Novel Technologies for Exosome and Exosome-like Nanovesicle Procurement and Enhancement

Unlocking exosome therapeutics: The critical role of pharmacokinetics in clinical applications

Exosomes are microscopic vesicles released by cells that transport various biological materials and play a vital role in intercellular communication. When they are engineered, they serve as efficient delivery systems for therapeutic agents, making it possible to precisely deliver active pharmaceutical ingredients to organs, tissues, and cells. Exosomes' pharmacokinetics, or how they are transported and metabolized inside the body, is affected by several factors, including their source of origination and the proteins in their cell membranes. The pharmacokinetics and mobility of both native and modified exosomes are being observed in living organisms using advanced imaging modalities such as in vitro-in vivo simulation, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. Establishing comprehensive criteria for the investigation of exosomal pharmacokinetic is essential, given its increasing significance in both therapy and diagnostics. To obtain a thorough understanding of exosome intake, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, molecular imaging methods are crucial. The development of industrial processes and therapeutic applications depends on the precise measurement of exosome concentration in biological samples. To ensure a seamless incorporation of exosomes into clinical practice, as their role in therapeutics grows, it is imperative to conduct a complete assessment of their pharmacokinetics. This review provides a brief on how exosome-based research is evolving and the need for pharmacokinetic consideration to realize the full potential of these promising new therapeutic approaches.

Exosomes-encapsulated biomimetic polydopamine carbon dots with dual-targeting effect alleviate motor and non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease via anti-neuroinflammation

Currently, the clinical drugs for Parkinson's disease (PD) only focus on motor symptoms, while non-motor symptoms like depression are usually neglected. Even though, the efficacy of existing neurotherapeutic drugs is extremely poor which is due to the blood brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, a biomimetic polydopamine carbon dots (PDA C-dots) at 2-4 nm was synthesized, while exosomes from macrophages were applied to encapsulate PDA C-dots for improving their BBB-crossing ability and inflammation-targeting effect. Importantly, the prepared PDA C-dots@Exosomes (PEs) significantly alleviated both motor and non-motor symptoms of PD mice. Further mechanism research revealed that PEs eliminated oxidant stress and alleviated neuroinflammation to restore the injured neurons. The content of α-syn was markedly reduced, and the neural viability was dramatically improved on the areas of substantia nigra, striata, and prefrontal cortex. In summary, this work reported a mild synthetic approach to produce a kind of PDA C-dots, which had a fantastic neuroprotective effect. After being encapsulated with exosomes of macrophages, the obtained PEs could be utilized as a neuroprotective drug with great penetration ability of BBB and targeting ability into inflammatory zone. The great therapeutic effect on both motor and non-motor symptoms of PD indicates that PEs could become a promising drug for PD treatment.

Ultrasound-mediated nanomaterials for the treatment of inflammatory diseases

Sterile and infection-associated inflammatory diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide. Conventional drug therapies often entail significant drawbacks, such as the risk of drug overdose, the development of drug resistance in pathogens, and systemic adverse reactions, all of which can undermine the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions. Nanomaterials (NMs) have emerged as a promising tool in the treatment of inflammatory diseases due to their precise targeting capabilities, tunable characteristics, and responsiveness to external stimuli. Ultrasound (US), a non-invasive and effective treatment method, has been explored in combination with NMs to achieve enhanced therapeutic outcomes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the use of US-mediated NMs for treating inflammatory diseases. A comprehensive introduction to the application and classification of US was first presented, emphasizing the advantages of US-mediated NMs and the mechanisms through which US and NMs interact to enhance anti-inflammatory therapy. Subsequently, specific applications of US-mediated NMs in sterile and infection-associated inflammation were summarized. Finally, the challenges and prospects of US-mediated NMs in clinical translation were discussed, along with an outline of future research directions. This review aims to provide insights to guide the development and improvement of US-mediated NMs for more effective therapeutic interventions in inflammatory diseases.

Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles in Chronic Wound Healing

The incidence of chronic wounds is steadily increasing each year, yet conventional treatments for chronic wounds yield unsatisfactory results. The delayed healing of chronic wounds significantly affects patient quality of life, placing a heavy burden on patients, their families, and the healthcare system. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find new treatment methods for chronic wounds. Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) may be able to accelerate chronic wound healing. PELNs possess advantages such as good accessibility (due in part to high isolation yields), low immunogenicity, and good stability. Currently, there are limited reports regarding the role of PELNs in chronic wound healing and their associated mechanisms, highlighting their novelty and the necessity for further research. This review aims to provide an overview of PELNs, discussing isolation methods, composition, and their mechanisms of action in chronic wound healing. Finally, we summarize future opportunities and challenges related to the use of PELNs for the treatment of chronic wounds, and offer some new insights and solutions.

Milk-derived exosomes in the regulation of nutritional and immune functions

Milk-derived exosomes (MDEs), being a component of milk, have the potential to support immune system maturation in offspring and enhance immune cell proliferation. Through the transport and transmission of essential signaling molecules, MDEs contribute to the regulation of intergenerational and intraspecies communication, thereby impacting nutrient uptake and metabolic functions. A comprehensive comprehension of MDE functionalities is imperative for enhancing the quality of the dairy industry. A systematic search of the databases PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus utilizing predetermined keywords resulted in the identification of 418 articles, of which 67 were chosen for inclusion in this review, which specifically explores the intersection of immune response and nutrition. This article provides a critical analysis of the classification of extracellular vesicles, the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis of microvesicular dietary exosomes (MDEs), the components of MDEs, and their relevance in the contexts of nutrition and immune modulation. The primary aim of this review was to offer valuable scholarly insights to support the advancement and practical application of MDEs.

Extracellular Vesicles Comprising Carborane Prepared by a Host Exchanging Reaction as a Boron Carrier for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

With their low immunogenicity and excellent deliverability, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising platforms for drug delivery systems. In this study, hydrophobic molecule loading techniques were developed via an exchange reaction based on supramolecular chemistry without using organic solvents that can induce EV disruption and harmful side effects. To demonstrate the availability of an exchanging reaction to prepare drug-loading EVs, hydrophobic boron cluster carborane (CB) was introduced to EVs (CB@EVs), which is expected as a boron agent for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). The exchange reaction enabled the encapsulation of CB to EVs without disrupting their structure and forming aggregates. Single-particle analysis revealed that an exchanging reaction can uniformly introduce cargo molecules to EVs, which is advantageous in formulating pharmaceuticals. The performance of CB@EVs as boron agents for BNCT was demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. Compared to L-BPA, a clinically available boron agent, and CB delivered with liposomes, CB@EV systems exhibited the highest BNCT activity in vitro due to their excellent deliverability of cargo molecules via an endocytosis-independent pathway. The system can deeply penetrate 3D cultured spheroids even in the presence of extracellular matrices. The EV-based system could efficiently accumulate in tumor tissues in tumor xenograft model mice with high selectivity, mainly via the enhanced permeation and retention effect, and the deliverability of cargo molecules to tumor tissues in vivo enhanced the therapeutic benefits of BNCT compared to the L-BPA/fructose complex. All of the features of EVs are also advantageous in establishing anticancer agent delivery platforms.

Roles of M1 Macrophages and Their Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Therapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are inflammatory cells that are important components of the tumor microenvironment. TAMs are functionally heterogeneous and divided into two main subpopulations with distinct and opposite functions: M1 and M2 macrophages. The secretory function of TAMs is essential for combating infections, regulating immune responses, and promoting tissue repair. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanovesicles that are secreted by cells. They play a crucial role in mediating intercellular information transfer between cells. EVs can be secreted by almost all types of cells, and they contain proteins, microRNAs, mRNAs, and even long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) that have been retained from the parental cell through the process of biogenesis. EVs can influence the function and behavior of target cells by delivering their contents, thus reflecting, to some extent, the characteristics of their parental cells. Here, we provide an overview of the role of M1 macrophages and their EVs in cancer therapy by exploring the impact of M1 macrophage-derived EVs (M1-EVs) on tumors by transferring small microRNAs. Additionally, we discuss the potential of M1-EVs as drug carriers and the possibility of reprogramming M2 macrophages into M1 macrophages for disease treatment. We propose that M1-EVs play a crucial role in cancer therapy by transferring microRNAs and loading them with drugs. Reprogramming M2 macrophages into M1 macrophages holds great promise in the treatment of cancers.

Delivery-mediated exosomal therapeutics in ischemia-reperfusion injury: advances, mechanisms, and future directions

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) poses significant challenges across various organ systems, including the heart, brain, and kidneys. Exosomes have shown great potentials and applications in mitigating IRI-induced cell and tissue damage through modulating inflammatory responses, enhancing angiogenesis, and promoting tissue repair. Despite these advances, a more systematic understanding of exosomes from different sources and their biotransport is critical for optimizing therapeutic efficacy and accelerating the clinical adoption of exosomes for IRI therapies. Therefore, this review article overviews the administration routes of exosomes from different sources, such as mesenchymal stem cells and other somatic cells, in the context of IRI treatment. Furthermore, this article covers how the delivered exosomes modulate molecular pathways of recipient cells, aiding in the prevention of cell death and the promotions of regeneration in IRI models. In the end, this article discusses the ongoing research efforts and propose future research directions of exosome-based therapies.

Methods, Mechanisms, and Application Prospects for Enhancing Extracellular Vesicle Uptake

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered to be a new generation of bioinspired nanoscale drug delivery systems due to their low immunogenicity, natural functionality, and excellent biocompatibility. However, limitations such as low uptake efficiency, insufficient production, and inhomogeneous performance undermine their potential. To address these issues, numerous researchers have put forward various methods and applications for enhancing EV uptake in recent decades. In this review, we introduce various methods for the cellular uptake of EVs and summarize recent advances on the methods and mechanisms for enhancing EV uptake. In addition, we provide further understanding regarding enhancing EV uptake and put forward prospects and challenges for the development of EV-based therapy in the future.

Unraveling the Multifaceted Roles of Extracellular Vesicles: Insights into Biology, Pharmacology, and Pharmaceutical Applications for Drug Delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles released from various cell types that have emerged as powerful new therapeutic option for a variety of diseases. EVs are involved in the transmission of biological signals between cells and in the regulation of a variety of biological processes, highlighting them as potential novel targets/platforms for therapeutics intervention and/or delivery. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate new aspects of EVs' biogenesis, biodistribution, metabolism, and excretion as well as safety/compatibility of both unmodified and engineered EVs upon administration in different pharmaceutical dosage forms and delivery systems. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of essential physiological and pathological roles of EVs in different organs and organ systems. We provide an overview regarding application of EVs as therapeutic targets, therapeutics, and drug delivery platforms. We also explore various approaches implemented over the years to improve the dosage of specific EV products for different administration routes.

Extracellular Vesicles Derived From 3D Cultured Antler Stem Cells Serve as a New Drug Vehicle in Osteosarcoma Treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from antler reserve mesenchymal (RM) cells play an important role in the paracrine regulation during rapid growth of antler without forming a tumor; therefore, RM-EVs become novel materials for anti-tumor studies, such as osteosarcoma treatment. However, the problem of low production of RM-EVs in traditional 2D culture limits its mechanism research and application. In this study, we established an optimal 3D culture system for antler RM cells to produce EVs (3D-RM-EVs). Morphology and property of harvested 3D-RM-EVs were normal compared with EVs from conventional 2D culture, and the miRNA profile in them was basically the same through transcriptome sequencing analysis. Based on the same number of RM cells, the volume of the culture medium collected by 3D cultural system concentrated nearly 30 times, making it more convenient for subsequent purification. In addition, EVs were harvested 30 times in 3D cultural system, greatly increasing the total amount of EVs (harvested a total of 2-3 times in 2D culture). Although 3D-RM-EVs had a limited inhibitory effect on the proliferation of K7M2 cells, the inhibition effect of 3D-RM-EVs loaded drugs (Ifosfamide + Etoposide) were more significant than that of positive drug group alone (P < 0.05). Furthermore, in vivo studies showed that 3D-RM-EVs loaded drugs (Ifosfamide + Etoposide) had the most significant tumor inhibition effect, with decreased tumor size, and could slow down body weight loss compared with Ifosfamide + Etoposide (IFO + ET) group. These results demonstrated that 3D-RM-EVs were efficiently prepared from antler RM cells and were effective as drug vehicles for the treatment of osteosarcoma.