Optimization of Mixed Inulin, Fructooligosaccharides, and Galactooligosaccharides as Prebiotics for Stimulation of Probiotics Growth and Function

In-vitro investigation of antidiabetic and antioxidants properties of major prebiotics and plant based dietary fibers

Objectives

Consuming prebiotics and plant-based dietary fibers are important as an emerging approach to diabetes and oxidative stress control. In this study, the functional properties of major prebiotics and dietary fibers were evaluated.

Methods

The hypoglycemic properties were analyzed by inhibiting α-amylase and α-glucosidase, glucose adsorption capacity, and glucose diffusion. Antioxidant capacity, total phenolic (TP), and flavonoid (TF) content were also measured.

Results

The results showed that among prebiotics, isomaltulose and pectin had antidiabetic activity by α-amylase (IC50 = 11.36 mg/mL) and α-glucosidase (IC50 = 2.38 mg/mL) inhibition. Isomaltulose and pectin exhibited the ability to adsorb glucose capacity. Inulin HP showed the ability to inhibit glucose diffusion. The results also showed that all prebiotics impart antioxidant activity and TP, and TF content in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05). Pectin showed a higher ability to scavenge 1,1-diphenyl-2 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sul-fonate (ABTS) radicals with higher phenolic compound (p < 0.05). Therefore, it seems that pectin was able to reduce the rate of glucose adsorption, regulate glucose adsorption by enzyme activity inhibition, and increase antioxidant capacity.

Conclusion

The results revealed that the prebiotics were efficient in their antidiabetic potential and could act as bio-functional materials. Using prebiotics in functional foods and nutraceutical medicines is strongly recommended.

The role of gut microbiota and bacterial translocation in the pathogenesis and management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Mechanisms, impacts, and dietary therapeutic strategies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The influence of gut microbiota on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is an emerging area of research. This review investigates the relationship between gut microbiota dysbiosis, bacterial translocation, and T2DM. It aims to elucidate how microbial imbalances contribute to the progression of T2DM through bacterial translocation and to evaluate dietary and therapeutic strategies to manage these effects.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies highlight that dysbiosis in T2DM patients often leads to increased systemic inflammation, impaired glucose metabolism, and disrupted gut barrier integrity. These disruptions promote elevated levels of harmful bacterial components, such as lipopolysaccharides, in the bloodstream. This, in turn, is linked to worsening insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction. Advances in molecular methods and biomarkers have provided deeper insights into bacterial translocation and its impact on diabetes. Dietary interventions, including nutraceutical agents, high-fiber and low-glycemic index diets, as well as the use of probiotics and prebiotics, have shown promise in restoring gut health and mitigating bacterial translocation.

CONCLUSION

Maintaining a balanced gut microbiota and intestinal barrier integrity is crucial for managing T2DM. Therapeutic strategies, including dietary modifications and nutraceuticals, have demonstrated potential in reducing bacterial translocation and systemic inflammation. Continued research is needed to refine these approaches and explore novel treatment modalities for improving metabolic health in T2DM patients.

Gut Dysbiosis Exacerbates Intestinal Absorption of Cadmium and Arsenic from Cocontaminated Rice in Mice Due to Impaired Intestinal Barrier Functions

Globally, humans face gut microbiota dysbiosis; however, its impact on the bioavailability of cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) from rice consumption─a major source of human exposure to these metals─remains unclear. In this study, we compared Cd and As accumulation in the liver and kidneys of mice with disrupted gut microbiota (administered cefoperazone sodium), restored microbiota (administered probiotics and prebiotics following antibiotic exposure), and normal microbiota, all after consuming cocontaminated rice. Compared to normal mice, microbiota-disrupted mice exhibited 30.9-119% and 30.0-100% (p < 0.05) higher Cd and As levels in tissues after a 3 week exposure period. The increased Cd and As bioavailability was not due to changes in the duodenal expression of Cd-related transporters or As speciation biotransformation in the intestine. Instead, it was primarily attributed to a damaged mucus layer and depleted tight junctions associated with gut dysbiosis, which increased intestinal permeability. These mechanisms were confirmed by observing 34.3-74.3% and 25.0-75.0% (p < 0.05) lower Cd and As levels in the tissues of microbiota-restored mice with rebuilt intestinal barrier functions. This study enhances our understanding of the increased risk of dietary metal(loid) exposure in individuals with gut microbiota dysbiosis due to impaired intestinal barrier functions.

Integrative Roles of Functional Foods, Microbiotics, Nutrigenetics, and Nutrigenomics in Managing Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity

Diabetes and obesity are globally prevalent metabolic disorders posing significant public health challenges. The effective management of these conditions requires integrated and personalized strategies. This study conducted a systematic literature review, identifying 335 relevant papers, with 129 core articles selected after screening for duplicates and irrelevant studies. The focus of the study is on the synergistic roles of functional foods, microbiotics, and nutrigenomics. Functional foods, including phytochemicals (e.g., polyphenols and dietary fibers), zoochemicals (e.g., essential fatty acids), and bioactive compounds from macrofungi, exhibit significant potential in enhancing insulin sensitivity, regulating lipid metabolism, reducing inflammatory responses, and improving antioxidant capacity. Additionally, the critical role of gut microbiota in metabolic health is highlighted, as its interaction with functional foods facilitates the modulation of metabolic pathways. Nutrigenomics, encompassing nutrigenetics and genomics, reveals how genetic variations (e.g., single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)) influence dietary responses and gene expression, forming a feedback loop between dietary habits, genetic variations, gut microbiota, and metabolic health. This review integrates functional foods, gut microbiota, and genetic insights to propose comprehensive and sustainable personalized nutrition interventions, offering novel perspectives for preventing and managing type 2 diabetes and obesity. Future clinical studies are warranted to validate the long-term efficacy and safety of these strategies.

Effect of microencapsulated Fiber2-displaying probiotics loaded with inulin nanoparticles on immunity against fowl adenovirus serotype 4 in chickens

In this study, phthalate inulin nanoparticles (PINs) were chemically modified and characterized. The internalization of PINs into the probiotic E. faecalis, which delivering Fiber2 protein of fowl adenovirus serotype 4 (FAdV-4), was investigated. The expression of the Fiber2 protein in E. faecalis was detected using western blot analysis. To protect recombinant E. faecalis from degradation of in the gastric acid environment, sodium alginate was used to encapsulate the bacteria. The survival ratio and release of E. faecalis in simulated gastrointestinal fluid was assessed. Oral administration of microencapsulated E. faecalis loaded with PINs (Micro-E/Fiber2-PINs) or inulin (Micro-E/Fiber2-inulin) was conducted, followed by an experimental challenge with FAdV-4 in chickens to evaluate immune responses and protection. The results showed the internalization of PINs into the bacteria promoted bacteria growth, and significantly improved the expression level of Fiber2. After incubation in simulated gastric fluid, the number of viable bacteria from the Micro-E/Fiber2-PINs group was significantly higher than that from the E. faecalis/Fiber2 group. The release of bacteria from the microcapsules was completed within 30 min. Animal experiments demonstrated that oral immunization with Micro-E/Fiber2-PINs significantly enhanced humoral and cellular immune responses, relieved inflammatory injury in FAdV-targeted organs, and improved survival rate of challenged chickens. This study presents promising potential for developing oral vaccines against pathogen infection.

Effects of honey saccharide supplementation on growth performance, amylase enzyme activity, gut microvilli, and microbiome in Cyprinus carpio

Background and Aim

Prebiotics, such as saccharides in honey, play a crucial role in improving gut microbiota, digestion, and immune function. This study evaluates the effects of Kapok flower honey saccharides on growth performance, digestive enzyme activity, intestinal morphology, and gut microbiota in common carp (Cyprinus carpio).

Materials and Methods

A completely randomized design was implemented with four honey supplementation levels (0% control, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1%) applied to juvenile C. carpio diets over 30 days. Growth performance, feed utilization, intestinal microvilli structure, gut microbiota, and amylase activity were analyzed using advanced techniques, including high performance liquid chromatography, scanning electron microscopy, and biochemical assays.

Results

Kapok flower honey contains fructooligosaccharides (FOS, 14.76%) and inulin (6.6%). Supplementation at 1% significantly improved weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and specific growth rate. Amylase activity increased with honey supplementation, peaking at 24.13 ± 3.11 U g-1 protein for the 1% group. Gut morphology analysis revealed longer, denser intestinal microvilli and higher perimeter ratios in honey-treated groups than controls. Microbiota analysis showed increased beneficial Bacillus spp. exclusively in the honey-supplemented groups.

Conclusion

Honey saccharides, particularly FOS and inulin, significantly enhance the growth performance, digestive enzyme activity, and gut health of common carp. Supplementation with 1% honey is optimal, improving feed efficiency and fostering beneficial gut microbiota. These findings highlight honey as a cost-effective, natural prebiotic for aquaculture.

Impact of synbiotics on disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus: Results from a randomized clinical trial

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that affects various organs in the body. In SLE, inflammatory cytokines play a crucial role in initiating and sustaining the inflammatory process. Synbiotics may help modulate these inflammatory cytokines. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial aimed to assess the impact of synbiotics intervention on interleukin-17A (IL-17A) levels, disease activity, and inflammatory factors in patients with SLE. Fifty SLE patients were randomly assigned to receive either standard therapy plus synbiotics (consisting of Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus reuteri, Bifidobacterium lactis, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and the prebiotic fructooligosaccharides) or standard therapy alone for 2 months. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in both protein and mRNA levels of IL-17A, as well as in the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index 2000 score, within the synbiotics group after the intervention compared to baseline. In contrast, the placebo group did not experience significant changes in IL-17A levels or disease activity. Synbiotic supplementation shows potential as an adjunctive therapeutic approach for SLE management; however, further research is needed to elucidate its underlying mechanisms. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study explores the use of synbiotics as a supplementary treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus, which is typically managed with immunosuppressive therapies.

Probiotic and Rice-Derived Compound Combination Mitigates Colitis Severity

BACKGROUND

This study investigated the ability of Enterococcus lactis (E. lactis) and Hasawi rice protein lysate (HPL) to suppress colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in miceColitis is characterized by inflammation of the colon, and exploring potential therapeutic agents could lead to improved management strategies.

METHODS

Male mice were subjected to DSS treatment to induce colitis, followed by supplementation with E. lactis and/or HPL. The study assessed various parameters, including disease activity index (DAI) scores, gut permeability measured using FITC-dextran, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in excised colon tissues from both treated and untreated control groups.

RESULTS

E. lactis supplementation significantly alleviated DSS-induced colitis, as evidenced by improved DAI scores and enhanced gut permeability. Notably, E. lactis combined with HPL (0.1 mg/108) exhibited superior tolerance to a 0.5% pancreatin solution compared to E. lactis alone. Both E. lactis and the combination treatment significantly increased SOD activity (5.6 ± 0.23 SOD U/mg protein for E. lactis and 6.7 ± 0.23 SOD U/mg protein for the combination) relative to the Azoxymethane (AOM)/DSS group, suggesting a reduction in oxidative stress. Additionally, pro-inflammatory markers were significantly reduced in the group receiving both E. lactis and HPL compared to the E. lactis-only group. Levels of proteins associated with cell death, such as PCNA, PTEN, VEGF, COX-2, and STAT-3, were significantly decreased by 14.8% to 80% following E. lactis supplementation, with the combination treatment showing the most pronounced effects.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest E. lactis supplementation may be beneficial for colitis, with HPL potential to enhance its effectiveness.

Optimization of dilution rate and mixed carbon feed for continuous production of recombinant plant sucrose:sucrose 1-fructosyltransferase in Komagataella phaffii

The trisaccharide 1-kestose, a major constituent of commercial fructooligosaccharide (FOS) formulations, shows a superior prebiotic effect compared to higher-chain FOS. The plant sucrose:sucrose 1-fructosyltransferases (1-SST) are extensively used for selective synthesis of lower chain FOS. In this study, enhanced recombinant (r) 1-SST production was achieved in Komagataella phaffii (formerly Pichia pastoris) containing three copies of a codon-optimized Festuca arundinacea 1-SST gene. R1-SST production reached 47 U/mL at the shake-flask level after a 96-h methanol induction phase. A chemostat-based strain characterization methodology was adopted to assess the influence of specific growth rate (µ) on cell-specific r1-SST productivity (Qp) and cell-specific oxygen uptake rate (Qo) under two different feeding strategies across dilution rates from 0.02 to 0.05 h-1. The methanol-sorbitol co-feeding strategy significantly reduced Qo by 46 ± 2.4% compared to methanol-only feeding without compromising r1-SST productivity. Based on the data, a dilution rate of 0.025 h-1 was applied for continuous cultivation of recombinant cells to achieve a sustained r1-SST productivity of 5000 ± 64.4 U/L/h for 15 days.

Enhancing prebiotic, antioxidant, and nutritional qualities of noodles: A collaborative strategy with foxtail millet and green banana flour

Foxtail millet (FM) and green banana (GB) are rich in health-promoting nutrients and bioactive substances, like antioxidants, dietary fibers, and various essential macro and micronutrients. Utilizing GB and FM flour as prebiotics is attributed to their ability to support gut health and offer multiple health benefits. The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of incorporating 10% GB flour (GBF) and different proportions (10-40%) of FM flour (FMF) on the prebiotic potential, antioxidant, nutrient, color, cooking quality, water activity and sensory attributes of noodles. The prebiotic potential, antioxidant, and nutrient of the produced noodles were significantly improved by increasing the levels of FMF. Sensorial evaluation revealed that noodles containing 30% FMF and 10% GBF attained comparable scores to the control sample. Furthermore, the formulated noodles exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) higher levels of protein, essential minerals (such as iron, magnesium, and manganese), dietary fiber (9.37 to 12.71 g/100 g), total phenolic compounds (17.81 to 36.35 mg GA eq./100 g), and total antioxidants (172.57 to 274.94 mg AA eq./100 g) compared to the control. The enriched noodles also demonstrated substantially (p < 0.05) increased antioxidant capacity, as evidenced by enhanced DPPH and FRAP activities, when compared to the control noodles. Overall, the incorporation of 30% FMF and 10% GBF led to a noteworthy improvement in the nutritional and antioxidant qualities of the noodles, as well as the prebiotic potential of the noodles with regard to L. plantarum, L. rhamnosus, and L. acidophilus. The implementation of this enrichment strategy has the potential to confer a multitude of health advantages.

Anticandidal Activity of Various Probiotic Lactobacillus Strains and Their Efficacy Enhanced by Prebiotic Supplementation

Probiotics and prebiotics have been considered as alternative approaches for promoting health. This study aimed to investigate the anticandidal potential of various probiotic Lactobacillus strains and their cell-free supernatants (CFSs). The study assessed the impact of inulin and some fruits as prebiotics on the growth of selected probiotic strains in relation to their anticandidal activity, production of short-chain fatty acids, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity. Results revealed variations in anticandidal activity based on the specific strains and forms of probiotics used. Non-adjusted CFSs were the most effective against Candida strains, followed by probiotic cells and adjusted CFSs (pH 7). Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus SD4, L. rhamnosus SD11 and L. rhamnosus GG displayed the strongest anticandidal activity. Non-adjusted CFSs from L. rhamnosus SD11, L. rhamnosus SD4 and L. paracasei SD1 exhibited notable anticandidal effects. The adjusted CFSs of L. rhamnosus SD11 showed the highest anticandidal activity against all non-albicans Candida (NAC) strains, whereas the others were ineffective. Supplementation of L. rhamnosus SD11 with prebiotics, particularly 2% (w/v) mangosteen, exhibited positive results in promoting probiotic growth, short-chain fatty acids production, total phenolic contents, and antioxidant activity, and the subsequent enhancing anticandidal activity against both C. albicans and NAC strains compared to conditions without prebiotics. In conclusion, both live cells and CFSs of tested strains, particularly L. rhamnosus SD11, exhibited the best anticandidal activity. Prebiotics supplementation, especially mangosteen, enhanced probiotic growth and beneficial metabolites against Candida growth. These finding suggested that probiotics and prebiotic supplementation may be an effective alternative treatment for Candida infections.

Systematic Chemical Analysis of Crude Glycan Isolates from the Seven-Herb Decoction Quanzhenyiqitang with Anti-COPD Activity

The classical Chinese Medicine prescription, Quanzhenyiqitang (QZYQT), containing seven tonic herbs (Shudi, Dangshen, Maidong, Baizhu, Niuxi, Fuzi, and Wuweizi) is clinically used to treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Although there are studies on the pharmacological effects of QZYQT, little attention has been paid to its active carbohydrate ingredients. We performed a systematic chemical analysis of the crude glycan isolates from the seven-herb decoction (GI-QZYQT) after confirming its anti-COPD activity. GI-QZYQT could enhance lung function, reduce lung damage, and alleviate inflammatory response in mice with COPD. Moreover, two monosaccharides (fructose and glucose) and six oligosaccharides (sucrose, melibiose, 1-kestose, raffinose, mannotriose, and stachyose), accounting for 40.23 % of GI-QZYQT, were discovered using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-evaporative light-scattering detection. Inulin-type fructan with an average molecular weight of 2112 Da was identified using high-performance gel-permeation chromatography in combination with monosaccharide mapping analysis, accounting for 20.10 % of GI-QZYQT in mass. The comparison study showed that the identified monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and the inulin-type fructan of GI-QZYQT were mainly derived from herbs of Shudi, Dangshen, Maidong, Baizhu, and Niuxi. These findings provide crucial information on the chemical composition of GI-QZYQT, which is vital for the in-depth understanding of its bioactivity, mechanism, and product development.

Prebiotic saccharides polymerization improves the encapsulation efficiency, stability, bioaccessibility and gut microbiota modulation of urolithin A liposomes

This work was to investigate the effect of four prebiotic saccharides gum arabic (GA), fructooligosaccharide (FOS), konjac glucomannan (KGM), and inulin (INU) incorporation on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), physicochemical stability, and in vitro digestion of urolithin A-loaded liposomes (UroA-LPs). The regulation of liposomes on gut microbiota was also investigated by in vitro colonic fermentation. Results indicated that liposomes coated with GA showed the best EE, bioaccessibility, storage and thermal stability, the bioaccessibility was 1.67 times of that of UroA-LPs. The UroA-LPs coated with FOS showed the best freeze-thaw stability and transformation. Meanwhile, saccharides addition remarkably improved the relative abundance of Bacteroidota, reduced the abundances of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria. The UroA-LPs coated with FOS, INU, and GA exhibited the highest beneficial bacteria abundance of Parabacteroides, Monoglobus, and Phascolarctobacterium, respectively. FOS could also decrease the abundance of harmful bacteria Collinsella and Enterococcus, and increase the levels of acetic acid, butyric acid and iso-butyric acid. Consequently, prebiotic saccharides can improve the EE, physicochemical stability, gut microbiota regulation of UroA-LPs, and promote the bioaccessibility of UroA, but the efficiency varied based on saccharides types, which can lay a foundation for the application of UroA in foods industry and for the enhancement of its bio-activities.

Potential Prebiotic Effect of Inulin-Enriched Pasta after In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion and Simulated Gut Fermentation

In the current study, the prebiotic potential of an innovative functional pasta enriched with 12% (w/w) inulin was investigated. To this aim, pasta was subjected to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion followed by simulated gut fermentation compared to the control pasta (CTRL) not containing inulin. The incorporation of inulin positively (p < 0.05) affected some organoleptic traits and the cooking quality of the final product, giving an overall score significantly higher than CTRL. The resultant essential amino acid content was similar in both pasta samples while the total protein content was lower in inulin-enriched pasta for the polymer substitution to durum wheat flour. The prebiotic potential of chicory inulin was preliminarily tested in in vitro experiments using seven probiotic strains and among them Lacticaseibacillus paracasei IMPC2.1 was selected for the simulated gut fermentation studies. The positive prebiotic activity score registered with the probiotic strain suggested the suitability of the inulin-enriched pasta with respect to acting as a prebiotic source favoring the growth of the probiotic strain and short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. The present study contributes to broadening knowledge on the prebiotic efficacy of inulin when incorporated into a complex food matrix.

The footprint of gut microbiota in gallbladder cancer: a mechanistic review

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common malignant tumor of the biliary system with the worst prognosis. Even after radical surgery, the majority of patients with GBC have difficulty achieving a clinical cure. The risk of tumor recurrence remains more than 65%, and the overall 5-year survival rate is less than 5%. The gut microbiota refers to a variety of microorganisms living in the human intestine, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, which profoundly affect the host state of general health, disease and even cancer. Over the past few decades, substantial evidence has supported that gut microbiota plays a critical role in promoting the progression of GBC. In this review, we summarize the functions, molecular mechanisms and recent advances of the intestinal microbiota in GBC. We focus on the driving role of bacteria in pivotal pathways, such as virulence factors, metabolites derived from intestinal bacteria, chronic inflammatory responses and ecological niche remodeling. Additionally, we emphasize the high level of correlation between viruses and fungi, especially EBV and Candida spp., with GBC. In general, this review not only provides a solid theoretical basis for the close relationship between gut microbiota and GBC but also highlights more potential research directions for further research in the future.

Banana Peel (Musa ABB cv. Nam Wa Mali-Ong) as a Source of Value-Adding Components and the Functional Properties of Its Bioactive Ingredients

Banana peel (BP) is the primary by-product generated during banana processing which causes numerous environmental issues. This study examines the physical attributes, proximate analysis, glycoarray profiling, antioxidant abilities, and prebiotic activity of BP. The analysis demonstrated that carbohydrates constituted the primary components of BP and the glycoarray profiling indicated that BP contains multiple pectin and hemicellulose structures. BP also contained phenolic compounds, including (+)-catechin and gallic acid, flavonoid compounds, and antioxidant activities. BP demonstrated prebiotic effects by promoting the proliferation of advantageous gut bacteria while inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria. The prebiotic index scores demonstrated that BP exhibited a greater capacity to promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in comparison to regular sugar. The study demonstrated the potential of the BP as a valuable source of dietary fibre, bioactive compounds, and prebiotics. These components have beneficial characteristics and can be utilised in the production of food, feed additives, and functional food.

Effects of Synbiotic Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, Bifidobacterium breve, and Prebiotics on the Growth Stimulation of Beneficial Gut Microbiota

The gut microbiota is a complex community of microorganisms that plays a vital role in maintaining overall health, and is comprised of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. The probiotic efficacy and safety of Lacticaseibacillus paracasei and Bifidobacterium breve for consumption were confirmed by in vitro experiments. The survival rate of the probiotics showed a significant decline in in vitro gut tract simulation; however, the survival rate was more than 50%. Also, the probiotics could adhere to Caco-2 cell lines by more than 90%, inhibit the pathogenic growths, deconjugate glycocholic acid and taurodeoxycholic acid through activity of bile salt hydrolase (BSH) proteins, and lower cholesterol levels by over 46%. Regarding safety assessment, L. paracasei and B. breve showed susceptibility to some antibiotics but resistance to vancomycin and were examined as γ-hemolytic strains. Anti-inflammatory properties of B. breve with Caco-2 epithelial cell lines showed the significantly highest value (p < 0.05) for interleukin-10. Furthermore, probiotics and prebiotics (inulin, fructooligosaccharides, and galactooligosaccharides) comprise synbiotics, which have potential effects on the increased abundance of beneficial microbiota, but do not affect the growth of harmful bacteria in feces samples. Moreover, the highest concentration of short chain fatty acid was of acetic acid, followed by propionic and butyric acid.