Hybrid Biopolymer and Lipid Nanoparticles with Improved Transfection Efficacy for mRNA

Dual centrifugation as fast and novel screening approach for optimal RNA loaded lipid-based nanoparticles

The last decade has shown increased benefits for non-viral gene delivery. To overcome the challenges of nucleic acid administration, appropriate drug delivery systems (DDS) are required. The recently approved RNA formulations have demonstrated that lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are suitable DDS for delivering RNAs. LNPs are commonly composed of cationic and/or ionizable lipids, helper lipids and PEGylated lipids. Conventional manufacturing procedures for LNPs are mixing systems, such as microfluidics, with drawbacks in terms of time and resource consumption. The LNPs produced also pose problems with storage stability. Based on a microRNA (miRNA) model, we present dual centrifugation (DC) as a novel and reproducible way for preparing RNA loaded LNP formulations via in-vial homogenization. Our formulations show promising results in size characteristics, as well as in their cell performance. Depending on the lipid composition of the LNPs, a remarkable knockdown efficiency is achieved. With a net formulation time of 7 min, an enormously fast approach can be presented. DC offers the capability for fast LNP screenings, with a loading capacity of up to 40 vials per run. The simplicity of the method could take advantage of bedside preparation, overcoming the hurdles of storage stability for LNP formulations.

A platform method for simultaneous quantification of lipid and nucleic acid components in lipid nanoparticles

Nucleic acid-based medicines have achieved significant advancements in recent years, with lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) being a pivotal platform for their delivery. However, the complexity of LNP presents significant challenges, requiring analytical methods to identify and quantify individual components to guide formulation development and ensure quality and safety. Current approaches often perform nucleic acid and lipid analysis separately and focus on a single type of formulation, highlighting the need for a simple platform method that can be applied to diverse formulations. We present a platform ion-pair reversed-phase HPLC method with UV and charged aerosol detection (CAD) to simultaneously separate and quantify lipid and nucleic acid components in LNPs. The method separated and quantified 12 lipid species and three types of nucleic acids (antisense oligonucleotide, single-guide RNA, and mRNA), covering a broad range of therapeutic cargoes. Notably, this can be achieved for the first time by one HPLC run with one-step facile sample preparation. Specifically, we used a simple buffer containing Triton and heparin to enable the single-step, simultaneous extraction of both nucleic acid and lipid components from LNPs, achieving quantification recoveries of 90-110 %. We further applied this method and addressed process and quality control challenges of LNPs, including the recovery rate of individual LNP components after purification and simultaneous quantification of co-loaded, different nucleic acid species for potential gene editing applications. This new platform method offers a robust and widely applicable tool to assess the quality of lipid-based nucleic acid therapies.

Structural and functional characterization of a histidylated liposome for mRNA delivery

The development of lipid-based mRNA delivery systems has significantly facilitated recent advances in mRNA-based therapeutics. Liposomes, as the pioneering class of mRNA vectors, continue to lead in clinical trials. We previously developed a histidylated liposome that demonstrated efficient nucleic acid delivery. In this study, the liposome preparation process was optimized by freeze-drying followed by extrusion to homogenize size distribution and improve storage stability. A comprehensive characterization of these LYX liposomes was performed, including evaluation in cellular and murine animal models. LYX liposomes can be stored for up to one year at 4 °C, maintaining a stable size (150 ± 10 nm) and polydispersity index (0.10 ± 0.02), while preserving their transfection efficacy. They exhibit high encapsulation efficacy (∼95 %) and protect mRNA from RNase degradation. Lamellar organization was confirmed by Small Angle X-ray Scattering and CryoTEM, and intracellular trafficking was examined using confocal microscopy. LYX-mRNA lipoplexes can transfect both cell lines and primary cells, albeit with a lower transfection efficacy compared to the commercial Lipofectamine MessengerMAX™ vector. Our data suggest that this could be attributed to slower cell uptake and reduced endosomal escape of LYX. LYX liposomes effectively delivered mRNA encoding therapeutic BMP2 and BMP9 molecules, producing significant amounts of functional proteins that successfully induced BMP signaling. In addition, in vivo studies demonstrated the potential of LYX lipoplexes when incorporated into hydrogels and implanted subcutaneously in mice. These findings provided evidence that LYX liposomes are a promising platform for mRNA delivery, offering versatility for multiple applications.

Advances in the design and delivery of RNA vaccines for infectious diseases

RNA medicines represent a paradigm shift in treatment and prevention of critical diseases of global significance, e.g., infectious diseases. The highly successful messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) were developed at record speed during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. A consequence of this is exceptionally shortened vaccine development times, which in combination with adaptability makes the RNA vaccine technology highly attractive against infectious diseases and for pandemic preparedness. Here, we review state of the art in the design and delivery of RNA vaccines for infectious diseases based on different RNA modalities, including linear mRNA, self-amplifying RNA, trans-amplifying RNA, and circular RNA. We provide an overview of the clinical pipeline of RNA vaccines for infectious diseases, and present analytical procedures, which are paramount for characterizing quality attributes and guaranteeing their quality, and we discuss future perspectives for using RNA vaccines to combat pathogens beyond SARS-CoV-2.

On the Influence of Fabrication Methods and Materials for mRNA-LNP Production: From Size and Morphology to Internal Structure and mRNA Delivery Performance In Vitro and In Vivo

Lipid nanoparticle (LNP) remains the most advanced platform for messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery. To date, mRNA LNPs synthesis is mostly performed by mixing lipids and mRNA with microfluidics. In this study, a cost-effective microfluidic setup for synthesizing mRNA LNPs is developed. It allows to fine-tune the LNPs characteristics without compromising LNP properties. It is compared with a commercial device (NanoAssemblr) and ethanol injection and the influence of manufacturing conditions on the performance of mRNA LNPs is investigated. LNPs prepared by ethanol injection exhibit broader size distributions and more inhomogeneous internal structure (e.g., bleb-like substructures), while other LNPs show uniform structure with dense cores. Small angel X-ray scattering (SAXS) data indicate a tighter interaction between mRNA and lipids within LNPs synthesized by custom device, compared to LNPs produced by NanoAssemblr. Interestingly, the better transfection efficiency of polysarcosine (pSar)-modified LNPs correlates with a higher surface roughness than that of PEGylated ones. The manufacturing approach, however, shows modest influence on mRNA expression in vivo. In summary, the home-developed cost-effective microfluidic device can synthesize LNPs and represents a potent alternative to NanoAssemblr. The preparation methods show notable effect on LNPs' structure but a minor influence on mRNA delivery in vitro and in vivo.

RP-HPLC-CAD method for the rapid analysis of lipids used in lipid nanoparticles derived from dual centrifugation

The use of lipids as suitable excipients for drug carrier systems has been established for years. Liposomes or lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in general have been shown capable of delivering both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. The Covid-19 pandemic and the resulting vaccines have significantly increased interest in the potential for these lipid-based systems, which can carry different types of therapeutic RNAs. LNPs used for the transfection of RNA are usually a multi-component mixture of phospholipids and other lipids. Essential components are positively charged or ionizable lipids such as DOTAP or SM-102, but also uncharged helper lipids such as cholesterol, DOPE, DSPC, DMG-PEG2000 or DSPE-PEG2000. Due to the differences in charge, simultaneous detection is a challenge. Here, we present a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography charged-aerosol-detector method (RP-HPLC-CAD method) using a C-18 column for the simultaneous determination of charged and uncharged lipids. Our method has been validated according to the ICH-Q2 (R2) guideline for accuracy, precision, specificity and working range, including the limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ), as well as the calibration range. We were able to show satisfactory results in both precision and accuracy. The working range also shows great potential with a calibration range from 9.375 to 1000 μg/ml, LODs <1.85 μg/ml and LOQs <6.16 μg/ml. This method represents a fast and reproducible procedure for quantifying the lipids mentioned. In combination with the novel approach for the production of LNPs using dual centrifugation (DC), it offers the possibility of extremely rapid production of RNA-loaded LNPs, and the immediate analysis for their lipid components.

Analytical techniques for the characterization of nanoparticles for mRNA delivery

Nanotechnology-assisted RNA delivery has gotten a tremendous boost over the last decade and made a significant impact in the development of life-changing vaccines and therapeutics. With increasing numbers of emerging lipid- and polymer-based RNA nanoparticles progressing towards the clinic, it has become apparent that the safety and efficacy of these medications depend on the comprehensive understanding of their critical quality attributes (CQAs). However, despite the rapid advancements in the field, the identification and reliable quantification of CQAs remain a significant challenge. To support these efforts, this review aims to summarize the present knowledge on CQAs based on the regulatory guidelines and to provide insights into the available analytical characterization techniques for RNA-loaded nanoparticles. In this context, routine and emerging analytical techniques are categorized and discussed, focusing on the operation principle, strengths, and potential limitations. Furthermore, the importance of complementary and orthogonal techniques for the measurement of CQAs is discussed in order to ensure the quality and consistency of analytical methods used, and address potential technique-based differences.

Mesoscopic Structure of Lipid Nanoparticle Formulations for mRNA Drug Delivery: Comirnaty and Drug-Free Dispersions

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) produced by antisolvent precipitation (ASP) are used in formulations for mRNA drug delivery. The mesoscopic structure of such complex multicomponent and polydisperse nanoparticulate systems is most relevant for their drug delivery properties, medical efficiency, shelf life, and possible side effects. However, the knowledge on the structural details of such formulations is very limited. Essentially no such information is publicly available for pharmaceutical dispersions approved by numerous medicine agencies for the use in humans and loaded with mRNA encoding a mimic of the spike protein of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as, e.g., the Comirnaty formulation (BioNTech/Pfizer). Here, we present a simple preparation method to mimic the Comirnaty drug-free LNPs including a comparison of their structural properties with those of Comirnaty. Strong evidence for the liquid state of the LNPs in both systems is found in contrast to the designation of the LNPs as solid lipid nanoparticles by BioNTech. An exceptionally detailed and reliable structural model for the LNPs i.a. revealing their unexpected narrow size distribution will be presented based on a combined small-angle X-ray scattering and photon correlation spectroscopy (SAXS/PCS) evaluation method. The results from this experimental approach are supported by light microscopy, 1H NMR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoTEM), and simultaneous SAXS/SANS studies. The presented results do not provide direct insights on particle formation or dispersion stability but should contribute significantly to better understanding the LNP drug delivery process, enhancing their medical benefit, and reducing side effects.

Optimizing the Delivery of mRNA to Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Tissue Engineering Applications

Messenger RNA (mRNA) represents a promising therapeutic tool in the field of tissue engineering for the fast and transient production of growth factors to support new tissue regeneration. However, one of the main challenges to optimizing its use is achieving efficient uptake and delivery to mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which have been long reported as difficult-to-transfect. The aim of this study was to systematically screen a range of nonviral vectors to identify optimal transfection conditions for mRNA delivery to MSCs. Furthermore, for the first time, we wanted to directly compare the protein expression profile from three different types of mRNA, namely, unmodified mRNA (uRNA), base-modified mRNA (modRNA), and self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA) in MSCs. A range of polymer- and lipid-based vectors were used to encapsulate mRNA and directly compared in terms of physicochemical properties as well as transfection efficiency and cytotoxicity in MSCs. We found that both lipid- and polymer-based materials were able to successfully condense and encapsulate mRNA into nanosized particles (<200 nm). The overall charge and encapsulation efficiency of the nanoparticles was dependent on the vector type as well as the vector:mRNA ratio. When screened in vitro, lipid-based vectors proved to be superior in terms of mRNA delivery to MSCs cultured in a 2D monolayer and from a 3D collagen-based scaffold with minimal effects on cell viability, thus opening the potential for scaffold-based mRNA delivery. Modified mRNA consistently showed the highest levels of protein expression in MSCs, demonstrating 1.2-fold and 5.6-fold increases versus uRNA and saRNA, respectively. In summary, we have fully optimized the nonviral delivery of mRNA to MSCs, determined the importance of careful selection of the mRNA type used, and highlighted the strong potential of mRNA for tissue engineering applications.

Novel aromatic moieties-modified poly(glycidyl amine)s with potent siRNA delivery and cancer treatment effect

The development of safe and effective delivery systems is critical for the clinical applications of siRNA-based therapeutics. Polymer-based vectors have garnered significant attention owing to their structural flexibility and functional tunability. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) has been extensively studied for nucleic acid delivery; nevertheless, its high cytotoxicity has posed challenges for clinical applications. In this study, we have reported poly(glycidyl amine) (PGAm), a linear PEI analogue, demonstrating remarkable siRNA delivery efficacy and improved biocompatibility. By introducing three aromatic moieties (tyrosine, p-hydroxybenzenepropanoic acid, and phenylalanine) at varying ratios to further modify PGAms, we successfully constructed a library comprising 36 PGAm-based carriers. In vitro evaluations revealed that PGAm-based carriers exhibited significantly enhanced biocompatibility and reduced non-specific protein absorption in comparison to PEI25k. Among them, 10 modified PGAms achieved a knockdown of target gene expressions exceeding 80%, and 26 modified PGAms maintained over 70% cell viability when utilized for the in vitro delivery of siRNA to HeLa cells. Explorations into the structure-activity relationship of PGAm-based polyplex nanoparticles (NPs) indicated that the siRNA delivery efficacy of NPs depended on factors such as the molecular weight of PGAm precursors, the type of modifying moieties, and the modification ratio. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that two top-performing NPs, namely 2T100/siLuc and 2A50/siLuc, exhibited potent silencing of target genes in tumors following i.v. injection into mice bearing HeLa-Luc xenografts. The in vivo efficacy of the selected NPs was further validated by a remarkable anti-cancer effect when employed for the delivery of siRNA targeting polo-like kinase 1 (siPLK1) to mice with PC-3 xenograft tumors. The intravenous administration of NPs resulted in a substantial inhibition of tumor growth without significant toxicity. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of employing PGAm in siRNA delivery and provide valuable insights for the development of efficient siRNA carriers based on PGAm.

Challenges and advances of the stability of mRNA delivery therapeutics

mRNA therapeutics have garnered significant attention in the biomedical realm, showing immense potential across a spectrum of applications from COVID-19 to cancer treatments. Their ability to trigger precise protein expression, particularly in genome editing, is pivotal in minimizing off-target effects. At the core of mRNA therapy lies a dual-component system, comprising the mRNA itself and a delivery vehicle. The breakthrough success of novel COVID-19 vaccines has catapulted lipid nanoparticles to prominence as the preferred delivery vehicle. However, despite their US FDA approval and efficacy, lipid nanoparticles face a significant challenge: poor stability at room temperature, which limits their applications in various geographic regions with disparities in infrastructure and technology. This review aims to dissect the issue of stability inherent in lipid nanoparticles and other mRNA delivery platforms such as polymer-based materials and protein derivative materials. We herein endeavor to unravel the factors contributing to their instability and explore potential strategies to enhance their stability. By doing so, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape of mRNA delivery systems, highlighting both their successes and limitations, and paving the way for future advancements in this rapidly evolving field.

Neoantigen vaccine nanoformulations based on Chemically synthesized minimal mRNA (CmRNA): small molecules, big impact

Recently, chemically synthesized minimal mRNA (CmRNA) has emerged as a promising alternative to in vitro transcribed mRNA (IVT-mRNA) for cancer therapy and immunotherapy. CmRNA lacking the untranslated regions and polyadenylation exhibits enhanced stability and efficiency. Encapsulation of CmRNA within lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPPs) offers an effective approach for personalized neoantigen mRNA vaccines with improved control over tumor growth. LPP-based delivery systems provide superior pharmacokinetics, stability, and lower toxicity compared to viral vectors, naked mRNA, or lipid nanoparticles that are commonly used for mRNA delivery. Precise customization of LPPs in terms of size, surface charge, and composition allows for optimized cellular uptake, target specificity, and immune stimulation. CmRNA-encoded neo-antigens demonstrate high translational efficiency, enabling immune recognition by CD8+ T cells upon processing and presentation. This perspective highlights the potential benefits, challenges, and future directions of CmRNA neoantigen vaccines in cancer therapy compared to Circular RNAs and IVT-mRNA. Further research is needed to optimize vaccine design, delivery, and safety assessment in clinical trials. Nevertheless, personalized LPP-CmRNA vaccines hold great potential for advancing cancer immunotherapy, paving the way for personalized medicine.

Messenger RNA Lipid-Based Nanoparticles: Optimization of Formulations in the Lab

Among the large variety of messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery systems, those developed with lipid-based formulations were the most widely used and efficient. In our lab, we produced different mRNA formulations made with liposomes, hybrid lipid polymer, and lipid nanoparticles. Our formulations were made with lipids bearing imidazole groups that trigger the endosomal escape of nanoparticles once protonated inside the mild acidic milieu of endosomes upon their cell uptake. Herein, we describe protocols that we used to produce, optimize, and characterize those formulations. The transfection efficiency is influenced by various factors including the physicochemical parameters of the nanoparticles, their efficiency to be internalized in cells, and their intracellular routing as well as their capacity to induce immune system sensors. We provide details on how to quantify the amount of mRNA nanoparticles uptake by cells and evaluate the acidity of the intracellular compartments where they are located, to investigate the endosomal escape, and to assess the activation of innate immune sensors as phosphorylation of PKR hampering mRNA translation.

RNA-Based Vaccines and Therapeutics Against Intracellular Pathogens

RNA-based vaccines have sparked a paradigm shift in the treatment and prevention of diseases by nucleic acid medicines. There has been a notable surge in the development of nucleic acid therapeutics and vaccines following the global approval of the two messenger RNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. This growth is fueled by the exploration of numerous RNA products in preclinical stages, offering several advantages over conventional methods, i.e., safety, efficacy, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. In this chapter, we provide an overview of various types of RNA and their mechanisms of action for stimulating immune responses and inducing therapeutic effects. Furthermore, this chapter delves into the varying delivery systems, particularly emphasizing the use of nanoparticles to deliver RNA. The choice of delivery system is an intricate process involved in developing nucleic acid medicines that significantly enhances their stability, biocompatibility, and site-specificity. Additionally, this chapter sheds light on the current landscape of clinical trials of RNA therapeutics and vaccines against intracellular pathogens.

Lipofection with Lipofectamine™ 2000 in a heparin-free growth medium results in high transfection efficiency in chicken primordial germ cells

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) that can differentiate into gametes are used to produce genome-edited chickens. However, the transfection efficiency into PGCs is low in chickens; therefore, the yield efficiency of PGCs modified via genome editing is problematic. In this study, we improved transfection efficiency and achieved highly efficient genome editing in chicken PGCs. For transfection, we used lipofection, which is convenient for gene transfer. Chicken PGC cultures require adding heparin to support growth; however, heparin significantly reduces lipofection efficiency (p < 0.01). Heparin-induced lipofection efficiency was restored by adding protamine. Based on these results, we optimized gene transfer into chicken PGCs. Lipofectamine 2000 and our PGC medium were the most efficient transfection reagent and medium, respectively. Finally, based on established conditions, we compared the gene knock-out efficiencies of ovomucoid, a major egg allergen, and gene knock-in efficiencies at the ACTB locus. These results indicate that optimized lipofection is useful for CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-out and knock-in. Our findings may contribute to the generation of genome-edited chickens and stimulate research in various applications involving them.

Preparation of Nanosized Pharmaceutical Formulations by Dual Centrifugation

Dual centrifugation (DC) is an innovative in-vial homogenization and in-vial nanomilling technique that has been in use for the preparation of liposomes for more than one decade. Since then, DC has continuously been developed for preparing various liposomes and other lipid nanoparticles including emulsions and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) as well as polymersomes and nanocrystals. Improvements in equipment technology have been achieved over the past decade, so that DC is now on its way to becoming the quasi-standard for the simple, fast, and aseptic production of lipid nanoparticles and nanocrystals in small and medium batch sizes, including the possibility of simple and fast formulation screening or bedside preparations of therapeutic nanoparticles. More than 68 publications in which DC was used to produce nanoparticles have appeared since then, justifying an initial review of the use of DC for pharmaceutical nanotechnology.

mRNA Cancer Vaccines: Construction and Boosting Strategies

In late 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a lipid-based mRNA vaccine for the prevention of COVID-19, which has pushed this field to be more closely studied and motivated researchers to delve deeper into mRNA therapeutics. To date, the research on mRNA cancer vaccines has been developed rapidly, and substantial hopeful therapeutic results have been achieved against various solid tumors in clinical trials. In this review, we first introduce three main components of mRNA cancer vaccines, including mRNA antigens, adjuvants, and delivery vectors. Engineering these components can optimize the therapeutic effects of mRNA cancer vaccines. For instance, appropriate modification of mRNA structure can alleviate the poor stability and innate immunogenicity of mRNA, and the use of mRNA delivery vectors can address the issues of low delivery efficiency in vivo. Second, we emphatically discuss some strategies to further improve the efficacy of mRNA cancer vaccines, namely modulating the immunosuppressive tumor environment, optimizing administration routes, achieving targeting delivery to intended tissues or organs, and employing combination therapy. These strategies can strengthen the tumor inhibitory ability of mRNA cancer vaccines and increase the possibility of tumor elimination. Finally, we point out some challenges in the clinical practice of mRNA cancer vaccines and offer our perspectives on future developments in this rapidly evolving field. It is anticipated that mRNA cancer vaccines will be rapidly developed for clinical cancer therapy in the near future.

Quantitative size-resolved characterization of mRNA nanoparticles by in-line coupling of asymmetrical-flow field-flow fractionation with small angle X-ray scattering

We present a generically applicable approach to determine an extensive set of size-dependent critical quality attributes inside nanoparticulate pharmaceutical products. By coupling asymmetrical-flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) measurements directly in-line with solution small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), vital information such as (i) quantitative, absolute size distribution profiles, (ii) drug loading, (iii) size-dependent internal structures, and (iv) quantitative information on free drug is obtained. Here the validity of the method was demonstrated by characterizing complex mRNA-based lipid nanoparticle products. The approach is particularly applicable to particles in the size range of 100 nm and below, which is highly relevant for pharmaceutical products-both biologics and nanoparticles. The method can be applied as well in other fields, including structural biology and environmental sciences.

Stability Criterion for the Assembly of Core-Shell Lipid-Polymer-Nucleic Acid Nanoparticles

Hybrid core-shell lipid-polycation-nucleic acid nanoparticles (LPNPs) provide unique delivery strategies for nonviral gene therapeutics. Since LPNPs consist of multiple components, involving different pairwise interactions between them, they are challenging to characterize and understand. Here, we propose a method based on fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy to elucidate the association between the three LPNP components. Through this lens, we demonstrate that cationic lipid shells (liposomes) do not displace polycations or DNA from the polycation-DNA cores (polyplexes). Hence, polyplexes and liposomes must be oppositely charged to associate into LPNPs. Furthermore, we identify the liposome:polyplex number ratio (ρN), which was hitherto an intangible quantity, as the primary parameter predicting stable LPNPs. We establish that ρN ≥ 1 ensures that every polyplex is enveloped by a liposome, thus avoiding coexisting oppositely charged species prone to aggregation.

The clinical progress and challenges of mRNA vaccines

Owing to the breakthroughs in the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic, messenger RNA (mRNA)-based vaccines have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional vaccine approaches for infectious disease prevention and anticancer treatments. Advantages of mRNA vaccines include flexibility in designing and manipulating antigens of interest, scalability in rapid response to new variants, ability to induce both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, and ease of industrialization. This review article presents the latest advances and innovations in mRNA-based vaccines and their clinical translations in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases or cancers. We also highlight various nanoparticle delivery platforms that contribute to their success in clinical translation. Current challenges related to mRNA immunogenicity, stability, and in vivo delivery and the strategies for addressing them are also discussed. Finally, we provide our perspectives on future considerations and opportunities for applying mRNA vaccines to fight against major infectious diseases and cancers. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures.

An optically fabricated gradient nanochannel array to access the translocation dynamics of T4-phage DNA through nanoconfinement

It has been widely recognized that nanostructures in natural biological materials play important roles in regulating life machinery. Even though nanofabrication techniques such as two-photon polymerization (TPP) provide sub-100 nm fabrication resolution, it remains technologically challenging to produce 3D nanoscale features modeling the complexity in vivo. We herein demonstrate that a nanochannel array carrying different sizes and nanostructures with gradually transitioning dimensions can be easily produced on a slightly tilted nano-stage. Using the gradient nanochannel array, we systematically investigate the factors affecting the dynamics of DNA translocation through nanoconfinement, including the size of biomolecules and geometrical features of the physical environment, which resembles the selectivity of nanopores in the cell membrane. It is observed that T4-phage DNA shows distinctive conformational transition dynamics during translocation through nanochannels driven by electric field or flow, and the deformation energy required for DNA to enter the nanochannels depends on both chemical environmental conditions, i.e., the ionic strength regulating DNA persistence length and nanochannel dimension. In the electric field, DNA repeatedly gets stretched and compressed during its migration through the nanochannel, reflected by elevated fluctuation in extension, which is substantially greater than the thermal fluctuation. However, driven by flow, DNA remains stretched during translocation through nanochannels, and shows variances in extension of merely a few hundred nanometers. These results indicate that the optically fabricated gradient nanochannel array is a suitable platform for optimizing the experimental conditions for biomedical applications such as gene mapping, and verify that production of complex three dimensional (3D) nanostructures can be greatly simplified by including slight inclination during TPP fabrication.

Polysarcosine-Functionalized mRNA Lipid Nanoparticles Tailored for Immunotherapy

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained great attention as carriers for mRNA-based therapeutics, finding applications in various indications, extending beyond their recent use in vaccines for infectious diseases. However, many aspects of LNP structure and their effects on efficacy are not well characterized. To further exploit the potential of mRNA therapeutics, better control of the relationship between LNP formulation composition with internal structure and transfection efficiency in vitro is necessary. We compared two well-established ionizable lipids, namely DODMA and MC3, in combination with two helper lipids, DOPE and DOPC, and two polymer-grafted lipids, either with polysarcosine (pSar) or polyethylene glycol (PEG). In addition to standard physicochemical characterization (size, zeta potential, RNA accessibility), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) was used to analyze the structure of the LNPs. To assess biological activity, we performed transfection and cell-binding assays in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs) using Thy1.1 reporter mRNA and Cy5-labeled mRNA, respectively. With the SAXS measurements, we were able to clearly reveal the effects of substituting the ionizable and helper lipid on the internal structure of the LNPs. In contrast, pSar as stealth moieties affected the LNPs in a different manner, by changing the surface morphology towards higher roughness. pSar LNPs were generally more active, where the highest transfection efficiency was achieved with the LNP formulation composition of MC3/DOPE/pSar. Our study highlights the utility of pSar for improved mRNA LNP products and the importance of pSar as a novel stealth moiety enhancing efficiency in future LNP formulation development. SAXS can provide valuable information for the rational development of such novel formulations by elucidating structural features in different LNP compositions.

The use of RNA-based treatments in the field of cancer immunotherapy

Over the past several decades, mRNA vaccines have evolved from a theoretical concept to a clinical reality. These vaccines offer several advantages over traditional vaccine techniques, including their high potency, rapid development, low-cost manufacturing, and safe administration. However, until recently, concerns over the instability and inefficient distribution of mRNA in vivo have limited their utility. Fortunately, recent technological advancements have mostly resolved these concerns, resulting in the development of numerous mRNA vaccination platforms for infectious diseases and various types of cancer. These platforms have shown promising outcomes in both animal models and humans. This study highlights the potential of mRNA vaccines as a promising alternative approach to conventional vaccine techniques and cancer treatment. This review article aims to provide a thorough and detailed examination of mRNA vaccines, including their mechanisms of action and potential applications in cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, the article will analyze the current state of mRNA vaccine technology and highlight future directions for the development and implementation of this promising vaccine platform as a mainstream therapeutic option. The review will also discuss potential challenges and limitations of mRNA vaccines, such as their stability and in vivo distribution, and suggest ways to overcome these issues. By providing a comprehensive overview and critical analysis of mRNA vaccines, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of this innovative approach to cancer treatment.

Immunologically effective biomaterials-enhanced vaccines against infection of pathogenic microorganisms

Infectious diseases are severe public health events that threaten global health. Prophylactic vaccines have been considered as the most effective strategy to train the immune system to recognize and clear pathogenic infections. However, the existing vaccines against infectious diseases have several limitations, such as difficulties in mass manufacturing and storage, weak immunogenicity, and low efficiency of available adjuvants. Biomaterials, especially functional polymers, are expected to break through these bottlenecks based on the advantages of biocompatibility, degradability, controlled synthesis, easy modification, precise targeting, and immune modulation, which are excellent carriers and adjuvants of vaccines. This review mainly summarizes the application of immunologically effective polymers-enhanced vaccines against viruses- and bacteria-related infectious diseases and predicted their potential improvements.

Lipid Microparticles Show Similar Efficacy With Lipid Nanoparticles in Delivering mRNA and Preventing Cancer

PURPOSE

Messenger RNA (mRNA) has shown great promise for vaccine against both infectious diseases and cancer. However, mRNA is unstable and requires a delivery vehicle for efficient cellular uptake and degradation protection. So far, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) represent the most advanced delivery platform for mRNA delivery. However, no published studies have compared lipid microparticles (LMPs) with lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in delivering mRNA systematically, therefore, we compared the impact of particle size on delivery efficacy of mRNA vaccine and subsequent immune responses.

METHODS

Herein, we prepared 3 different size lipid particles, from nano-sized to micro-sized, and they loaded similar amounts of mRNA. These lipid particles were investigated both in vitro and in vivo, followed by evaluating the impact of particle size on inducing cellular and humoral immune responses.

RESULTS

In this study, all mRNA vaccines showed a robust immune response and lipid microparticles (LMPs) show similar efficacy with lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in delivering mRNA and preventing cancer. In addition, immune adjuvants, either toll like receptors or active molecules from traditional Chinese medicine, can improve the efficacy of mRNA vaccines.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the efficiency of delivery and endocytosis, besides lipid nanoparticles with size smaller than 150 nm, lipid microparticles (LMPs) also have the potential to be an alternative and promising delivery system for mRNA vaccines.

mRNA-Based Vaccines and Therapeutics for COVID-19 and Future Pandemics

An unheard mobilization of resources to find SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and therapies has been sparked by the COVID-19 pandemic. Two years ago, COVID-19's launch propelled mRNA-based technologies into the public eye. Knowledge gained from mRNA technology used to combat COVID-19 is assisting in the creation of treatments and vaccines to treat existing illnesses and may avert pandemics in the future. Exploiting the capacity of mRNA to create therapeutic proteins to impede or treat a variety of illnesses, including cancer, is the main goal of the quickly developing, highly multidisciplinary field of biomedicine. In this review, we explore the potential of mRNA as a vaccine and therapeutic using current research findings.

The synchrotron radiation source PETRA III and its future ultra-low-emittance upgrade PETRA IV

PETRA III at DESY is one of the brightest synchrotron radiation sources worldwide. It serves a broad international multidisciplinary user community from academia to industry at currently 25 specialised beamlines. With a storage-ring energy of 6 GeV, it provides mainly hard to high-energy X-rays for versatile experiments in a very broad range of scientific fields. It is ideally suited for an upgrade to the ultra-low emittance source PETRA IV, owing to its large circumference of 2304 m. With a targeted storage ring emittance of 20 × 5 pm 2 rad 2 , PETRA IV will reach spectral brightnesses two to three orders of magnitude higher than today. The unique beam parameters will make PETRA IV the ultimate in situ 3D microscope for biological, chemical, and physical processes helping to address key questions in health, energy, mobility, information technology, and earth and environment.

Nurturing Deep Tech to Solve Social Problems: Learning from COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine Development

In mRNA vaccines against COVID-19, a new technology that had never been used for approved drugs was applied and succeeded in rapid clinical use. The development and application of new technologies are critical to solving emerging public health problems therefore it is important to understand which factors enabled the rapid development of the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. This review discusses administrative and technological aspects of rapid vaccine development. In the technological aspects, I carefully examined the technology and clinical development histories of BioNTech and Moderna by searching their publication, patent application and clinical trials. Compared to the case of Japanese company that has not succeeded in the rapid development of mRNA vaccine, years of in-depth technology research and clinical development experience with other diseases and viruses were found to have enhanced BioNTech and Moderna's technological readiness and contributed to rapid vaccine development against COVID-19 in addition to government administrative support. An aspect of the investments that supported the long-term research and development of mRNA vaccines is also discussed.

Tailoring Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Nanosystems by Synchrotron Small Angle X-ray Scattering

Thanks to specific physico-chemical properties, drug delivery systems based on nanoparticles have proven to effectively transport delicate molecules for therapeutic purposes, protecting them from degradation, increasing their stability in the blood circulation and allowing to convey and release the transported substances in specific areas of the body. Nanoparticles obtained from biopolymers for applications in medicine and pharmaceutics have become particularly popular in recent years due to the enormous research effort in the field of vaccines to respond to the pandemic emergency. Among the various types of biopolymers used to produce nanoparticles for therapeutics, lipids have characteristics that make them biocompatible, with low toxicity and ease of clearance. They can be synthesized by designing their characteristics according to the foreseen administration path, or to the target of the transported drug. The analytical methods mostly used to evaluate the characteristics of lipid nanosytems for drug delivery involve studying their effects on cells, in vitro and in vivo. Although it is often considered a "niche technique" for research in the bio-related sciences, Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) is a versatile tool to study the structure of nanosystems based on lipids, both ex situ and in situ. Therefore, it allows to evaluate both the effect of the different synthesis parameters and of the exposure of lipid nanoparticles to physiological conditions, which is of fundamental importance to design efficient drug delivery systems. In this mini-review, we will report some recent examples of characterization and design of nanoparticles based on lipids, where SAXS has been a fundamental step both to guide the synthesis of nanomaterials with tailored characteristics, and to understand the interaction between nanomaterials and cells.

Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles for mRNA Delivery to Dendritic Cells: Impact of Lipid Composition on Performance in Different Media

To combine the excellent transfection properties of lipids with the high stability of polymeric nanoparticles, we designed a hybrid system with a polymeric core surrounded by a shell of different lipids. The aim is to use this technology for skin vaccination purposes where the transfection of dendritic cells is crucial. Based on a carrier made of PLGA and the positively charged lipid DOTMA, we prepared a panel of nanocarriers with increasing amounts of the zwitterionic phospholipid DOPE in the lipid layer to improve their cell tolerability. We selected a nomenclature accordingly with numbers in brackets to represent the used mol% of DOPE and DOTMA in the lipid layer, respectively. We loaded mRNA onto the surface and assessed the mRNA binding efficacy and the degree of protection against RNases. We investigated the influence of the lipid composition on the toxicity, uptake and transfection in the dendritic cell line DC 2.4 challenging the formulations with different medium supplements like fetal calf serum (FCS) and salts. After selecting the most promising candidate, we performed an immune stimulation assay with primary mouse derived dendritic cells. The experiments showed that all tested lipid-polymer nanoparticles (LPNs) have comparable hydrodynamic parameters with sizes between 200 and 250 nm and are able to bind mRNA electrostatically due to their positive zetapotential (20-40 mV for most formulations). The more of DOPE we add, the more free mRNA we find and the better the cellular uptake reaching approx. 100% for LPN(60/40)-LPN(90/10). This applies for all tested formulations leading to LPN(70/30) with the best performance, in terms of 67% of live cells with protein expression. In that case, the supplements of the medium did not influence the transfection efficacy (56% vs. 67% (suppl. medium) for live cells and 63% vs. 71% in total population). We finally confirmed this finding using mouse derived primary immune cells. We can conclude that a certain amount of DOTMA in the lipid coating of the polymer core is essential for complexation of the mRNA, but the zwitterionic phospholipid DOPE is also important for the particles' performance in supplemented media.

Microbubble–Nanoparticle Complexes for Ultrasound-Enhanced Cargo Delivery

Targeted delivery of therapeutics to specific tissues is critically important for reducing systemic toxicity and optimizing therapeutic efficacy, especially in the case of cytotoxic drugs. Many strategies currently exist for targeting systemically administered drugs, and ultrasound-controlled targeting is a rapidly advancing strategy for externally-stimulated drug delivery. In this non-invasive method, ultrasound waves penetrate through tissue and stimulate gas-filled microbubbles, resulting in bubble rupture and biophysical effects that power delivery of attached cargo to surrounding cells. Drug delivery capabilities from ultrasound-sensitive microbubbles are greatly expanded when nanocarrier particles are attached to the bubble surface, and cargo loading is determined by the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles. This review serves to highlight and discuss current microbubble–nanoparticle complex component materials and designs for ultrasound-mediated drug delivery. Nanocarriers that have been complexed with microbubbles for drug delivery include lipid-based, polymeric, lipid–polymer hybrid, protein, and inorganic nanoparticles. Several schemes exist for linking nanoparticles to microbubbles for efficient nanoparticle delivery, including biotin–avidin bridging, electrostatic bonding, and covalent linkages. When compared to unstimulated delivery, ultrasound-mediated cargo delivery enables enhanced cell uptake and accumulation of cargo in target organs and can result in improved therapeutic outcomes. These ultrasound-responsive delivery complexes can also be designed to facilitate other methods of targeting, including bioactive targeting ligands and responsivity to light or magnetic fields, and multi-level targeting can enhance therapeutic efficacy. Microbubble–nanoparticle complexes present a versatile platform for controlled drug delivery via ultrasound, allowing for enhanced tissue penetration and minimally invasive therapy. Future perspectives for application of this platform are also discussed in this review.

Tools shaping drug discovery and development

Spectroscopic, scattering, and imaging methods play an important role in advancing the study of pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical therapies. The tools more familiar to scientists within industry and beyond, such as nuclear magnetic resonance and fluorescence spectroscopy, serve two functions: as simple high-throughput techniques for identification and purity analysis, and as potential tools for measuring dynamics and structures of complex biological systems, from proteins and nucleic acids to membranes and nanoparticle delivery systems. With the expansion of commercial small-angle x-ray scattering instruments into the laboratory setting and the accessibility of industrial researchers to small-angle neutron scattering facilities, scattering methods are now used more frequently in the industrial research setting, and probe-less time-resolved small-angle scattering experiments are now able to be conducted to truly probe the mechanism of reactions and the location of individual components in complex model or biological systems. The availability of atomic force microscopes in the past several decades enables measurements that are, in some ways, complementary to the spectroscopic techniques, and wholly orthogonal in others, such as those related to nanomechanics. As therapies have advanced from small molecules to protein biologics and now messenger RNA vaccines, the depth of biophysical knowledge must continue to serve in drug discovery and development to ensure quality of the drug, and the characterization toolbox must be opened up to adapt traditional spectroscopic methods and adopt new techniques for unraveling the complexities of the new modalities. The overview of the biophysical methods in this review is meant to showcase the uses of multiple techniques for different modalities and present recent applications for tackling particularly challenging situations in drug development that can be solved with the aid of fluorescence spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and small-angle scattering.

mRNA vaccines in the prevention and treatment of diseases

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines made their successful public debut in the effort against the COVID-19 outbreak starting in late 2019, although the history of mRNA vaccines can be traced back decades. This review provides an overview to discuss the historical course and present situation of mRNA vaccine development in addition to some basic concepts that underly mRNA vaccines. We discuss the general preparation and manufacturing of mRNA vaccines and also discuss the scientific advances in the in vivo delivery system and evaluate popular approaches (i.e., lipid nanoparticle and protamine) in detail. Next, we highlight the clinical value of mRNA vaccines as potent candidates for therapeutic treatment and discuss clinical progress in the treatment of cancer and coronavirus disease 2019. Data suggest that mRNA vaccines, with several prominent advantages, have achieved encouraging results and increasing attention due to tremendous potential in disease management. Finally, we suggest some potential directions worthy of further investigation and optimization. In addition to basic research, studies that help to facilitate storage and transportation will be indispensable for practical applications.

How neutron scattering techniques benefit investigating structures and dynamics of monoclonal antibody

Over the past several decades, great progresses have been made for the pharmaceutical industry of monoclonal antibody (mAb). More and more mAb products were approved for human therapeutics. This review describes the state of art of utilizing neutron scattering to investigate mAbs, in the aspects of structures, dynamics, physicochemical stability, functionality, etc. Firstly, brief histories of mAbs and neutron scattering, as well as some basic knowledges and principles of neutron scattering were introduced. Then specific examples were demonstrated. For the structure and structural evolution investigation of in dilute and concentrated mAbs solution, in situ small angle neutron scattering (SANS) was frequently utilized. Neutron reflectometry (NR) is powerful to probe the absorption behaviors of mAbs on various surfaces and interfaces. While for dynamic investigation, quasi-elastic scattering techniques such as neutron spin echo (NSE) demonstrate the capabilities. With this review, how to utilize and take advantages of neutron scattering on investigating structures and dynamics of mAbs were demonstrated and discussed.

Coupling Lipid Nanoparticle Structure and Automated Single-Particle Composition Analysis to Design Phospholipase-Responsive Nanocarriers

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are versatile structures with tunable physicochemical properties that are ideally suited as a platform for vaccine delivery and RNA therapeutics. A key barrier to LNP rational design is the inability to relate composition and structure to intracellular processing and function. Here Single Particle Automated Raman Trapping Analysis (SPARTA) is combined with small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering (SAXS/SANS) techniques to link LNP composition with internal structure and morphology and to monitor dynamic LNP-phospholipase D (PLD) interactions. This analysis demonstrates that PLD, a key intracellular trafficking mediator, can access the entire LNP lipid membrane to generate stable, anionic LNPs. PLD activity on vesicles with matched amounts of enzyme substrate is an order of magnitude lower, indicating that the LNP lipid membrane structure can be used to control enzyme interactions. This represents an opportunity to design enzyme-responsive LNP solutions for stimuli-responsive delivery and diseases where PLD is dysregulated.

Small-angle neutron scattering contrast variation studies of biological complexes: Challenges and triumphs

Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) has been a beneficial tool for studying the structure of biological macromolecules in solution for several decades. Continued improvements in sample preparation techniques, including deuterium labeling, neutron instrumentation and complementary techniques such as small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS), cryo-EM, NMR and x-ray crystallography, along with the availability of more powerful structure prediction algorithms and computational resources has made SANS more important than ever as a means to obtain unique information on the structure of biological complexes in solution. In particular, the contrast variation (CV) technique, which requires a large commitment in both sample preparation and measurement time, has become more practical with the advent of these improved resources. Here, challenges and recent triumphs as well as future prospects are discussed.

mRNA Lipoplexes with Cationic and Ionizable α-Amino-lipophosphonates: Membrane Fusion, Transfection, mRNA Translation and Conformation

Cationic liposomes are attractive carriers for mRNA delivery. Here, mRNA lipoplexes (LX) were prepared with the cationic lipids α-aminolipophosphonate (3b) or imidazolium lipophosphoramidate (2) associated with various α-aminolipophosphonates co-lipids comprising protonable groups (imidazole or pyridine) and DOPE. Physicochemical parameters of liposomes and their membrane fusion activity were measured. LXs comprising either 3b- or 2- allowed transfection of ~25% and 40% of dendritic cells with low cytotoxicity, respectively; the efficiency increased up to 80% when 2 was combined with the imidazole-based co-lipid 1. The transfections were high with 3b/1, 3b/DOPE, 2/1 and 2/DOPE LXs. We observed that the transfection level was not well correlated with the acid-mediated membrane fusion activity of liposomes supposed to destabilize endosomes. The mRNA release from LXs and its translation capacity after release were studied for the most efficient LXs. The results showed that the more mRNA was condensed, the poorer the translation efficiency after release was. In contrast to DNA, circular dichroism performed on mRNA complexed with 2/DOPE revealed the presence of denatured mRNA in LXs explaining this lack of translation efficiency. This is an important parameter that should be stressed for the preparation of mRNA LXs with a conserved mRNA translation activity.

Advances in Nanoparticles for Effective Delivery of RNA Therapeutics

RNA therapeutics, including messenger RNA (mRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA), are genetic materials that mediate the translation of genetic direction from genes to induce or inhibit specific protein production. Although the interest in RNA therapeutics is rising globally, the absence of an effective delivery system is an obstacle to the clinical application of RNA therapeutics. Additionally, immunogenicity, short duration of protein expression, unwanted enzymatic degradation, and insufficient cellular uptake could limit the therapeutic efficacy of RNA therapeutics. In this regard, novel platforms based on nanoparticles are crucial for delivering RNAs to the targeted site to increase efficiency without toxicity. In this review, the most recent status of nanoparticles as RNA delivery vectors, with a focus on polymeric nanoparticles, peptide-derived nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, and hybrid nanoparticles, is discussed. These nanoparticular platforms can be utilized for safe and effective RNA delivery to augment therapeutic effects. Ultimately, RNA therapeutics encapsulated in nanoparticle-based carriers will be used to treat many diseases and save lives.

Nonviral Delivery Systems of mRNA Vaccines for Cancer Gene Therapy

In recent years, the use of messenger RNA (mRNA) in the fields of gene therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell biomedicine has received extensive attention. With the development of scientific technology, mRNA applications for tumor treatment have matured. Since the SARS-CoV-2 infection outbreak in 2019, the development of engineered mRNA and mRNA vaccines has accelerated rapidly. mRNA is easy to produce, scalable, modifiable, and not integrated into the host genome, showing tremendous potential for cancer gene therapy and immunotherapy when used in combination with traditional strategies. The core mechanism of mRNA therapy is vehicle-based delivery of in vitro transcribed mRNA (IVT mRNA), which is large, negatively charged, and easily degradable, into the cytoplasm and subsequent expression of the corresponding proteins. However, effectively delivering mRNA into cells and successfully activating the immune response are the keys to the clinical transformation of mRNA therapy. In this review, we focus on nonviral nanodelivery systems of mRNA vaccines used for cancer gene therapy and immunotherapy.

Polymeric nanoparticles as therapeutic agents against coronavirus disease

Nanotechnology has the potential to improve the combat against life-threatening conditions. Considering the COVID-19 scenario, and future outbreaks, nanotechnology can play a pivotal role in several steps, ranging from disinfection protocols, manufacture of hospital clothes, to implementation of healthcare settings. Polymeric nanoparticles are colloidal particles with size ranging from 10 to 999 nm, composed of natural or synthetic polymers. The versatility of polymeric-based nanoparticle engineering can provide (i) specificity, (ii) tunable release kinetics, and (iii) multimodal drug composition, making it possible to overcome common limitations encountered during traditional drug development. Consequently, these particles have been widely used as drug delivery systems against several diseases, such as cancer. Due to inherent competitive advantages, polymeric-based nanoparticles hold astonishing potential to counteract the new coronavirus disease (COVID-19). For this reason, in the present study, the latest advancements in polymer-based nanotechnology approaches used to fight against SARS-CoV-2 are compiled and discussed. Moreover, the importance of forefront in vitro technologies - such as 3D bioprinting and organ-on-chip - to evaluate the efficacy of nanotherapeutic agents is also highlighted. Polymeric nanoparticles can be functionalized to enhance its potential as a nanotherapeutic agent. Due to its many advantages, polymeric-based nanoparticles systems are a promising approach against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Recent advances in small-angle scattering and its expanding impact in structural biology

Applications of small-angle scattering (SAS) in structural biology have benefited from continuing developments in instrumentation, tools for data analysis, modeling capabilities, standards for data and model presentation, and data archiving. The interplay of these capabilities has enabled SAS to contribute to advances in structural biology as the field pushes the boundaries in studies of biomolecular complexes and assemblies as large as whole cells, membrane proteins in lipid environments, and dynamic systems on time scales ranging from femtoseconds to hours. This review covers some of the important advances in biomolecular SAS capabilities for structural biology focused on over the last 5 years and presents highlights of recent applications that demonstrate how the technique is exploring new territories.

New Applications of Lipid and Polymer-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acids Delivery

Nucleic acids represent a promising lead for engineering the immune system. However, naked DNA, mRNA, siRNA, and other nucleic acids are prone to enzymatic degradation and face challenges crossing the cell membrane. Therefore, increasing research has been recently focused on developing novel delivery systems that are able to overcome these drawbacks. Particular attention has been drawn to designing lipid and polymer-based nanoparticles that protect nucleic acids and ensure their targeted delivery, controlled release, and enhanced cellular uptake. In this respect, this review aims to present the recent advances in the field, highlighting the possibility of using these nanosystems for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes towards combatting a broad range of infectious, chronic, and genetic disorders.

Dynamic mRNA polyplexes benefit from bioreducible cleavage sites for in vitro and in vivo transfer

Currently, messenger RNA (mRNA)-based lipid nanoparticle formulations revolutionize the clinical field. Cationic polymer-based complexes (polyplexes) represent an alternative compound class for mRNA delivery. After establishing branched polyethylenimine with a succinylation degree of 10% (succPEI) as highly effective positive mRNA transfection standard, a diverse library of PEI-like peptides termed sequence-defined oligoaminoamides (OAAs) was screened for mRNA delivery. Notably, sequences, which had previously been identified as potent plasmid DNA (pDNA) or small-interfering RNA (siRNA) carriers, displayed only moderate mRNA transfection activity. A second round of screening combined the cationizable building block succinoyl tetraethylene pentamine and histidines for endosomal buffering, tyrosine tripeptides and various fatty acids for mRNA polyplex stabilization, as well as redox-sensitive units for programmed intracellular release. For the tested OAA carriers, balancing of extracellular stability, endosomal lytic activity, and intracellular release capability was found to be of utmost importance for optimum mRNA transfection efficiency. OAAs with T-shape topology containing two oleic acids as well-stabilizing fatty acids, attached via a dynamic bioreducible building block, displayed superior activity with up to 1000-fold increased transfection efficiency compared to their non-reducible analogs. In the absence of the dynamic linkage, incorporation of shorter less stabilizing fatty acids could only partly compensate for mRNA delivery. Highest GFP expression and the largest fraction of transfected cells (96%) could be detected for the bioreducible OAA with incorporated histidines and a dioleoyl motif, outperforming all other tested carriers as well as the positive control succPEI. The good in vitro performance of the dynamic lead structure was verified in vivo upon intratracheal administration of mRNA complexes in mice.

A review of the tortuous path of nonviral gene delivery and recent progress

Gene therapy encompasses the transfer of exogenous genetic materials into the patient's target cells to treat or prevent diseases. Nevertheless, the transfer of genetic material into desired cells is challenging and often requires specialized tools or delivery systems. For the past 40 years, scientists are mainly pursuing various viruses as gene delivery vectors, and the overall progress has been slow and far from the expectation. As an alternative, nonviral vectors have gained substantial attention due to their several advantages, including superior safety profile, enhanced payload capacity, and stealth abilities. Since nonviral vectors encounter multiple extra- and intra-cellular barriers limiting the transfer of genetic payload into the target cell nucleus, we have discussed these barriers in detail for this review. A direct approach, utilizing physical methods like electroporation, sonoporation, gene gun, eliminate the requirement for a specific carrier for gene delivery. In contrast, chemical methods of gene transfer exploit natural or synthetic compounds as carriers to increase cellular targeting and gene therapy effectiveness. We have also emphasized the recent advancements aimed at enhancing the current nonviral approaches. Therefore, in this review, we have focused on discussing the current evolving state of nonviral gene delivery systems and their future perspectives.

Protamine-Based Strategies for RNA Transfection

Protamine is a natural cationic peptide mixture mostly known as a drug for the neutralization of heparin and as a compound in formulations of slow-release insulin. Protamine is also used for cellular delivery of nucleic acids due to opposite charge-driven coupling. This year marks 60 years since the first use of Protamine as a transfection enhancement agent. Since then, Protamine has been broadly used as a stabilization agent for RNA delivery. It has also been involved in several compositions for RNA-based vaccinations in clinical development. Protamine stabilization of RNA shows double functionality: it not only protects RNA from degradation within biological systems, but also enhances penetration into cells. A Protamine-based RNA delivery system is a flexible and versatile platform that can be adjusted according to therapeutic goals: fused with targeting antibodies for precise delivery, digested into a cell penetrating peptide for better transfection efficiency or not-covalently mixed with functional polymers. This manuscript gives an overview of the strategies employed in protamine-based RNA delivery, including the optimization of the nucleic acid's stability and translational efficiency, as well as the regulation of its immunostimulatory properties from early studies to recent developments.

Quantum Biotech and Internet of Virus Things: Towards a Theoretical Framework

Quantumization, the process of converting information into quantum (qubit) format, is a key enabler for propelling a new and distinct infrastructure in the pharmaceutical space. Quantum messenger RNA (QmRNA) technology, an indispensable constituent of quantum biotech (QB), is a compelling alternative to conventional vaccine methods because of its capacity for rapid development, high efficacy, and low-cost manufacturing to combat infectious diseases. Internet of Virus Things (IoVT), a biological version of Internet of Things (IoT), comprises applications to fight against pandemics and provides effective vaccine administration. The integration of QB and IoVT constitutes the QBIoVT system to advance the prospect of QmRNA vaccine discovery within a few days. This research disseminates the QBIoVT system paradigm, including architectural aspects, priority areas, challenges, applications, and QmRNA research engine design to accelerate QmRNA vaccines discovery. A comprehensive review of the literature was accomplished, and a context-centered methodology was applied to the QBIoVT paradigm forensic investigations to impel QmRNA vaccine discovery. Based on the above rumination, the principal motive for this study was to develop a novel QBIoVT theoretical framework which has not been produced through earlier theories. The proposed framework shall inspire future QBIoVT system research activities to improve pandemics detection and protection.

Self-assembled mRNA vaccines

mRNA vaccines have evolved from being a mere curiosity to emerging as COVID-19 vaccine front-runners. Recent advancements in the field of RNA technology, vaccinology, and nanotechnology have generated interest in delivering safe and effective mRNA therapeutics. In this review, we discuss design and self-assembly of mRNA vaccines. Self-assembly, a spontaneous organization of individual molecules, allows for design of nanoparticles with customizable properties. We highlight the materials commonly utilized to deliver mRNA, their physicochemical characteristics, and other relevant considerations, such as mRNA optimization, routes of administration, cellular fate, and immune activation, that are important for successful mRNA vaccination. We also examine the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines currently in clinical trials. mRNA vaccines are ready for the clinic, showing tremendous promise in the COVID-19 vaccine race, and have pushed the boundaries of gene therapy.

Design of Sodium Alginate/Gelatin-Based Emulsion Film Fused with Polylactide Microparticles Charged with Plant Extract

This study aimed at designing emulsion films based on sodium alginate, gelatin, and glycerol, and their modification by the addition of lipids (cottonseed oil and beeswax). Film composition with the most promising properties was further modified by the incorporation of polylactide (PLA) microparticles with Calendula officinalis flower extract. PLA microspheres were obtained by the emulsion/solvent evaporation method. The size distribution of oily particles in emulsions was investigated. Mechanical properties, moisture content, UV-Vis spectra, and the color of films were analyzed, while biophysical skin parameters were assessed after their application to the skin. Moreover, the contact angles were measured, and the surface free energy of polymeric films was determined. An investigation of the amount of Calendula officinalis flower extract which can be incorporated into PLA microparticles was performed. The modification of the composition of films significantly influenced their physicochemical properties. The selected active ingredient in the form of plant extract was successfully incorporated into polymeric microparticles that were further added into the developed emulsion film. The condition of the skin after the application of obtained emulsion films improved. The prepared materials, especially containing microparticles with plant extract, can be considered for designing new cosmetic forms, such as cosmetic masks, as well as new topical formulations for pharmaceutical delivery.