profile revealed that expression of TcOBPC11 was higher in late larval stages and adult stages than in other developmental stages. These data indicate that TcOBPC11 may be involved in sequestration of exogenous toxicants in the larvae of T. castaneum. Our results provide a theoretical basis for the degradation mechanism of exogenous toxicants and identify potential novel targets for controlling the beetle.

Insecticidal Activity of Artemisia vulgaris Essential Oil and Transcriptome Analysis of Tribolium castaneum in Response to Oil Exposure

Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) is one of the most destructive pests of stored cereals worldwide. The essential oil (EO) of Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort) is known to be a strong toxicant that inhibits the growth, development, and reproduction of T. castaneum. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the toxic effects of A. vulgaris EO on T. castaneum remain unclear. Here, two detoxifying enzymes, carboxylesterase (CarEs) and cytochrome oxidase P450 (CYPs), were dramatically increased in red flour beetle larvae when they were exposed to A. vulgaris EO. Further, 758 genes were differentially expressed between EO treated and control samples. Based on Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, numerous differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched for terms related to the regulation of biological processes, response to stimulus, and antigen processing and presentation. Our results indicated that A. vulgaris EO disturbed the antioxidant activity in larvae and partially inhibited serine protease (SP), cathepsin (CAT), and lipase signaling pathways, thus disrupting larval development and reproduction as well as down-regulating the stress response. Moreover, these DEGs showed that A. vulgaris indirectly affected the development and reproduction of beetles by inducing the expression of genes encoding copper-zinc-superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD), heme peroxidase (HPX), antioxidant enzymes, and transcription factors. Moreover, the majority of DEGs were mapped to the drug metabolism pathway in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. Notably, the following genes were detected: 6 odorant binding proteins (OBPs), 5 chemosensory proteins (CSPs), 14 CYPs, 3 esterases (ESTs), 5 glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), 6 UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), and 2 multidrug resistance proteins (MRPs), of which 8 CYPs, 2 ESTs, 2 GSTs, and 3 UGTs were up-regulated dramatically after exposure to A. vulgaris EO. The residual DEGs were significantly down-regulated in EO exposed larvae, implying that partial compensation of metabolism detoxification existed in treated beetles. Furthermore, A. vulgaris EO induced overexpression of OBP/CYP, and RNAi against these genes significantly increased mortality of larvae exposed to EO, providing further evidence for the involvement of OBP/CYP in EO metabolic detoxification in T. castaneum. Our results provide an overview of the transcriptomic changes in T. castaneum in response to A. vulgaris EO.

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. alkaloids-mediated protection against CCl4-induced liver mitochondrial oxidative damage is dependent on the activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway

The activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated signaling pathway has been involved in the mechanisms of a variety of protective agents against cellular oxidative stress. We recently demonstrated that Dendrobium nobile Lindl. alkaloids (DNLA), the active ingredients of Dendrobium, protects mice from CCl₄-induced liver injury, dependent on the Nrf2 signaling pathway. The present study was aimed to determine whether the protection against mitochondrial oxidative damage plays a role in the mode of action of DNLA on CCl₄-induced liver injury, and to further investigate whether the DNLA-conferred mitochondrial beneficial effects is dependent on the activation of Nrf2 signaling. The CCl₄-induced acute liver injury model was employed in both wild-type (WT) and Nrf2-knockout (Nrf2^-/-) mice. The results showed that in WT mice DNLA reduced CCl₄-induced liver injury, accompanied by a significant reduction in CCl₄-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress as evidenced by a decrease in mitochondrial H₂O₂ content and MDA production, and a marked increase in GSH level and Mn-SOD activity. However, these protective effects were significantly attenuated in Nrf2^-/- mice. Furthermore, the administration of DNLA improved mitochondrial oxygen consumption, elevated ATP production, and decreased CCl₄-induced apoptosis in the WT mice, whereas the DNLA-mediated protections on mitochondrial function were diminished in the Nrf2 null mice. These results demonstrate that the improvement of mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in the mechanism of DNLA-mediated protection on CCl₄-induced liver injury, and this DNLA-modulated mode of action is dependent on the activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Therapeutic Potential of Volatile Terpenes and Terpenoids from Forests for Inflammatory Diseases

Forest trees are a major source of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs). Terpenes and terpenoids are known as the main BVOCs of forest aerosols. These compounds have been shown to display a broad range of biological activities in various human disease models, thus implying that forest aerosols containing these compounds may be related to beneficial effects of forest bathing. In this review, we surveyed studies analyzing BVOCs and selected the most abundant 23 terpenes and terpenoids emitted in forested areas of the Northern Hemisphere, which were reported to display anti-inflammatory activities. We categorized anti-inflammatory processes related to the functions of these compounds into six groups and summarized their molecular mechanisms of action. Finally, among the major 23 compounds, we examined the therapeutic potentials of 12 compounds known to be effective against respiratory inflammation, atopic dermatitis, arthritis, and neuroinflammation among various inflammatory diseases. In conclusion, the updated studies support the beneficial effects of forest aerosols and propose their potential use as chemopreventive and therapeutic agents for treating various inflammatory diseases.

The Effect of Ten Essential Oils on Several Cutaneous Drug-Resistant Microorganisms and Their Cyto/Genotoxic and Antioxidant Properties

In this study, we determined the antimicrobial activity of ten essential oils (EOs)—oregano, thyme, clove, arborvitae, cassia, lemongrass, melaleuca, eucalyptus, lavender, and clary sage—against drug-resistant microorganisms previously isolated from patients with skin infections. The essential oil compositions were determined using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The assayed bacteria included Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Citrobacter koseri, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Two drug-resistant yeasts (Candidaalbicans and Candida parapsilosis) were also involved in our survey. Oregano, thyme, cassia, lemongrass and arborvitae showed very strong antibacterial and antifungal activity against all tested strains. These results show that these essential oils may be effective in preventing the growth of the drug-resistant microorganisms responsible for wound infections. In this study, the genotoxic effects of tested essential oils on healthy human keratinocytes HaCaT were evaluated using the comet assay for the first time. These results revealed that none of the essential oils induced significant DNA damage in vitro after 24 h. Moreover, the treatment of HaCaT cells with essential oils increased the total antioxidant status (TAS) level. The obtained results indicate that EOs could be used as a potential source of safe and potent natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents in the pharmaceutical and food industries.