Neuroprotective Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rb1 in Central Nervous System Diseases

A Carrier-Free Triple-Drug Co-Assembled Nanoformulation for Synergistic Treatment of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI), a critical complication arising from the recanalization of blood flow to the ischemic region of the brain following an ischemic stroke, poses significant challenges in clinical management due to the lack of efficacious therapeutic interventions. This condition markedly impacts the patient prognosis and quality of life. Herein, we developed a carrier-free triple-drug co-assembled nanoformulation, designated as SRPNNPs, to achieve safe and efficient treatment of CIRI. SRPNNPs were prepared by co-assembly of two natural plant-derived small molecule drugs, including ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) and 3-n-butylphthalide (NBP), along with probucol (PB). To enhance the capability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), SRPNNPs were further modified with polysorbate 80 (PS 80). Intravenously administered SRPNNPs can adsorb apolipoproteins in circulation, thereby facilitating specific binding to lipoprotein receptors on the cerebral vascular endothelial cells, which promotes their transport across the BBB. Furthermore, SRPNNPs are enriched to the CIRI region and are subsequently internalized by neurons and microglia, where they exert synergistic antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects, thereby achieving effective treatment of CIRI. Overall, our work presents a simple and promising strategy for the targeted treatment of CIRI.

Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Plant Extracts on Cognitive Function and Quality of Life in Stroke Patients

In recent years, numerous researchers have focused on plant extracts derived from traditional medicines to treat stroke, as these extracts may improve patients' cognitive function and quality of life. This study aims to evaluate the effects of nine distinct plant extracts ( Ginkgo biloba extract, Ginsenosides, Berberine, St. John's Wort extract, Resveratrol, Gastrodin, Crocus sativus L., Moringa oleifera Seed extract, and Panax Notoginseng Saponins) on cognitive function and quality of life in stroke patients. This study seeks to conduct a network meta-analysis to assess the impact of these plant extracts on cognitive function and quality of life in stroke patients. Researchers systematically searched the Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases from database inception through October 2024 searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) exclusively(no language restrictions). The selected studies were evaluated for methodological quality via the Cochrane bias risk assessment tool, and data analysis software was used to analyze the data accordingly. The primary outcome measures included the following assessment scales: National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), Modified Rankin Scale (mRS), Activities of Daily Living Scale (ADLs), Barthel Index (BI), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA), and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Treatment effects were ranked based on probability values derived from the surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA). Moreover, cluster analysis was applied to evaluate the effects of plant extracts on six scales that reflect cognitive function and quality of life in patients. After screening, 48 eligible randomized controlled trials were included, covering 6599 stroke patients and evaluating nine different plant extract treatments. Specifically, results from 33 trials were included in the NIHSS score, 10 in the mRS score, 11 in the ADL score, 11 in the BI score, nine in the MMSE score, and eight in the MOCA score. Findings indicate that St. John's Wort extract (SUCRA 71.2%) was the most effective in reducing NIHSS scores, Berberine (SUCRA 84.1%) was most effective in reducing mRS scores, and St. John's Wort extract (SUCRA 99.1%) showed the highest efficacy in enhancing ADL scores. Ginsenosides were the most effective in improving Barthel Index (SUCRA 74.7%), MMSE (SUCRA 93%), and MOCA (SUCRA 79.7%) scores. The NMA indicates that, compared to placebo, St. John's Wort extract, Berberine, and Ginsenosides can enhance cognitive function and improve quality of life in stroke patients. This study provides valuable insights into using plant extracts for stroke treatment, potentially guiding clinical practice, but there are some unavoidable limitations to our study, including heterogeneity, differences in extraction methods of plant extracts, and lack of consideration of social support systems and dose effects. Future longer follow-up, larger samples, and more methodologically rigorous randomized controlled trials are recommended to clearly establish the effects of different dosages on cognitive function and quality of life in stroke patients.

Ginsenoside Rb1 alleviates blood-brain barrier damage and demyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice by regulating JNK/ ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The traditional Chinese herb Panax ginseng recorded in "Shennong Herbal Classic" is renowned for its purported vascular regulatory properties and immune-enhancing capabilities. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), a prominent bioactive compound in Panax, has demonstrated significant neuropharmacological activities. However, its impact on multiple sclerosis (MS) and blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage remains inadequately investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Inflammation and BBB disruption are pivotal to MS. Tightly packed brain capillary endothelial cells are fundamental to the structural and functional integrity of the BBB. Rb1 has been shown to alleviate BBB damage in stroke rats, but its effect on BBB damage in MS is not well understood. The objective of this study was to examine the role and mechanism of Rb1 on BBB injury in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The BBB protection effect and mechanism of Rb1 were evaluated in LPS-treated bEnd.3 cells and EAE model mice. The mRNA expression levels of the inflammatory factor and the protein expressions of matrix metalloproteinases 9 (MMP9), zona occludens 1 (ZO-1), inhibitor of NF-κB (IκBα), occludin, Jun-amino-terminal kinase (JNK), and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in bEnd.3 cells and mouse cerebral cortex were quantified. The permeability of bEnd.3 cells was examined by measuring trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and sodium fluorescein (NaF) leakage.

RESULTS

Rb1 administration in the early stages of EAE postponed the disease's onset and lessened its severity. Rb1 inhibited the destruction of the BBB in brain cortex of EAE mice. Rb1 reduced the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hyperpermeability of bEnd.3 cells and prevented the downregulation of TJ proteins. In addition, in LPS-induced bEnd.3 cells, Rb1 decreased the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Moreover, Rb1 suppressed the phosphorylation of JNK, ERK, NF-κB, and IκB in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the JNK agonist anisomycin was observed to partially abolish the protective effect of Rb1 in bEnd.3 cells treated with LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, we demonstrated that Rb1 improved demyelination and BBB damage in EAE mice by modulating JNK/ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway. This study can offer a theoretical foundation for the use of Rb1 in the treatment of MS/EAE by preventing BBB injury.

Ginsenoside Rb1 ameliorates hippocampal neuroinflammation in rats after intracerebral hemorrhage by inactivating the TLR4/NF-kB pathway

PURPOSE

This work elucidated the therapeutic effect and mechanism of ginsenoside Rb1 on intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

METHODS

ICH rat models were treated by ginsenoside Rb1. Modified neurological deficit score, and Y-maze and Morris water-maze tests were performed on rats. Hippocampal neuronal damage was observed by Nissl staining. Rat primary astrocytes were exposed to ginsenoside Rb1, Hemin, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels were assessed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TLR4/NF-kB pathway activity was appraised by Western blot. Immunofluorescence staining was for hippocampal glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression and P65 protein location in hippocampus and astrocytes.

RESULTS

In rats after ICH, ginsenoside Rb1 ameliorated neurological impairment and hippocampal neuronal damage; improved learning and memory ability; reduced brain water content; decreasedhippocampal TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6; inactivated TLR4/NF-kB pathway; and declined hippocampal GFAP expression. In rat primary astrocytes exposed to Hemin, ginsenoside Rb1 declined TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6; inactivated TLR4/NF-kB pathway; and hindered P65 protein entry into nucleus. However, these functions of ginsenoside Rb1 on the Hemin-induced astrocytes were abolished by LPS.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rb1 has promising future for clinical ICH treatment, which exerts therapeutic effect on ICH by ameliorating hippocampal neuroinflammation via inactivating the TLR4/NF-kB pathway.

Studying targeted oxidation in diabetic cognitive dysfunction based on scientometrics analysis: research progress of natural product approaches

PURPOSE

The aim is to provide new insights for researchers studying the pathogenesis of diabetic cognitive dysfunction and promoting the wider use of natural products in their treatment.

METHOD

First, the Web of Science Core Collection was selected as the data source for a computerized literature search on oxidative stress and diabetic cognitive dysfunction (DCD). Next, Biblimetrix and VOSviewer performed statistical analysis focusing on publication countries, institutions, authors, research hotspots, and emerging directions in the field. Then, through the analysis of keywords and key articles, the forefront of the field is identified. Finally, we discussed the pathogenesis of DCD, the influence of oxidative stress on DCD and the antioxidant effect of natural products on DCD.

RESULT

293 valid papers were obtained. Bibliometrics showed that oxidative stress, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease (AD), cognitive decline, insulin resistance and quercetin were the key words of the symbiotic network.

CONCLUSION

The antioxidant effects of natural products in improving DCD have been extensively studied in preclinical studies, providing potential for their treatment in DCD, but their evaluation in clinical trials is currently uncommon.

The therapeutic potential of glycyrrhizic acid and its metabolites in neurodegenerative diseases: Evidence from animal models

Neurodegenerative diseases, mostly occurring in the elderly population, are the significant cause of disability and death worldwide. The pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases is still largely unknown yet, although they have been continuously explored. Thus, there is still a lack of safe, effective, and low side effect drugs in clinical practice for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Pieces of accumulating evidence have demonstrated that licorice played neuroprotective roles in various neurodegenerative diseases. In the past two decades, increasing studies have indicated that glycyrrhizic acid (GL), the main active ingredient from traditional Chinese medicine licorice (widely used in the food industry) and a triterpenoid saponin with multiple pharmacological effects (such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune regulation), and its metabolites (glycyrrhetinic acid and carbenoxolone) play a neuroprotective role in a range of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and epilepsy. This review will elaborate on the multiple neuroprotective mechanisms of GL and its metabolites in this series of diseases, aiming to provide a basis for further research on these protective drugs for neurodegenerative diseases and their clinical application. In summary, GL may be a promising candidate drug for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases.

Neuroprotection and mechanisms of ginsenosides in nervous system diseases: Progress and perspectives

Ginsenosides are the primary component discernible from ginseng, including Rb1, Rb2, Rd, Rg1, Rg2, and compound K, and so forth. They have been shown to have multiple pharmacological activities. In recent years, more and more studies have been devoted to the neuroprotection of various ginsenosides against neurological diseases and their potential mechanisms. This paper comprehensively summarizes and reviews the neuroprotective effects of various ginsenosides on neurological diseases, especially acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases, and their mechanisms, as well as their potential therapeutic applications to promote neuroprotection in disease prevention, treatment, and prognosis. Briefly, ginsenosides exert effective neuroprotective effects on neurological conditions, including stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and brain/spinal cord injuries through a variety of molecular mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic. Among them, some signaling pathways play important roles in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt, TLR4/NF-κB, ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3, HO-1/Nrf2, Wnt/β-catenin, and Ca2+ pathway. In conclusion, the present study reviews the research progress on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in the last decade, with the aim of furnishing essential theoretical underpinning and effective references for further research and exploration of the multiple medicinal values of Chinese herbal medicines and their small molecule compounds, including ginseng and panax ginseng. Because there is less evidence in the existing clinical studies, future research should be focused on clinical trials in order to truly reflect the clinical value of various ginsenosides for the benefit of patients.

Plants' Impact on the Human Brain-Exploring the Neuroprotective and Neurotoxic Potential of Plants

BACKGROUND

Plants have long been recognized for their potential to influence neurological health, with both neuroprotective and neurotoxic properties. This review explores the dual nature of plant-derived compounds and their impact on the human brain.

DISCUSSION

Numerous studies have highlighted the neuroprotective effects of various phytoconstituents, such as those found in Ginkgo biloba, Centella asiatica, Panax ginseng, Withania somnifera, and Curcuma longa. The neuroprotective compounds have demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cognitive-enhancing properties, making them promising candidates for combating neurodegenerative diseases and improving brain function. Polyphenolic compounds, triterpenic acids, and specific phytocompounds like the ones from EGb 761 extract have shown interactions with key enzymes and receptors in the brain, leading to neuroprotective outcomes. However, this review also acknowledges the neurotoxic potential of certain plants, such as the Veratrum species, which contains steroidal alkaloids that can cause DNA damage and disrupt neurological function, or Atropa belladonna, which interfere with the normal functioning of the cholinergic system in the body, leading to a range of symptoms associated with anticholinergic toxicity.

CONSLUSIONS

This review also emphasizes the need for further research to elucidate the complex mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective and neurotoxic effects of plant-derived compounds, as well as to identify novel phytoconstituents with therapeutic potential. Understanding the complex relationship between plants and the human brain is crucial for harnessing the benefits of neuroprotective compounds while mitigating the risks associated with neurotoxic substances. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the knowledge on the neurological properties of plants and highlights the importance of continued research in this field for the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting brain health and neurological disorders.

Investigating the Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Chondroprotective Effects of Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino in Osteoarthritis: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Osteoarthritis (OA) is an age-related disease characterized by inflammation, pain, articular cartilage damage, synovitis, and irreversible disability. Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino (GP), a herbal medicine traditionally used in East Asia for its anti-inflammatory properties, was investigated for its potential to modulate OA pathology and symptoms. This study evaluated GP's efficacy in inhibiting pain, functional decline, and cartilage destruction in monosodium iodoacetate-induced OA and acetic acid-induced writhing models. Additionally, the effects of GP on OA-related inflammatory targets were assessed via mRNA and protein expression in rat knee cartilage and lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 cells. The GP group demonstrated significant pain relief, functional improvement, and cartilage protection. Notably, GP inhibited key inflammatory mediators, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-3 and MMP-13, cyclooxygenase-2, and prostaglandin E receptor 2, surpassing the effects of active controls. These findings suggest that GP is a promising candidate for disease-modifying OA drugs and warrants further comprehensive studies.

Application of Monoclonal Antibodies against Naturally Occurring Bioactive Ingredients

Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are widely used in a variety of fields, including protein identification, life sciences, medicine, and natural product chemistry. This review focuses on Mabs against naturally occurring active compounds. The preparation of Mabs against various active compounds began in the 1980s, and now there are fewer than 50 types. Eastern blotting, which was developed as an antibody staining method for low-molecular-weight compounds, is useful for its ability to visually represent specific components. In this method, a mixture of lower-molecular-weight compounds, particularly glycosides, are separated by thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The compounds are then transferred to a membrane by heating, followed by treatment with potassium periodate (KIO4) to open the sugar moiety of the glycoside on the membrane to form an aldehyde group. Proteins are then added to form Schiff base bonds to enable adsorption on the membrane. A Mab is bound to the glycoside moiety on the membrane and reacts with a secondary antibody to produce color. Double Eastern blotting, which enables the simultaneous coloration of two glycosides, can be used to evaluate quality and estimate pharmacological effects. An example of staining by Eastern blotting and a component search based on the results will also be presented. A Mab-associated affinity column is a method for isolating antigen molecules in a single step. However, the usefulness of the wash fractions that are not bound to the affinity column is unknown. Therefore, we designated the wash fraction the "knockout extract". Comparing the nitric oxide (NO) production of a glycyrrhizin (GL)-knockout extract of licorice with a licorice extract revealed that the licorice extract is stronger. Therefore, the addition of GL to the GL-knockout extract of licorice increased NO production. This indicates that GL has synergic activity with the knockout extract. The GL-knockout extract of licorice inhibited high-glucose-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in NRK-52E cells, primarily by suppressing the Notch2 pathway. The real active constituent in licorice may be constituents other than GL, which is the causative agent of pseudohyperaldosteronism. This suggests that a GL-knockout extract of licorice may be useful for the treatment of diabetic nephritis.

Protopanaxadiols Eliminate Behavioral Impairments and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease Mice Model

Currently, there are no effective therapies to cure Parkinson's disease (PD), which is the second most common neurodegenerative disease primarily characterized by motor dysfunction and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Protopanaxadiols (PPDs), including 20 (R)- protopanaxadiol (R-PPD) and 20 (S)- protopanaxadiol (S-PPD), are main metabolites of ginsenosides. The role of ginsenosides in neurodegenerative diseases has been thoroughly studied, however, it is unknown whether PPDs can attenuate behavioral deficits and dopaminergic neuron injury in PD model mice to date. Here, we administered PPDs to MPTP-induced PD model mice and monitored the effects on behavior and dopaminergic neurons to investigate the effects of R-PPD and S-PPD against PD. Our results showed that R-PPD and S-PPD (at a dose of 20 mg/kg, i.g.) treatment alleviated MPTP (30 mg/kg, i.p.) induced behavioral deficits. Besides, R-PPD and S-PPD protected MPP+-induced neuron injury and mitochondrial dysfunction, and reduced the abnormal expression of Cyt C, Bax, caspase-3 and Bcl-2. These findings demonstrate that R-PPD and S-PPD were potentially useful to ameliorate PD.

Crosstalk among Oxidative Stress, Autophagy, and Apoptosis in the Protective Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells: A Mixed Computational and Experimental Study

OBJECTIVE

Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were found to shift from their usually inactive state to an active state in ischemic stroke (IS) and cause neuronal damage. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), a component derived from medicinal plants, is known for its pharmacological benefits in IS, but its protective effects on BMECs have yet to be explored. This study aimed to investigate the potential protective effects of GRb1 on BMECs.

METHODS

An in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) model was established to mimic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Bulk RNA-sequencing data were analyzed by using the Human Autophagy Database and various bioinformatic tools, including gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), Gene Ontology (GO) classification and enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis, protein-protein interaction network analysis, and molecular docking. Experimental validation was also performed to ensure the reliability of our findings.

RESULTS

Rb1 had a protective effect on BMECs subjected to OGD/R injury. Specifically, GRb1 was found to modulate the interplay between oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in BMECs. Key targets such as sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1/p62), autophagy related 5 (ATG5), and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) were identified, highlighting their potential roles in mediating the protective effects of GRb1 against IS-induced damage.

CONCLUSION

GRbl protects BMECs against OGD/R injury by influencing oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy. The identification of SQSTM1/p62, ATG5, and HIF-1α as promising targets further supports the potential of GRb1 as a therapeutic agent for IS, providing a foundation for future research into its mechanisms and applications in IS treatment.

Network pharmacology analysis and animal experiment validation of neuroinflammation inhibition by total ginsenoside in treating CSM

BACKGROUND

Cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) is a degenerative pathology that affects both upper and lower extremity mobility and sensory function, causing significant pressure on patients and society. Prior research has suggested that ginsenosides may have neuroprotective properties in central nervous system diseases. However, the efficacy and mechanism of ginsenosides for CSM have yet to be investigated.

PURPOSE

This study aims to analyze the composition of ginsenosides using UPLC-MS, identify the underlying mechanism of ginsenosides in treating CSM using network pharmacology, and subsequently confirm the efficacy and mechanism of ginsenosides in rats with chronic spinal cord compression.

METHODS

UPLC-Q-TOF-MS was utilized to obtain mass spectrum data of ginsenoside samples. The chemical constituents of the samples were analyzed by consulting literature reports and relevant databases. Ginsenoside and CSM targets were obtained from the TCMSP, OMIM, and GeneCards databases. GO and KEGG analyses were conducted, and a visualization network of ginsenosides-compounds-key targets-pathways-CSM was constructed, along with molecular docking of key bioactive compounds and targets, to identify the signaling pathways and proteins associated with the therapeutic effects of ginsenosides on CSM. Chronic spinal cord compression rats were intraperitoneally injected with ginsenosides (50 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg) and methylprednisolone for 28 days, and motor function was assessed to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of ginsenosides for CSM. The expression of proteins associated with TNF, IL-17, TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB, and NLRP3 signaling pathways was assessed by immunofluorescence staining and western blotting.

RESULTS

Using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS, 37 compounds were identified from ginsenoside samples. Furthermore, ginsenosides-compounds-key targets-pathways-CSM visualization network indicated that ginsenosides may modulate the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway, Toll-like receptor signaling pathway and Apoptosis by targeting AKT1, TNF, MAPK1, CASP3, IL6, and IL1B, exerting a therapeutic effect on CSM. By attenuating neuroinflammation through the TNF, IL-17, TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB, and MAPK signaling pathways, ginsenosides restored the motor function of rats with CSM, and ginsenosides 150 mg/kg showed better effect. This was achieved by reducing the phosphorylation of NF-κB and the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of network pharmacology indicate that ginsenosides can inhibit neuroinflammation resulting from spinal cord compression through multiple pathways and targets. This finding was validated through in vivo tests, which demonstrated that ginsenosides can reduce neuroinflammation by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasomes via multiple signaling pathways, additionally, it should be noted that 150 mg/kg was a relatively superior dose. This study is the first to verify the intrinsic molecular mechanism of ginsenosides in treating CSM by combining pharmacokinetics, network pharmacology, and animal experiments. The findings can provide evidence for subsequent clinical research and drug development.

Carbon quantum dots of ginsenoside Rb1 for application in a mouse model of intracerebral Hemorrhage

After intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) occurs, the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and iron ion overload are the leading causes of secondary damage. Removing excess iron ions and ROS in the meningeal system can effectively alleviate the secondary damage after ICH. This study synthesized ginsenoside Rb1 carbon quantum dots (RBCQDs) using ginsenoside Rb1 and ethylenediamine via a hydrothermal method. RBCQDs exhibit potent capabilities in scavenging ABTS + free radicals and iron ions in solution. After intrathecal injection, the distribution of RBCQDs is predominantly localized in the subarachnoid space. RBCQDs can eliminate ROS and chelate iron ions within the meningeal system. Treatment with RBCQDs significantly improves blood flow in the meningeal system, effectively protecting dying neurons, improving neurological function, and providing a new therapeutic approach for the clinical treatment of ICH.

Therapeutic potential and possible mechanisms of ginseng for depression associated with COVID-19

Recently, a global outbreak of COVID-19 has rapidly spread to various national regions. As the number of COVID-19 patients has increased, some of those infected with SARS-CoV-2 have developed a variety of psychiatric symptoms, including depression, cognitive impairment, and fatigue. A distinct storm of inflammatory factors that contribute to the initial disease but also a persistent post-acute phase syndrome has been reported in patients with COVID-19. Neuropsychological symptoms including depression, cognitive impairment, and fatigue are closely related to circulating and local (brain) inflammatory factors. Natural products are currently being examined for their ability to treat numerous complications caused by COVID-19. Among them, ginseng has anti-inflammatory, immune system stimulating, neuroendocrine modulating, and other effects, which may help improve psychiatric symptoms. This review summarizes the basic mechanisms of COVID-19 pneumonia, psychiatric symptoms following coronavirus infections, effects of ginseng on depression, restlessness, and other psychiatric symptoms associated with post-COVID syn-dromes, as well as possible mechanisms underlying these effects.

Chemical profiling of Shengmai injection, tissue distribution and pharmacokinetic characteristics of ginsenosides after intravenous dosing Shengmai injection in rats with cerebral ischemia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Shengmai injection (SMI), consisting of Panax ginseng, Fructus schisandrae, and Radix ophiopogonis, has been widely used in the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to uncover the chemical profile of SMI, tissue distribution and pharmacokinetic characteristics of the main compounds after administration by combing UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS and UPLC-QQQ-MS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS method was firstly established for the chemical profiling analysis of SMI. Then UPLC-QQQ-MS method was used to quantitatively analyze the contents of the main identified compounds in SMI and in the different tissues after intravenous dosing SMI in rats with cerebral ischemia. Finally, a new method was developed for the pharmacokinetic study of ginsenosides with considerable exposure.

RESULTS

A total of 59 compounds were identified in SMI, including 25 ginsenosides, 25 lignans, four ophiopogon saponins, and five flavonoids. Among them, 26 compounds were confirmed by the standard substance. By UPLC-QQQ-MS, 23 chemical compounds were then quantitatively identified with their contents in SMI. Ginsenosides, as the main active compounds from Panax ginseng, showed the highest contents in SMI. Fifteen compounds including ginsenosides and Schisandrol were further found to have considerable exposure in different tissues. A rapid, sensitive, and specified method was then developed for simultaneously detecting the seven ginsenosides in the plasma and had good method validation. Pharmacokinetic evaluation showed that PPD type ginsenosides (Rd, Rb1, Rc) were all exhibited at higher levels of exposure in the plasma and had a much slower elimination rate, whereas PPT type ginsenosides (Re, Rg1, Rf, Rg2) underwent fast elimination.

CONCLUSION

This study systematically revealed the ingredients of SMI and their tissue distribution. The pharmacokinetic characteristics of ginsenosides were also discovered. The findings provide a helpful reference for the pharmacological, toxicological, and clinical research on SMI.

Progress of Ginsenoside Rb1 in neurological disorders

Ginseng is frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat neurological disorders. The primary active component of ginseng is ginsenoside, which has been classified into more than 110 types based on their chemical structures. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GsRb1)-a protopanaxadiol saponin and a typical ginseng component-exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-autophagy properties in the nervous system. Neurological disorders remain a leading cause of death and disability globally. GsRb1 effectively treats neurological disorders. To contribute novel insights to the understanding and treatment of neurological disorders, we present a comprehensive review of the pharmacokinetics, actions, mechanisms, and research development of GsRb1 in neurological disorders.

Traditional Chinese medicines treat ischemic stroke and their main bioactive constituents and mechanisms

Ischemic stroke (IS) remains one of the leading causes of death and disability in humans. Unfortunately, none of the treatments effectively provide functional benefits to patients with IS, although many do so by targeting different aspects of the ischemic cascade response. The advantages of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in preventing and treating IS are obvious in terms of early treatment and global coordination. The efficacy of TCM and its bioactive constituents has been scientifically proven over the past decades. Based on clinical trials, this article provides a review of commonly used TCM patent medicines and herbal decoctions indicated for IS. In addition, this paper also reviews the mechanisms of bioactive constituents in TCM for the treatment of IS in recent years, both domestically and internationally. A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical studies will hopefully provide new ideas to address the threat of IS.

Age-induced Changes in Ginsenoside Accumulation and Primary Metabolic Characteristics of Panax Ginseng in Transplantation Mode

Background

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Mayer) is an important natural medicine. However, a long culture period and challenging quality control requirements limit its further use. Although artificial cultivation can yield a sustainable medicinal supply, research on the association between the transplantation and chaining of metabolic networks, especially the regulation of ginsenoside biosynthetic pathways, is limited.

Methods

Herein, we performed Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry based metabolomic measurements to evaluate ginsenoside accumulation and categorise differentially abundant metabolites (DAMs). Transcriptome measurements using an Illumina Platform were then conducted to probe the landscape of genetic alterations in ginseng at various ages in transplantation mode. Using pathway data and crosstalk DAMs obtained by MapMan, we constructed a metabolic profile of transplantation Ginseng.

Results

Accumulation of active ingredients was not obvious during the first 4 years (in the field), but following transplantation, the ginsenoside content increased significantly from 6-8 years (in the wild). Glycerolipid metabolism and Glycerophospholipid metabolism were the most significant metabolic pathways, as Lipids and lipid-like molecule affected the yield of ginsenosides. Starch and sucrose were the most active metabolic pathways during transplantation Ginseng growth.

Conclusion

This study expands our understanding of metabolic network features and the accumulation of specific compounds during different growth stages of this perennial herbaceous plant when growing in transplantation mode. The findings provide a basis for selecting the optimal transplanting time.

Increasing minor ginsenosides contents and enhancing neuroprotective effects of total ginsenosides fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum

Minor ginsenosides have been proven to have higher pharmacological activity than the major ginsenosides. The transformation of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides by lactic acid bacteria was considered to be a promising method. Therefore, this study focuses on utilizing glycosidase-producing Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GLP40 to transform total ginsenosides (TG) and increase the content of minor ginsenosides, as well as investigate the neuroprotective effects of fermented total ginsenosides (FTG). After 21d fermentation, the transformation products were purified using D101 macroporous resin column chromatography, and identified by HPLC and LC-MS analyses. The neuroprotective effect of FTG was evaluated using MPTP-induced neural injury mice model. Lact. plantarum GLP40 fermentation increased the contents of minor ginsenosides in TG, such as Rg3, Rh2, CK, and Rk3. FTG showed stronger alleviation of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine Hydrochloride (MPTP) induced memory loss and dyskinesia in mice, and inhibited tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) depletion and ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) production than TG. Further, FTG significantly increased serum IL-10 levels and inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines compared to TG. Moreover, FTG treatment activated the anti-apoptotic PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and inhibited the expression of the inflammatory NF-κB/COX-2/iNOS pathway. In conclusion, Lact. plantarum GLP40 fermentation enhances the neuroprotective effects of total ginsenosides by increasing minor ginsenosides. FTG protected MPTP induced neural injury in mice by regulating inflammation and cell apoptosis signaling pathways.

Transformation of Ginsenosides by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MB11 Fermentation: Minor Ginsenosides Conversion and Enhancement of Anti-Colorectal Cancer Activity

The present study aimed to increase the content of minor ginsenosides and enhance the anti-colorectal cancer activity of ginsenosides via biotransformation by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MB11 screened from fermented foods. A subcutaneous transplantation tumor model of murine colorectal cancer CT26 cells was established in mice to study the anticarcinogenic activities and mechanism of fermented total ginsenosides (FTGs). The results showed that L. plantarum MB11 fermentation increased the content of minor ginsenosides and decreased that of major ginsenosides. FTGs reduced the tumor weight and size compared with the model group. Immunofluorescence and TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) analysis showed that FTGs significantly increase the number of caspase-3 cells in tumor tissue and induce cell apoptosis. Mechanically, FTGs activate AMPK/mTOR autophagy pathway and regulate JAK2/STAT3 and Bax/Bcl-2/caspase-3 apoptosis pathway. Overall, fermentation with L. plantarum MB11 enhanced minor ginsenosides in total ginsenosides, and FTGs induced subcutaneous transplantation tumor autophagy and apoptosis in mice.

Discovery of effective combination from Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair against heart failure by spectrum-effect relationship analysis and zebrafish models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional herbal pair Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma (roots and rhizomes of Panax ginseng C.A. Mey, Renshen in Chinese) and Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata (lateral roots of Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux, Fuzi in Chinese), composition of two traditional Chinese medicinal herbs, has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine formula, in which Shenfu decoction has been used clinically in China for the treatment of heart failure at present.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Although the ginsenosides and aconite alkaloids have been proven as the essential bioactive components in Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair, the exact composition of effective components to combat heart failure are still unclear. Therefore, spectrum-effect relationship analysis was performed to reveal its effective combination for anti-heart failure effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, the chemical constituents of Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair were identified using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF MS). The 39 major compounds in Renshen-Fuzi with five different compatibility ratios were simultaneously quantified using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QQQ MS/MS). Subsequently, zebrafish models induced by verapamil hydrochloride were constructed and four heart failure-related indexes were selected for pharmacodynamic evaluation of Renshen-Fuzi. To analyze the spectrum-effect relationships, partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were established among the contents of 39 compounds in Renshen-Fuzi with each pharmacodynamic index. According to the contribution of each compound to the whole efficacy, 12 compounds were finally screened out as the effective combination.

RESULTS

A total of 157 chemical compounds of Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair were identified, in which 39 components were simultaneously determined. The pharmacological effects indicated that Renshen-Fuzi with 1:2 ratio exhibited the best effect based on zebrafish model, which could improve cardiac output and blood flow velocity and inhibit pericardial enlargement and venous blood stasis significantly. A combination of 9 ginsenosides and 3 aconite alkaloids based on a component-efficacy modeling by PLSR was screened, and exerted approximately equivalent pharmacological effects compared with Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings elucidated the effective combination of Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair that has been used in clinic for the treatment of heart failure, which could also promote the pharmacological research and quality control of their formula such as Shenfu decoction.

Regulation of NAD+/NADH Redox Involves the Protective Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 against Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation/Reoxygenation-Induced Astrocyte Lesions

The aim of this study was to investigate NAD+/NADH redox regulation in astrocytes by Ginsenoside Rb1 subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) and to reveal the neuroprotective mechanism of ginseng. Neonatal mouse brain was used to culture primary astrocytes. The third generation of the primary astrocytes was used for the experiments. OGD/R was introduced by culturing the cells in a glucose-free media under nitrogen for 6 h followed by a regular culture for 24 h. Ginsenoside Rb1 attenuated OGD/R-induced astrocyte injury in a dose-dependent manner. It improved the mitochondrial function of OGD/R astrocytes indicated by improving mitochondrial distribution, increasing mitochondrial membrane potential, and enhancing mitochondrial DNA copies and ATP production. Ginsenoside Rb1 significantly lifted intracellular NAD+/NADH, NADPH/NADP+, and GSH/GSSG in OGD/R astrocytes. It inhibited the protein expression of both PARP1 and CD38, while attenuating the SIRT1 drop in OGD/R cells. In line with its effects on PARP1, Ginsenoside Rb1 significantly reduced the expression of poly-ADP-ribosylation (PARylation) proteins in OGD/R cells. Ginsenoside Rb1 also significantly increased the expression of NAMPT and NMNAT2, both of which are key players in NAD/NADH synthesis. The results suggest that the regulation of NAD+/NADH redox involves the protective effects of ginsenoside Rb1 against OGD/R-induced astrocyte injury.

Antidepressant-like Effects of Representative Types of Food and Their Possible Mechanisms

Depression is a mental disorder characterized by low mood, lack of motivation, negative cognitive outlook, and sleep problems. Suicide may occur in severe cases, although suicidal thoughts are not seen in all cases. Globally, an estimated 350 million individuals grapple with depression, as reported by the World Health Organization. At present, drug and psychological treatments are the main treatments, but they produce insufficient responses in many patients and fail to work at all in many others. Consequently, treating depression has long been an important topic in society. Given the escalating prevalence of depression, a comprehensive strategy for managing its symptoms and impacts has garnered significant attention. In this context, nutritional psychiatry emerges as a promising avenue. Extensive research has underscored the potential benefits of a well-rounded diet rich in fruits, vegetables, fish, and meat in alleviating depressive symptoms. However, the intricate mechanisms linking dietary interventions to brain function alterations remain largely unexplored. This review delves into the intricate relationship between dietary patterns and depression, while exploring the plausible mechanisms underlying the impact of dietary interventions on depression management. As we endeavor to unveil the pathways through which nutrition influences mental well-being, a holistic perspective that encompasses multidisciplinary strategies gains prominence, potentially reshaping how we approach and address depression.

Oxidative stress: roles in skeletal muscle atrophy

Oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced protein synthesis, and increased proteolysis are all critical factors in the process of muscle atrophy. In particular, oxidative stress is the key factor that triggers skeletal muscle atrophy. It is activated in the early stages of muscle atrophy and can be regulated by various factors. The mechanisms of oxidative stress in the development of muscle atrophy have not been completely elucidated. This review provides an overview of the sources of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle and the correlation of oxidative stress with inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy, protein synthesis, proteolysis, and muscle regeneration in muscle atrophy. Additionally, the role of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle atrophy caused by several pathological conditions, including denervation, unloading, chronic inflammatory diseases (diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, chronic heart failure, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), sarcopenia, hereditary neuromuscular diseases (spinal muscular atrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy), and cancer cachexia, have been discussed. Finally, this review proposes the alleviation oxidative stress using antioxidants, Chinese herbal extracts, stem cell and extracellular vesicles as a promising therapeutic strategy for muscle atrophy. This review will aid in the development of novel therapeutic strategies and drugs for muscle atrophy.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Panax notoginseng Flower Saponins Quantified Using LC/MS/MS

Panax notoginseng (Burk) F. H. Chen is a traditional Chinese medicinal and edible plant. However, Panax notoginseng flower (PNF) is rarely used. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the main saponins and the anti-inflammatory bioactivity of PNF saponins (PNFS). We explored the regulation of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), a key mediator of inflammatory pathways, in human keratinocyte cells treated with PNFS. A cell model of UVB-irradiation-induced inflammation was established to determine the influence of PNFS on inflammatory factors and their relationship with LL-37 expression. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blotting analysis were used to detect the production of inflammatory factors and LL37. Finally, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was employed to quantify the main active components (ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1, and notoginsenoside R1) in PNF. The results show that PNFS substantially inhibited COX-2 activity and downregulated the production of inflammatory factors, indicating that they can be used to reduce skin inflammation. PNFS also increased the expression of LL-37. The contents of ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, and Rd in PNF were much higher than those of Rg1, and notoginsenoside R1. This paper provides data in support of the application of PNF in cosmetics.

[Ginsenosides affect the system of Toll-like receptors in the brain of rats under conditions of long-term alcohol withdrawal]

Long-term alcohol consumption causes the development of neuroinflammation in various brain structures. One of the mechanisms involved in this process is the increased activity of TLR-signaling intracellular pathways. Studies confirm the ability of ginseng extract or its individual ginsenosides to reduce the increased activity of TLR-signaling pathways. The aim of our study was to study the effect of the amount of ginsenosides obtained from the extract of the Panax japonicus cell line on the state of the TLR-signaling system in the nucleus accumbens and hippocampus of the rat brain in a model of long-term alcohol consumption during alcohol withdrawal. The results of the study showed that ginsenosides were able to make changes in the TLR signaling system, which has been altered by long-term alcohol consumption. A significant effect of ginsenosides on the level of TLR3 and TLR4 mRNA in the nucleus accumbens was found, while in the hippocampus, ginsenosides significantly affected the level of TLR7 mRNA. The effect of ginsenosides on the level of mRNA of transcription factors and cytokines involved in TLR-signaling was evaluated. Thus, results of our study confirm that ginsenosides are able to influence the state of TLR-signaling pathways, but this effect is multidirectional in relation to different brain structures. In the future, it seems interesting to evaluate the role of individual ginsenosides in relation to genes of TLR-signaling, as well as the effect of ginsenosides on other brain structures.

A dual Keap1 and p47phox inhibitor Ginsenoside Rb1 ameliorates high glucose/ox-LDL-induced endothelial cell injury and atherosclerosis

Oxidative stress is a vital contributor to the development and progression of diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a well-known molecule that participates in cellular defense against oxidative stress. Utilizing luciferase reporter assay from 379 natural products, we reported here that Ginsenoside Rb1 played a dual role in inhibiting Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and p47^phox luciferase reporter activities. In endothelial cells (ECs), Rb1 pretreatment enhanced cell viability, reduced oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT), and apoptosis, as well as ameliorated mitochondrial quality following oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) plus high glucose (HG) challenge. Rb1 directly bound to Keap1 and promoted its ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation dependent on lysine residues (K108, K323, and K551) by recruiting the E3 ligase synovial apoptosis inhibitor 1 (SYVN1), leading to Nrf2 dissociation from Keap1, Nrf2 nuclear translocation, Nrf2/PGC-1α complex formation. We further identified that Rb1 could bind to p47^phox and reduce its phosphorylation and membrane translocation, thereby disrupting the assembly of the NOX2 complex. Importantly, Rb1-mediated preservation of cytoplasmic p47^phox stabilized and contributed to Nrf2 activation. Additionally, we revealed that Rb1 reduced aortic atherosclerotic plaque formation along with reductions in oxidative stress and inflammatory response in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced ApoE^-/- mice, but not in ApoE^-/- mice with deficiency of Nrf2 and PGC-1α. Collectively, we demonstrated that Rb1, which directly targeted Keap1 and p47^phox in ECs, may be an attractive candidate for the treatment of atherosclerosis in diabetes.

Mechanisms of ginsenosides exert neuroprotective effects on spinal cord injury: A promising traditional Chinese medicine

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). It is mainly caused by trauma and reduces the quality of life of the affected individual. Ginsenosides are safe and effective traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), and their efficacy against SCI is being increasingly researched in many countries, especially in China and Korea. This systematic review evaluated the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in SCI and elucidated their properties.