The Eating Motivation Survey in Brazil: Results From a Sample of the General Adult Population

Food literacy and eating motivation in relation to diet quality and general and abdominal obesity: A cross-sectional study

This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the associations of food literacy and eating motivation with diet quality and obesity. Participants were 1055 Japanese adults aged 20-69 years. The self-perceived food literacy scale was used to assess food literacy (food preparation skills, resilience and resistance, healthy snack styles, social and conscious eating, examining food labels, daily food planning, healthy budgeting, and healthy food stockpiling). The Eating Motivation Survey was used to assess eating motives (liking, habits, need and hunger, health, convenience, pleasure, traditional eating, natural concerns, sociability, price, visual appeal, weight control, affect regulation, social norms, and social image). Diet quality (Healthy Eating Index-2020) was assessed based on 4-day weighed dietary records. After adjustment for potential confounders, higher scores for food preparation skills (β 0.64), healthy snack styles (β 1.62), examining food labels (β 0.72), healthy budgeting (β 0.71), and natural concerns motive (β 0.75) and lower scores for convenience (β -0.45) and pleasure (β -0.62) motives were significantly associated with a higher diet quality. In contrast, higher scores for liking (odds ratio (OR) 1.32) and weight control (OR 1.19) motives and lower scores for resilience and resistance (OR 0.76), daily food planning (OR 0.84), and health motive (OR 0.67) were significantly associated with a higher prevalence of abdominal obesity (waist circumference ≥90 cm for males; ≥80 cm for females); all of these variables (except for daily food planning) were also associated with general obesity (body mass index ≥25 kg/m2). In conclusion, the food literacy domains and eating motives associated with diet quality differed from those associated with obesity. The findings have important implications for effective strategies to improve diet quality and combat the obesity epidemic.

Factors Affecting Eating Motivation Play a Role in Orthorexia Nervosa in University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study

Orthorexia nervosa (ON), an eating disorder marked by an obsession with healthy eating, is influenced by social and psychological factors, particularly among university students during a formative period. This study investigated the effects of eating motivations, defined by factors such as health, pleasure, social influences, and environmental concerns, on orthorexic tendencies. Using the Turkish-validated versions of ORTO-11 and The Eating Motivation Survey (TEMS-Brief version), data were collected from 416 students who meet the study participation criteria (mean age: 22.3 ± 4.41 years, 84.4% female, and mean BMI: 22.74 ± 4.54 kg/m2). The results showed that ORTO-11 scores increased significantly with BMI, indicating lower orthorexic tendencies. TEMS sub-dimensions revealed that the health sub-dimension decreased orthorexic tendencies (p = 0.044), whereas the traditional eating sub-dimension significantly increased them (p = 0.000). These findings suggest a complex interaction where prioritizing health may conflict with cultural eating norms. Interventions should address this balance by promoting a holistic approach to nutrition, integrating stress management techniques, and raising awareness of ON through targeted workshops and educational programs for students and health professionals. A long-term evaluation of these programs is essential to ensure their effectiveness in fostering healthier relationships with food and mitigating ON risk among young adults.

Protocol of Randomized Controlled Community Trial (RCCT) for obesity management in Brazilian primary health care

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a chronic disease characterized by excess body fat and is a risk factor for other chronic non-communicable diseases. Its multifactorial and complex nature makes its management a challenge for health services. This manuscript presents an investigation protocol that aims to analyze the effectiveness of collective nutritional interventions for obesity management applicable to primary health care.

METHODS

Randomized Controlled Community Trial (RCCT) in a representative sample of users of the Programa Academia de Saúde (PAS), in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, with obesity. The research consists of four phases: (1) Screening to identify the participants eligible for the nutritional interventions (individuals with obesity, readiness for change to lose body weight, and willingness and interest to participate in a group activity for six months or more); (2) Baseline to characterize the participants; (3) Implementation of collective nutritional interventions; (4) Reassessment of the participants. Participants in the control group (CG) will receive the usual health service care, and participants in the intervention group (IG) will participate in collective nutritional interventions based on Therapeutic Group 1 (TG1) or Therapeutic Group 2 (TG2) of the "Instructive of Collective Approach for the obesity management in SUS".

DISCUSSION

The strengths of the study include its robust RCCT design, which allows for longitudinal analyses and is suitable for investigating causal hypotheses and applying strategies to improve adherence to interventions. Furthermore, the study included a representative sample of a public health service and aims to evaluate therapeutic proposals from the Brazilian Ministry of Health, which can contribute to implementation and extension in the national territory.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

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Factors of food choice and nutritional intake of Brazilian older adults according sociodemographic and health characteristics

The rapid demographic transition in developing countries has always posed a challenge for the social and economic policies of these nations. The increase in longevity poses new challenges for understanding dietary consumption among different age groups at the old age population. The aim of this study was to evaluate the reasons for food choice and the composition of nutritional intake of older adults and its relationship to individual characteristics. Community-living older adults aged 60 and older were interviewed in their homes at the southeastern region of Brazil, between December 2021 and February 2022. The Food Choice Questionnaire and a Food Frequency Questionnaire were administered to obtain data on the reasons for food choice and nutritional intake. A structured interview was employed to gather information on individual characteristics. 168 older adults (mean age of 72.6 ± 8.9; 69.6% women) participated. The reasons for food choice differed significantly, with weight control being one of the least important and health being one of the most important. But older adults aged 80 and over valued the health criterion less than younger participants (60-69 years old). The intake of macronutrients and energy were below nutritional recommendations. Carbohydrate consumption was positively correlated with the mood motive. There was a relationship between the reasons for choosing food and/or the components of nutritional intake with: gender, age, living with a partner, self-report of depression/anxiety, self-perception of health and nutritional status anthropometric. The results are important to be considered in prevention policies and clinical-nutritional management, with special attention to the oldest-old.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Food Life Questionnaire-Short Form among Brazilian Adult Women

Measures of beliefs and attitudes toward food have generally been limited to the measurement of more pathological eating attitudes (e.g., disordered eating). The Food Life Questionnaire (FLQ) and its short form (FLQ-SF) were developed to examine attitudes toward a broader range of foods; however, the factor structure of the FLQ-SF was not confirmed in any study with young women. In the present study, we performed a psychometric evaluation of the Brazilian Portuguese translation of the FLQ-SF in a sample of 604 women. We evaluated the factor structure using a two-step, split-sample exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic approach. Results supported a four-factor structure (i.e., weight concern, diet-health orientation, belief in a diet-health linkage, and food and pleasure) with 18 items (χ2/df = 2.09; CFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.05 (90% CI = 0.04; 0.06; p > 0.05); and SRMR = 0.08). Additionally, we found good internal consistency for all FLQ-SF subscales (McDonald's ω = 0.79-0.89) and convergent validity with measures of feelings, beliefs, and behaviors involved in food attitudes. Collectively, these results support the use of the FLQ-SF in Brazilian women and provide a foundation to expand the literature on beliefs and attitudes toward food in this population.

Food healthiness judgements among Brazilian and German lay adults

This study investigated which foods are most saliently judged as healthy and unhealthy in Brazil and Germany and the reasons for these judgements. Dietary guidelines in the two countries differ in that those in Brazil are based on a food processing classification rather than nutrient profiling, whereas dietary guidelines in Germany do not include the processing level of food. In an online study with 355 lay adults (Brazil n = 205, Germany n = 150), we explored which foods are listed as healthy and unhealthy using a free-listing method. The main reasons for these healthiness judgements were then identified with a one or two-word phrase and compared between countries. Saliency analysis was conducted to identify the 15 most salient healthy and unhealthy foods in each country. Principles of content analysis were used to assess the reasons why these 15 items were listed as most salient by the participants. Results showed that both Brazilians and Germans listed mostly natural or minimally processed food (e.g. fruits, vegetables, grains, fish and milk) as healthy, whereas types of convenience and fast food, sweets and other ultra-processed foods (e.g. chocolate, soda, French fries, pizza and hamburger) were the most salient unhealthy items listed in both countries. Differences in culturally relevant items listed in each country are discussed. Further, in both countries, despite differences in their dietary guidelines, food healthiness judgements for the most salient items listed relied heavily on the nutritional content of food, reinforced the 'good/healthy' and 'bad/unhealthy' dichotomy, and were centred on benefits or harms to the body (e.g. prevention or cause of diseases and weight control). The similarity of food healthiness judgements between the two countries, together with their agreement with conventional health claims and dietary guidelines, suggest that lay Brazilian and German adults are knowledgeable about the general concepts of 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' food. Finally, these findings suggest that rather than just providing more nutritional information, policymakers and health professionals need to take into account the multiple psychosocial and environmental determinants of eating in these countries.

Effect of nutrient, processing and hedonic claims on food-related perceptions: An experimental online study in Brazil and Germany

Prior studies on perceived healthiness of foods have often compared nutrient and hedonic claims, neglecting comparisons to a control condition. The effect of food claims focusing on the food processing level has received considerably less research attention, although food processing has been included in dietary guidelines in Brazil. Thus, the present study aimed to explore the effect of a control and processing claim, additionally to the effects of a nutrient. and hedonic claim, on perceptions related to a food item typically considered "less healthy" (chocolate cake). We further compared these effects between Brazil and Germany, a country where food processing is currently not included in dietary guidelines. A total of 634 lay adults were recruited in a cross-sectional online study and randomised to see the photo of a piece of cake with one of the four different claim conditions and to report their health-related perceptions of the cake. The main analyses included two-way ANCOVAs (4 claims x 2 countries) for each dependent variable controlled for gender, age and level of hunger; followed by post hoc tests. Overall, results revealed that in both countries, the claims highlighting nutrients or processing aspects rendered the perceptions of the cake healthier compared to the control claim. These effects were more pronounced among Brazilian than among German participants. Food-related perceptions mostly did not differ between the hedonic and control claim and did not differ at all between the nutrient and processing claims. In conclusion, it is noteworthy that, even for an inherently considered "less healthy food item" (chocolate cake) nutrient and processing claims increase healthiness perceptions. While our findings may imply that in both countries lay people are highly susceptible to nutrient claims, food processing aspects seem to be similarly relevant.

Perspective: A Conceptual Framework for Adaptive Personalized Nutrition Advice Systems (APNASs)

Nearly all approaches to personalized nutrition (PN) use information such as the gene variants of individuals to deliver advice that is more beneficial than a generic "1-size-fits-all" recommendation. Despite great enthusiasm and the increased availability of commercial services, thus far, scientific studies have only revealed small to negligible effects on the efficacy and effectiveness of personalized dietary recommendations, even when using genetic or other individual information. In addition, from a public health perspective, scholars are critical of PN because it primarily targets socially privileged groups rather than the general population, thereby potentially widening health inequality. Therefore, in this perspective, we propose to extend current PN approaches by creating adaptive personalized nutrition advice systems (APNASs) that are tailored to the type and timing of personalized advice for individual needs, capacities, and receptivity in real-life food environments. These systems encompass a broadening of current PN goals (i.e., what should be achieved) to incorporate "individual goal preferences" beyond currently advocated biomedical targets (e.g., making sustainable food choices). Moreover, they cover the "personalization processes of behavior change" by providing in situ, "just-in-time" information in real-life environments (how and when to change), which accounts for individual capacities and constraints (e.g., economic resources). Finally, they are concerned with a "participatory dialog between individuals and experts" (e.g., actual or virtual dieticians, nutritionists, and advisors) when setting goals and deriving measures of adaption. Within this framework, emerging digital nutrition ecosystems enable continuous, real-time monitoring, advice, and support in food environments from exposure to consumption. We present this vision of a novel PN framework along with scenarios and arguments that describe its potential to efficiently address individual and population needs and target groups that would benefit most from its implementation.

Disordered Eating Attitudes and Food Choice Motives Among Individuals Who Follow a Vegan Diet in Brazil

Importance

It remains controversial whether adhering to a vegan diet may be associated with a higher prevalence of disordered eating. Also, main food choice motives and their association with disordered eating in this population are still unknown.

Objective

To determine the association between disordered eating attitudes and food choice motives of individuals who follow a vegan diet.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This is a cross-sectional online survey conducted between September 2021 and January 2023. Individuals of both sexes, aged 18 years or older, following a vegan diet for at least 6 months, currently living in Brazil were recruited through advertisements on social media.

Exposure

Adherence to a vegan diet and food choice motives.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Disordered eating attitudes and food choice motives.

Results

Nine hundred seventy-one participants completed the online survey. Median (IQR) age and BMI of participants was 29 (24-36) years and 22.6 (20.3-24.9), respectively, and 800 participants (82.4%) were female. Most participants (908 respondents [94%]) were categorized with the lowest level of disturbed eating attitudes. "Need and hunger," "liking," "health," "habits," and "natural concerns" were the most important food choice motives in this population, while "affect regulation," "social norms," and "social image" were the less important ones. Adjusted models showed that "liking," "need and hunger," and "health" were associated with lower levels of disordered eating attitudes, while "price," "pleasure," "sociability," "traditional eating," "visual appeal," "social norms," "social image," "weight control," and "affect regulation" were associated with higher levels of disordered eating attitudes.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cross-sectional study, as opposed to previous suggestions, levels of disordered eating were very low among vegans, although certain food choice motives were associated with disordered eating attitudes. Understanding the motivations of adhering to diets that may impose restrictions, which include vegan diets, may help tailor interventions focused on promoting healthy eating and preventing or treating disordered eating.

Changes in food behavior during the first lockdown of COVID-19 pandemic: A multi-country study about changes in eating habits, motivations, and food-related behaviors

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in severe, unprecedented changes affecting the world population. Restrictions in mobility, social distancing measures, and the persistent social alarm, during the first period of pandemic, resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes and affected physical and psychological wellbeing on a global scale.

An international research team was constituted to develop a study involving different countries about eating motivations, dietary habits and behaviors related with food intake, acquisition, and preparation. This study presents results of an online survey, carried out during the first lockdown, in 2020, assessing food-related behavior and how people perceived them to change, comparatively to the period preceding the COVID-19 outbreak.

A total of 3332 responses, collected from 16 countries, were considered for analysis [72.8% in Europe, 12.8% in Africa, 2.2% in North America (USA) and 12.2% in South America]. Results suggest that the main motivations perceived to drive food intake were familiarity and liking. Two clusters were identified, based on food intake frequency, which were classified as “healthier” and “unhealthier”. The former was constituted by individuals with higher scholarity level, to whom intake was more motivated by health, natural concerns, and weight control, and less by liking, pleasure or affect regulation. The second cluster was constituted by individuals with a higher proportion of male and intake more influenced by affect-related motivations. During this period, a generalized lower concern with the convenience attributes of foods was noted (namely, choice of processed products and fast-food meals), alongside an increase in time and efforts dedicated to home cooking.

Understanding the main changes and their underlying motivations in a time of unprecedented crisis is of major importance, as it provides the scientific support that allows one to anticipate the implications for the future of the global food and nutrition system and, consequently, to take the appropriate action.

Association of eating motives with anthropometry, body composition, and dietary intake in healthy German adults

Effective policies to address poor food choices and dietary patterns need to consider the complex set of motives affecting eating behavior. This study examined how different eating motives are associated with anthropometry, body composition, and dietary intake. Our analysis is based on a cross-sectional sample with 429 healthy adults in three different age groups collected in Germany from 2016 to 2018. Dietary intake, Body Mass Index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and fat-free mass (FFM) were measured by standardized methods. Eating motives were measured using The Eating Motivation Scale (TEMS). Regressing dietary intakes and anthropometric indicators on TEMS motives, we identify the main sources of variation in diet and nutritional status separately for men and women. Results indicated the Health motive to be positively associated with FFM (B±SE=1.72±0.44) and negatively with WC (B±SE=-3.23±0.81) for men. For women, the Need & Hunger motive was positively associated with FFM (B±SE=1.63±0.44) and negatively with WC (B±SE=-2.46±0.81). While Liking and Habits were the most frequently stated eating motives, we did not find them to be significantly related to the nutritional status. Other motives were associated with dietary intake but not anthropometry or body composition. The Price motive was positively and the Convenience motive was negatively associated with energy (B±SE=63.77±19.98;B±SE=-46.96±17.12) and carbohydrate intake (B±SE=7.15±2.65;B±SE=-5.98±2.27) for men. The results highlight the need for more differentiated analyses of eating motives, beyond comparing the relative importance of motives based on mean values, towards the association of motives with dietary intake and nutritional status.

Influence of Body Mass Index on Eating Habits and Food Choice Determinants Among Brazilian Women During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Changes in emotional state due to the COVID-19 pandemic may potentially modify eating habits, which may differ as a function of body mass index (BMI). Using a self-reported, questionnaire-based survey we evaluated Brazilian women during the pandemic for: (i) the influence of BMI on changes in eating habits, food choice determinants, and psychological symptoms; (ii) associations between eating habits, food choice determinants and psychological symptoms. General characteristics, anthropometric data, eating habits before and during the pandemic, food choice determinants and psychological symptoms during the pandemic were collected between June and September, 2020. Participants (n = 1,183) were normal weight (60.4%), overweight (26.2%) and obese (13.4%). A higher frequency of "cooking" (72.3-77.6%, p = 0.004) and "use of delivery service" (29.8-48.8%, p < 0.001) was reported during, in comparison to before the pandemic. Additionally, a higher prevalence of "snacking" (57.1-63.8%, p = 0.005) and "eating at table" (78.5-82.7%, p < 0.001) was reported during the pandemic, while the number of participants reporting "dieting" decreased (28.7-20.4%, p < 0.001). "Health", "natural concerns" and "need and hunger" were less important determinants for participants with overweight/obesity compared to normal weight. Regression analysis indicated that (i) "health", "natural concerns" and "affect regulation"; (ii) "health", "pleasure", "convenience", and "natural concerns"; and (iii) "visual appeal" and "pleasure" were the food choice determinants more associated with eating habits among women with normal weight, overweight, and obesity, respectively. In conclusion, eating habits were modified during the pandemic despite BMI, whereas food choice determinants differed between overweight/obesity and normal weight women.

Poor Eating Habits and Selected Determinants of Food Choice Were Associated With Ultraprocessed Food Consumption in Brazilian Women During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: The aim of this study was to investigate possible associations between food consumption and eating habits and food choice determinants in women during COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: This is a cross-sectional survey conducted in Brazil between June and September, 2020, during which time social distancing measures were in place. Results: Participants (n = 629) were aged 34.0 years and mostly within normal weight according to BMI (60.4%). "Snacking" and "liking" associated with increased energy (β = 164.27 and β = 110.24) and carbohydrate intake (β = 1.97 and β = 1.80), and with reduced protein intake (β = -1.54 and β = -1.18). In contrast, "dieting" and "weight control" associated with reduced energy (β = -162.57 and β = -111.49) and carbohydrate intake (β = -2.78 and β = -2.07), and with increased protein intake (β = 3.78 and β = 1.65). "Dieting" (β = 7.27), "need and hunger" (β = 3.34), and "health" (β = 4.94) associated with an increased consumption of unprocessed and minimally processed foods, whereas "replacing main meals with snacks" (β = -8.98), "snacking" (β = -6.92) and binge eating symptoms (β = -0.34) associated with reduced consumption of foods within this processing level. In contrast, "use of delivery services" (β = 3.39), "replacing main meals with snacks" (β = 5.49), "visual appeal" (β = 2.17), "social norms" (β = 2.19) and "affect regulation" (β = 2.01) associated with increased ultraprocessed food consumption. Overall, associations were more frequent and pronounced when analyzing food consumption by processing level rather than by macronutrient intake. Conclusion: Some eating habits and food choice determinants ("snacking," "replacing meals with snacks," "use of delivery services") observed during the COVID-19 pandemic were associated with an unhealthy diet (high energy and carbohydrate consumption, increased ultraprocessed food consumption and reduced unprocessed/minimally processed foods consumption) in Brazilian women.

Eating Motives and Other Factors Predicting Emotional Overeating during COVID-19 in a Sample of Polish Adults

We hypothesised that the higher levels of emotion-related predictors (eating motive in the form of affect regulation and COVID-19-related stress) would be associated with higher emotional overeating, after accounting for the effects of demographic variables (gender and BMI) and other eating motives (visual- and attitude-related predictors: liking, pleasure, visual appeal; body- and health-related predictors: need and hunger, health, weight control). Participants (N = 868; Mage = 33.53 years, SD = 11.98) completed: the Eating Motivation Survey, the Emotional Overeating Questionnaire, a COVID-19-related stress measure and a socio-demographic survey. The final step of the regression with emotional overeating was significant; affect regulation and COVID-19-related stress were significantly related to emotional overeating (ΔF p < 0.001, Adj. ΔR2 = 0.13). During the COVID-19 pandemic, eating can, on the one hand, help to cope with the current difficult situation and the negative emotions associated with it; on the other hand, frequent use of this tendency can lead to rigid regulation of affect and use of this mechanism as the dominant mechanism. Therefore, limited social contact, related disruptions in daily activities and stress resulting from COVID-19 should generate appropriate interventions, not necessarily focusing only on emotional eating, but also on the resources of the individual. It is worth encouraging specialists to implement alternative methods of contact with their patients, e.g., online.

Food choice motives among two disparate socioeconomic groups in Brazil

Understanding the motives influencing food intake is indispensable for effective dietary recommendations aimed at promoting healthy eating in an integrative way. The objective of this study was to evaluate food choice motives across two socioeconomically different cities in Brazil. A cross-sectional study with a convenience sample (n = 473) of adults living in both places was evaluated. Food choice motives were assessed by The Eating Motivation Survey (TEMS) with 15 dimensions, and economic classifications were made according to the Brazilian Economic Classification Criteria (CCEB). Data analysis used both a general linear model (GLM) and a Structural Equation Model (SEM) adjusted for age, ethnicity, income and educational degree. Participants were mainly women (74.6%) with a mean age of 36.6 years. Cities were not invariant (Δχ2 = 314.165, p < 0.001) and two distinct prediction models for food choice motives emerged. Fit indices indicate acceptable model fit for both low (CFI = 0.911; TLI = 0.898; RMSEA = 0.041) and high socioeconomic status groups (CFI = 0.808; TLI = 0.717; RMSEA = 0.081). Although cities differ in the prediction models for food choice motives, we demonstrated that there are two main networks of predictors: one related to social context predictors of food choice motives and another related to hedonic-oriented ones. Particularly, hedonic-oriented motives (i.e., pleasure) were the most relevant predictors to the group of high socioeconomic status followed by social context predictors (traditional eating and sociability). On the other hand, the group of low socioeconomic status had most of its predictors related to social context (i.e., visual appeal, traditional eating, sociability, social norms and social image) and also price, but this last one was the least important among the most important predictors.

Preference for Intuition and Deliberation in Eating Decision-making: Scale validation and associations with eating behaviour and health

OBJECTIVES

Two distinct lines of research separately regard either deliberately regulated eating or intuitive eating as most beneficial for health. The present research aims to integrate these seemingly contradictory findings by investigating the relationships between Preference for Intuition and Deliberation in Eating Decision-making (E-PID) and subjective and objective health-related parameters using a newly developed scale.

DESIGN

Study 1: online survey; Study 2: cross-sectional community cohort sample.

METHODS

Study 1 (N = 699) assessed E-PID, intuitive, restrained, and external eating, motivation to eat healthily, domain-unspecific Preference for Intuition and Deliberation, and general self-control. Study 2 (N = 1,212) assessed E-PID, positive eating, intention to eat healthily, eating behaviour, and objective health risk factors (BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting serum glucose, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides).

RESULTS

Study 1 confirmed a two-factor structure and provided evidence for construct validity: A higher preference for intuition was positively related to intuitive eating, while a higher preference for deliberation was associated with increased dietary restraint. In Study 2, preference for deliberation was positively related to the intention to eat healthy, healthy eating behaviour, and health parameters. Preference for intuition was generally unrelated to health parameters, although a higher preference for intuition was related to a somewhat unhealthier eating pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

Preference for intuition and deliberation when making food choices are two distinct decision-making styles: The former focuses on internal cues, while the latter focuses on cognitive regulation of food intake. Despite these differences, neither decision-making style was shown to be detrimental.

A Comparison of the Percentage of "Yes" (Agree) Responses and Importance of Attributes (Constructs) determined using Check-All-That-Apply and Check-All-Statements (Yes/No) Question Formats in Five Countries

Check All That Apply (CATA) has become a popular type of questionnaire response in sensory/consumer research in recent years. However, some authors have pointed out potential problems with the method. An online survey using either a Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) or Check-All-Statements (CAS) format for questions was conducted to provide a deeper understanding of the response data using the two question formats. With CATA, respondents select all terms or statements that apply from a given list, while, with CAS, respondents must respond (e.g., yes/no or agree/disagree) to each term or statement to show that it applies or does not apply. Respondents from five countries (Brazil, China, India, Spain, and the USA) were randomly assigned one of the two question formats (N = 200 per country per method). Motivations for eating items that belong to five food groups (starchy, protein, dairy, fruits, and desserts) were assessed. Results showed that CAS had higher percentages of “agree” responses than CATA. Also, the response ratio of CAS and CATA data was different, suggesting that interpretations of the data from each response type would also be different. Respondents in the USA, China, and Spain took longer to complete the CAS questionnaire, while respondents in Brazil and India had similar time durations for the two question formats. Overall, the CATA format was liked slightly more than the CAS format and fewer respondents dropped out of the survey when using the CATA response type. These findings suggest that the CATA format is quick and relatively easy for consumers to complete. However, it provokes fewer “apply” responses, which some psychologists suggest underestimates applicable terms or statements and CATA provides a different interpretation of data than the CAS format that requires consumers to respond to each term or statement. Further, CAS may overestimate the applicable terms. Consumer insights collected using CATA and CAS can lead to different decisions due to differences in data interpretation by researchers (e.g., marketers, nutritionists, product developers, and sensory scientists). More investigation is needed for the CATA and CAS question formats.

The Relationship Between Healthy Eating Motivation and Protein Intake in Community-Dwelling Older Adults With Varying Functional Status

In older adults, the relationship between healthy eating motivation (HEM) and protein intake as key component of a healthy diet is poorly understood. Therefore, we investigate the association of HEM with (1) total protein intake and (2) intake of different protein sources in older adults with varying functional status. In this cross-sectional study including 250 adults (≥70 years), we assessed HEM with “The Eating Motivation Survey” and protein intake by 7-day food records. In addition, gender, age, Body Mass Index (BMI), energy intake and functional status were considered. Regression analyses revealed that HEM was neither related to total (β = −0.02; p = 0.723) nor to relative protein intake (β = 0.04; p = 0.370). Notwithstanding this, participants with stronger HEM showed lower intake of protein from meat and meat products (β = −0.14; p = 0.018), higher intake of overall plant-based protein (β = 0.11; p = 0.032), protein from fruit and vegetables (β = 0.20; p = 0.002) and from pulses, nuts an seeds (β = 0.16; p = 0.016). Our findings suggest HEM as a valuable indicator for intake of distinct protein sources. However, since HEM is not related to total protein intake, the importance of sufficient protein consumption should be emphasized by promoting healthy eating, regardless of self-perceived HEM.