Comparison of Faba Bean Protein Ingredients Produced Using Dry Fractionation and Isoelectric Precipitation: Techno-Functional, Nutritional and Environmental Performance

Metabolite variations in faba bean ingredients: Unraveling the links between off-flavors and chemical compounds

Faba bean ingredients are attracting interest for their suitability in producing protein-rich plant-based foods. However, their sensory characteristics (e.g., bitterness) challenge consumer acceptance. This study explored variations in the metabolome and the links between metabolites and sensory attributes using UHPLC-qTOF-MS/MS analysis of faba bean flour, two protein concentrates, and protein isolate. Partial Least Squares regression identified metabolites contributing to sensory descriptors, and it was validated against the VirtuousMultiTaste platform. Genetic variation and processing methods contributed to the metabolite composition of faba bean ingredients. We annotated 115 compounds with choline and vicine having the highest relative abundance. Five clusters suggested cultivar-specificity and process-related differences. Several compounds were linked to bitterness and mouth-drying orosensation, including caprolactam, gingerglycolipid, lysine, and vicine. Some compounds were reported as potentially bitter for the first time. This study lays the foundation for further research on the bitterness of these compounds and receptor-level investigations for targeted flavor optimization.

Factors improving dry fractionation of Bambara groundnut aiming at production of protein-rich ingredients with elevated nutritional and technological quality

Bambara groundnut is a nutritious African grain legume with potential to be refined into a high-protein ingredient. This work aimed to develop protein-rich ingredients from Bambara via dry processing. Due to Bambara's high fat content, two dry fractionation approaches were developed. In the first one, Bambara was defatted using supercritical CO2 extraction, milled and air classified producing ingredients with 48 % protein, achieving 74 % of total protein separation efficiency. Without defatting, the efficiency stood at 16.7 %. A second attempt, incorporating a flow aid during air classification, yielded ingredients with 38.2 % protein and protein separation efficiency of 33 %. These protein-rich ingredients exhibited higher protein solubility, total extractability, and water and oil absorption capacities compared to the raw materials. Phytic acid content increased in the protein-rich ingredients, but tannin was significantly reduced. The essential amino acid score of Bambara protein-rich ingredients was higher than 1 and the degree of protein hydrolysis was 31 %.

Advances in protein extraction methods from faba bean: a comprehensive review

The extraction of proteins from faba beans is a key process in the food industry, driven by their high protein content and potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional sources. However, this process faces challenges, including the presence of anti-nutritional factors and the need to enhance protein recovery, purity, and quality. This review evaluates dry, wet, and hybrid extraction methods alongside pretreatment strategies, emphasizing their advantages, limitations, and industrial applications. Pretreatments, such as dehulling, soaking, and germination, are discussed for their ability to improve protein yield and reduce anti-nutritional factors. Dry extraction methods prioritize protein integrity, cost-efficiency, and sustainability, whereas wet methods excel in achieving high protein purity but are resource-intensive. Hybrid techniques, combining the strengths of dry and wet methods, are emerging as promising solutions to address existing limitations. This review also explores recent innovations in protein fractionation and processing technologies, with a focus on their potential impact on the food industry. Improving the sustainability and efficiency of protein extraction methods is vital to advancing their industrial adoption. By synthesizing current advancements, identifying research gaps, and proposing actionable insights, this work provides a roadmap for future studies and applications of faba bean protein extraction, contributing to sustainable food production.

Pulse Proteins: Processing, Nutrition, and Functionality in Foods

Pulses are grown worldwide and provide agronomic benefits that contribute to the sustainability of cropping systems. Pulses are high in protein and provide a good source of carbohydrates, dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive constituents. Crops such as lupins, chickpeas, faba beans, field peas, lentils, and mung beans, and the diversity of varieties among them, provide enormous opportunities for processing protein ingredients for use in new and existing food formulations. This review highlights the nutritional properties of pulses, protein quality, functionality, and applications for pulse protein ingredients. Understanding the functionality of pulse proteins, and the unique properties between different pulses in terms of solubility, water- and oil-holding capacity, emulsification, gelation, and foaming properties, will help maximise their use in plant-based meat and dairy alternatives, beverages, bakery products, noodles, pasta, and nutritional supplements. In this review, researchers, food technologists, and food manufacturers are provided with a comprehensive resource on pulses, and the diverse applications for pulse protein ingredients within the context of food manufacturing and the constantly evolving food technology landscape.

Ultrasound-induced modification of pea pod protein concentrate

Agricultural by-products have emerged as valuable resources for the sustainable production of high-quality food ingredients. Ultrasound, a novel and environmentally friendly technology, is an effective physical method for solvent-free protein modifications. This study explores the conversion of pea pods as an agricultural by-product into value-added protein-based food ingredients with multifunctional properties enhanced by high-intensity ultrasound (US). Pea pod protein concentrate in the native form (PPPC-N) obtained by alkaline extraction/isoelectric precipitation was subjected to ultrasound-induced protein modification using response surface methodology at varying amplitude (40-80 %), time (2-20 min), and protein concentration (1-5 % w/v). The US process parameters were separately optimized based on maximum solubility, emulsification, and antioxidant activity. Protein concentrates were characterized at optimal conditions (80 % amplitude, 11 min, and 1 % protein; the desirability of 0.964) based on the maximum emulsification. The optimized PPPC by US (PPPC-US) exhibited a superior solubility performance compared to PPPC-N in the pH range of 2.0-9.0. The optimal US treatment enhanced the emulsifying attributes and foaming capacity of PPPC-N with an increase of 49 %. Moreover, oil binding capacity significantly increased while water binding capacity and foam stability decreased. Developing functional ingredients from pea pod proteins can open new possibilities in formulating innovative products.

Unveiling the potential of bean proteins: Extraction methods, functional and structural properties, modification techniques, physiological benefits, and diverse food applications

Bean proteins, known for their sustainability, versatility, and high nutritional value, represent a valuable yet underutilized resource, receiving less industrial attention compared to soy and pea proteins. This review examines the structural and molecular characteristics, functional properties, amino acid composition, nutritional value, antinutritional factors, and digestibility of bean proteins. Their applications in various food systems, including baked goods, juice and milk substitutes, meat alternatives, edible coatings, and 3D printing inks, are discussed. The physiological benefits of bean proteins, such as antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects, are also presented, highlighting their potential for promoting well-being. Our review emphasizes the diversity of bean proteins and highlights ultrasound as the most effective extraction method among available techniques. Beyond their physiological benefits, bean proteins significantly enhance the structural, technological, and nutritional properties of food systems. The functionality can be further improved through various modification techniques, thereby expanding their applicability in the food industry. While studies have explored the impact of bean protein structure on their nutritional and functional properties, further research is needed to investigate advanced modification techniques and the structure-function relationship. This will enhance the utilization of bean proteins in innovative and sustainable food applications.

The Influence of the Nutritional and Mineral Composition of Vegetable Protein Concentrates on Their Functional Properties

Vegetable proteins derived from legumes, cereals or pseudocereals have increased in popularity in recent years, becoming very interesting for the food industry. In addition to their nutritional interest, these products have techno-functional properties that allow them to be used in the production of a wide variety of foods. This research has studied the nutritional and mineral composition of 12 samples of rice, pea and soy concentrates. The objective was to investigate the influence of this nutritional composition, mainly mineral components, on the techno-functional properties (water- and oil-binding capacity, swelling, emulsifying, gelling and foaming capacities) of these concentrates. For this purpose, a Pearson correlation matrix and a GH biplot method were applied. The results showed that there is a correlation between mineral content and functional properties. Mg, K and Ca were positively correlated with protein solubility index, oil absorption capacity and swelling capacity. Na and P contents were positively related to water absorption capacity and emulsifying capacity. Gelling capacity was positively correlated with Mg contents and negatively correlated with Cu and Fe contents. The preliminary results reported in this study highlight the necessity to further assess the influence of non-protein components on the techno-functionality of protein concentrates.

A Comprehensive Review of Antinutrients in Plant-Based Foods and Their Key Ingredients

In recent years, the growing popularity of vegan and vegetarian diets, along with the rising demand for plant-based foods, has led researchers to concentrate on examining the presence and effects of antinutrients. While there are existing literature reviews focusing on antinutritional compounds, particularly on their reduction, this review aims to provide a comprehensive description of antinutrients for producers, food scientists, professionals, legislators and consumers, emphasising the complexity of the subject and the necessity for diverse approaches while identifying aspects that still require further research. Antinutrients, including protease inhibitors, amylase inhibitors, phytic acid, lectins, saponins, tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, oxalic acid, polyphenols, goitrogens and pyrimidine glycosides, are described, encompassing various aspects such as their structural characteristics, analytical detection methods, distribution, physiological impacts and strategies for mitigation or elimination. Specifically, our review concentrates on assessing the presence of antinutrients in plant-based food products and the primary ingredients, categorised into five distinct groups, cereals, pseudocereals, pulses, seeds and nuts, which are commonly used in their production. Among these categories, legumes are identified as the richest source of anti-nutritional compounds, followed by cereal grains. However, certain pseudocereals, seeds and nuts also demonstrate high levels of specific antinutrients. While antinutrients are generally regarded as harmful to nutrient absorption, recent studies have revealed some potential health benefits associated with them. Therefore, further in vivo research is essential to elucidate the behaviour of antinutritional compounds within the human body. Additionally, there is a significant lack of formal regulations and guidelines regarding antinutrients, and food products currently do not feature labelling related to these compounds.

Structural and functional properties of fava bean albumin, globulin and glutelin protein fractions

This study reports a comparative evaluation of the physicochemical and functional properties of fava bean albumin, globulin and glutelin proteins. The fava bean globulins had significantly (p < 0.05) higher protein content (88.49 %) than the albumin (83.47 %) and glutelin (86.71 %). Far-UV circular dichroism results indicate low contents of α-helix, but high levels of unordered and β-sheet structures in the albumin and globulin. Higher surface hydrophobicity of the globulins was directly related to formation of oil-in-water emulsions with smaller oil droplet sizes, and better foaming capacity than the albumin and glutelin. The albumin had a broad range (32-92 %) of protein solubility that covers acidic and alkaline pH while glutelin exhibited significantly higher in vitro protein digestibility (77.33 %) when compared to the 75.34 and 71.73 % for globulin and albumin, respectively. We conclude that each fava bean protein fraction may find specific uses as ingredients for the formulation of various food products.

Minimizing anti-nutritional factors in wet protein extraction from Swedish faba beans through the application of response surface methodology

Faba beans, rich in protein and ideal for Swedish cultivation, are limited in food industry use due to anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) that hinder nutrient absorption. An extraction method was developed in our study to mitigate ANFs in faba beans, using aqueous alkaline methods and isoelectric precipitation with differential salt concentration. This method yielded 15.8 g of protein per 100 g of flour, with a protein concentration exceeding 83% of the total extract. It reduced ANFs like phytic acid (28.0%), lectins (87.5%), vicine (98.5%), and convicine (99.7%). Extraction conditions were optimized using response surface methodology, identifying pH 6, 2 h, and 20 °C as the most effective parameters, achieving an 86% reduction in phytic acid, closely matched the model's predictions (R2 = 0.945). This method effectively reduced ANFs, offering a sustainable approach for producing proteins suitable for diverse food products, including plant-based alternatives.

Impact of Reconstitution Conditions on the Solubility of Faba Bean Protein Isolate

Faba bean protein isolate (FBPI) is emerging as a promising protein ingredient in the food industry. However, a lack of comprehensive scientific understanding of its functional properties, particularly solubility, limits broader application. This study investigated the reconstitution behaviour of FBPI under different conditions. For this purpose, FBPI dispersions (5% w/w protein) were prepared with varying pH (6.8 or 7.5), temperature (15, 40, or 65 °C), duration of stirring (30, 60, or 90 min), stirring intensity (1000 or 1500 rpm), and water hardness (0, 200, or 400 ppm). Low reconstitution temperature resulted in greater particle size and lower solubility, while elevated temperature minimised intermolecular attractions, improving solubility. Higher pH increased the net-negative charge and thus enhanced the repulsion between the proteins, leading to greater solubility. Water hardness was another important parameter, as greater hardness generally resulted in greater particle size and lower solubility, likely due to calcium bridging. The selection of conditions for the hydration of faba bean protein isolate is important to produce high-quality and high-stability suspensions.

Interfacial and Bulk Properties of Potato and Faba Protein in Connection with Physical Emulsion Stability at Various pH Values and High Salt Concentrations

The protein transition motivates the use of plant proteins, but their application in food emulsions is challenging, especially when high concentrations of oil and salt are needed for formulation and sensory properties. In the present work, we connect the iso-electric point of two potato protein isolates (patatin-rich, POPI-200; protease inhibitor-rich, POPI-300) and a faba protein isolate (FPI) to the behavior in the bulk phase and at the interface, and relate this to the physical stability of 45 wt% oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions in the presence of NaCl at pH 4.0-7.0. In the absence of NaCl, a higher bulk viscosity was found at the iso-electric point (IEP), especially for the FPI. In the presence of NaCl, the viscosity of the POPI-200 solutions was highest, followed by POPI-300, and that of the FPI was lowest, irrespective of the pH. Both POPIs showed faster initial adsorption at the O/W interface in the absence of NaCl, and formed a more elastic layer compared to the FPI. For all proteins, salt addition leads to less elastic films. Interestingly, the interfaces were more elastic at a pH close to the IEP of the protein in the presence of NaCl. Both POPI-stabilized emulsions showed higher stability (smaller size and less oiling off) than the FPI-stabilized emulsions, which makes potato proteins relevant for food emulsion product formulation, even under high salt conditions.

Nutritional properties of common bean protein concentrate compared to commercial legume ingredients for the plant-based market

There is an enormous demand to develop new sources of proteins, mainly to supply the growing plant-based food market worldwide, with the push for more sustainable and healthier products. The objective of this study was to evaluate the composition and the nutritional properties of commercial soybean, pea, and fava bean protein ingredients and compare them with an in-house ingredient (flour and protein concentrate), obtained from the main Brazilian cultivar of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Pinto bean). The protein content of the common bean concentrate (79.75%) was as high as other commercial proteins isolated from the pea and higher than the others concentrates. All the ingredients presented the minimum amounts of indispensable amino acids as required by FAO and all ingredients were rich in lysine and leucine, with the highest amounts found for pea (78.06 mg/g) and common bean (86.70 mg/g) concentrates. A diverse mineral composition was reported for all the ingredients and the common bean concentrate presented the highest iron content (342.6 mg/kg). In terms of antinutritional factors, the common bean flour and concentrate showed the highest values for trypsin inhibitor (18 and 27 TIU/mg, respectively) but the lowest ones for phytic acid (9 and 2 mg/g, respectively) compared to the other ingredients. Low amounts of oligosaccharides were found in most of the samples. All proteins from the ingredients were highly digested when evaluated in vitro, but phaseolins fraction protein from common bean samples remained partially undigested. Despite compositional differences between ingredients, all samples should be suitable as protein sources for plant-based food innovation.

Effect of extraction method on the calcium binding capacity of faba bean globulin fractions at various pH

Faba bean ingredients are rich in proteins and good sources of calcium (Ca), although containing phytic acid (PA) molecules. PA, a polyphosphate compound, can affect the bioavailability of minerals/proteins through complex formation. This study evaluates the impact of two extraction processes, Alkaline Extraction-IsoElectric Precipitation (AE-IEP) and Sequential Extraction (SE), on the ability of faba bean globulin systems to bind added calcium ions. Increasing concentrations of CaCl2 were introduced into 2.5% (w/v) protein dispersions at pHs 4.5, 5.5, 6.5, and 7.5, and free Ca monitored. Near the isoelectric point of globulin (pH ∼ 4-5), Ca binding capacity was found to be low. At higher pHs, significant Ca chelation occurred, initially attributed to free PA binding sites, resulting in the formation of insoluble complexes and subsequent protein precipitation. The AE-IEP globulin fraction exhibited a higher Ca binding capacity than the SE globulin, attributed to its higher PA and lower initial Ca concentrations.

Mild extraction of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) proteins against conventional methods: Impact on physicochemical and thermal characteristics

Faba bean (high- and low-tannin) protein isolates were water extracted followed by dialysis or micellization in comparison to concentrates from conventional alkali extraction + acid precipitation, and salt-based extraction (1% NaCl) + dialysis. Protein fractions were characterised for secondary structure conformational changes, crystalline structure, particle size distribution in aqueous suspension and thermal properties. Mild water or salt extraction did not influence particle size distribution. Based on XRD, FTIR and CD, β-sheet structures were the most abundant secondary structures and water extraction + dialysis had minimal impact on their native conformation. DSC results showed an association between protein purity, glass transition temperature and endothermic enthalpy. High melting temperature above glass transition confirms the suitability of faba bean proteins for thermal/extrusion processing. Fractionation method was a more significant determinant of physicochemical characteristics compared to the cultivar. Further exploration of the techno-functional characteristics of faba bean proteins is essential for value-added food applications.

Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of faba bean protein isolate: Structural, functional, and thermal properties. Part 2/2

Environmental concerns linked to animal-based protein production have intensified interest in sustainable alternatives, with a focus on underutilized plant proteins. Faba beans, primarily used for animal feed, offer a high-quality protein source with promising bioactive compounds for food applications. This study explores the efficacy of ultrasound-assisted extraction under optimal conditions (123 W power, 1:15 g/mL solute/solvent ratio, 41 min sonication, 623 mL total volume) to isolate faba bean protein (U-FBPI). The ultrasound-assisted method achieved a protein extraction yield of 19.75 % and a protein content of 92.87 %, outperforming the control method's yield of 16.41 % and protein content of 89.88 %. Electrophoretic analysis confirmed no significant changes in the primary structure of U-FBPI compared to the control. However, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed modifications in the secondary structure due to ultrasound treatment. The U-FBPI demonstrated superior water and oil holding capacities compared to the control protein isolate, although its foaming capacity was reduced by ultrasound. Thermal analysis indicated minimal impact on the protein's thermal properties under the applied ultrasound conditions. This research highlights the potential of ultrasound-assisted extraction for improving the functional properties of faba bean protein isolates, presenting a viable approach for advancing plant-based food production and contributing to sustainable protein consumption.

A comprehensive review of processing, functionality, and potential applications of lentil proteins in the food industry

There is a pressing need for sustainable sources of proteins to address the escalating food demands of the expanding global population, without damaging the environment. Lentil proteins offer a more sustainable alternative to animal-derived proteins (such as those from meat, fish, eggs, or milk). They are abundant, affordable, protein rich, nutritious, and functional, which makes them highly appealing as ingredients in the food, personal care, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and other industries. In this article, the chemical composition, nutritional value, and techno-functional properties of lentil proteins are reviewed. Then, recent advances on the extraction, purification, and modification of lentil proteins are summarized. Hurdles to the widespread utilization of lentil proteins in the food industry are highlighted, along with potential strategies to surmount these challenges. Finally, the potential applications of lentil protein in foods and beverages are discussed. The intention of this article is to offer an up-to-date overview of research on lentil proteins, addressing gaps in the knowledge related to their potential nutritional benefits and functional advantages for application within the food industry. This includes exploring the utilization of lentil proteins as nanocarriers for bioactive compounds, emulsifiers, edible inks for 3D food printing, meat analogs, and components of biodegradable packaging.

Environmental sustainability of food production and consumption in the Nordic and Baltic region - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023

This scoping review examines environmental impacts related to food production and consumption in Nordic and Baltic countries. The overarching advice to all Nordic and Baltic countries, in line with the current body of scientific literature, is to shift to a more plant-based dietary pattern and avoid food waste. Taking into account current consumption patterns, there is a high potential and necessity to shift food consumption across the countries to minimise its environmental impact. More specifically, a substantial reduction in meat and dairy consumption and increased consumption of legumes/pulses, whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds are suggested as a priority intervention. Reducing the environmental impacts of seafoods is also key and suggestions include a shift to seafoods with lower environmental impacts such as seaweed and bivalves. As part of the suggested transition to a more plant-based diet, the scope for increasing the provision of plant-based foods through increasing the cultivation of legumes/pulses, vegetables, and grains and through feed-to-food shifts within the region should be explored.

Techno-functional, rheological, and chemical properties of plant-based protein ingredients obtained with dry fractionation and wet extraction

Dry fractionation is a promising technology for producing plant protein ingredients, owing to its minimal environmental impact and adaptability to diverse plant sources. Dry-fractionated proteins are still under development with limited applications in food industry due to lack of extensive knowledge about their physicochemical, rheological and chemical properties. Wet extraction though widely used, consumes high energy, water, and chemicals. In this research, the techno-functional, rheological, and chemical properties of commercial protein ingredients of various botanical species obtained via wet extraction (WE, n = 8) and dry fractionation (DF, n = 9) were investigated in order to identify their potential food applications. Compared to DF ingredients, WE proteins showed the lowest water solubility index and protein solubility at pH 7 and 9, as well as the lowest foaming and emulsifying capacities. This behavior can be explained by the presence of denatured protein structures in WE ingredients as suggested by the analysis of the secondary structure which revealed a higher presence of random coil structures. On the contrary, the presence of non-denatured structures in combination with other constituents like carbohydrates may have contributed to the high solubility and gelling properties of the DF proteins ingredients. While wet extraction technologies can offer a wide modulation of ingredient functionality, providing a broad spectrum of food applications, dry fractionation seems to guarantee a narrow range of techno-functional properties, although with potentially higher performance in certain areas like solubility and foaming.

Opinion Piece: New Plant-Based Food Products Between Technology and Physiology

The rapid growth of product sectors for plant-based meat and dairy alternatives has raised significant scientific interest in their nutritional and ecological benefits. Here, it outlines the fractionation of plant-based raw materials and describes the technologies applied in the production of meat and dairy substitutes. Moreover, the study describes the effects of these new products on human nutrient supply and metabolic responses. Examples of meat-like products produced by extrusion technology and dairy alternatives are provided, addressing production challenges and the effects of processing on nutrient digestibility and bioavailability. In contrast to animal-based products, plant-based protein ingredients can contain many compounds produced by plants for defense or symbiotic interactions, such as lectins, phytates, and a wide range of secondary metabolites. The intake of these compounds as part of a plant-based diet can influence the digestion, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability of essential nutrients such as minerals and trace elements but also of amino acids. This is a critical factor, especially in regions with limited plant species for human consumption and inadequate technologies to eliminate these compounds. To fully understand these impacts and ensure that plant-based diets meet human nutritional needs, well-controlled human studies are needed.

Optimizing the fermentation parameters in the Lactic Acid Fermentation of Legume-based Beverages- a statistically based fermentation

BACKGROUND

The market for beverages is highly changing within the last years. Increasing consumer awareness towards healthier drinks led to the revival of traditional and the creation of innovative beverages. Various protein-rich legumes were used for milk analogues, which might be also valuable raw materials for refreshing, protein-rich beverages. However, no such applications have been marketed so far, which might be due to unpleasant organoleptic impressions like the legume-typical "beany" aroma. Lactic acid fermentation has already been proven to be a remedy to overcome this hindrance in consumer acceptance.

RESULTS

In this study, a statistically based approach was used to elucidate the impact of the fermentation parameters temperature, inoculum cell concentration, and methionine addition on the fermentation of lupine- and faba bean-based substrates. A total of 39 models were found and verified. The majority of these models indicate a strong impact of the temperature on the reduction of aldehydes connected to the "beany" impression (e.g., hexanal) and on the production of pleasantly perceived aroma compounds (e.g., β-damascenone). Positively, the addition of methionine had only minor impacts on the negatively associated sulfuric compounds methional, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide. Moreover, in further fermentations, the time was added as an additional parameter. It was shown that the strains grew well, strongly acidified the both substrates (pH ≤ 4.0) within 6.5 h, and reached cell counts of > 9 log10 CFU/mL after 24 h. Notably, most of the aldehydes (like hexanal) were reduced within the first 6-7 h, whereas pleasant compounds like β-damascenone reached high concentrations especially in the later fermentation (approx. 24-48 h).

CONCLUSIONS

Out of the fermentation parameters temperature, inoculum cell concentration, and methionine addition, the temperature had the highest influence on the observed aroma and taste active compounds. As the addition of methionine to compensate for the legume-typical deficit did not lead to an adverse effect, fortifying legume-based substrates with methionine should be considered to improve the bioavailability of the legume protein. Aldehydes, which are associated with the "beany" aroma impression, can be removed efficiently in fermentation. However, terminating the process prematurely would lead to an incomplete production of pleasant aroma compounds.

Exploring the Impact of Solid-State Fermentation on Fava Bean Flour: A Comparative Study of Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus

Fava bean (Vicia faba L.) is a protein-rich pulse with high nutritional value, but its functional and sensory characteristics limit its application in foods. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) can modify the composition of plant proteins, modulate its functionality, and enhance the sensory aspects. In this study, fava bean flour (FB) was fermented with Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus to produce FBA and FBR, respectively, ingredients with distinct nutritional, functional, and aroma characteristics. The protein content increased by 20% in FBA and 8% in FBR, while fat levels rose more significantly in FBR (+40%). The overall content of fermentable oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs) decreased by 47% (FBA) and 57% (FBR), although polyol production by A. oryzae was observed. SSF improved the nutritional profile of FBA and FBR, with a notable increase in the concentration of essential amino acids observed, and a reduction in most antinutrients, with the exception of trypsin inhibitors. SSF resulted in the formation of aggregates, which increased the particle size and reduced protein solubility. Emulsions prepared with the fermented ingredients separated faster, and the foaming capacity of both FBA and FBR was decreased, but an increase in water-holding capacity was observed. SSF resulted in the production of predominantly savoury-associated aroma compounds, with compounds characteristic of metallic and mouldy aromas reduced. These results indicate the potential of SSF to transform FB with enhanced nutritional value and improved sensory and functional properties.

Processing parameters, techno-functional properties and potential food application of lentil protein concentrate as an ingredient for the plant-based market

Lentil (Lens culinaris) is a protein-rich legume consumed worldwide and it also has the potential to become an alternative source of protein ingredient for human nutrition. The aim of this study was to determine the best processing parameters for the whole grain protein wet extraction, as well as to analyze the techno-functional properties, and physical characteristics of the protein concentrate and its flour. It was also evaluated the application of the concentrate into a fish-like croquette. The processing route was carried out by alkaline extraction and acid precipitation of the proteins where the pH, stirring time and solute:solvent ratio were evaluated. The final dried protein concentrate presented 85% protein on dry basis and a mass yield of 14%. The results were reproducible when tested on a first scaling up test. For the techno-functional properties, solubility, water and oil retention capacities, emulsification and foaming capacities and stability, and gelling capacity were tested. As for the food application into fish-like croquettes, the lentil protein showed similar scores for sensory acceptance, flavor and texture when compared to a commercial clean-taste concentrate. The results observed in this study were compatible to other alternative pulse-protein ingredients on the market, positioning lentil protein as a promising alternative protein source to produce ingredients for the plant-based market.

Ingredient Functionality of Soy, Chickpea, and Pea Protein before and after Dry Heat Pretreatment and Low Moisture Extrusion

This study investigates the impact of dry heat pretreatment on the functionality of soy, chickpea, and pea protein ingredients for use in texturized vegetable protein (TVP) production via low moisture extrusion. The protein powders were heat-treated at temperatures ranging from 80 °C to 160 °C to modulate the extent of protein denaturation and assess their effects on RVA pasting behavior, water absorption capacity (WAC), and color attributes. The results indicate that the pretreatment temperature significantly influenced the proteins' functional properties, with an optimal temperature of 120 °C enhancing pasting properties and maintaining WAC, while a higher pretreatment temperature of 160 °C led to diminished ingredient functionality. Different protein sources exhibited distinct responses to heat pretreatment. The subsequent extrusion processing revealed significant changes in extrudate density and color, with increased density and darkness observed at higher pretreatment temperatures. This research provides insights into the interplay between protein sources, pretreatment conditions, and extrusion outcomes, highlighting the importance of controlled protein denaturation for developing high-quality, plant-based meat analogues. The findings have broad implications for the optimization of meat analogue manufacturing, with the aim of enhancing the sensory experience and sustainability of plant-based foods.

Insight into the mechanism of the aggregation behavior of wheat protein modulated by l-lysine under microwave irradiation

This study explored the mechanism of l-lysine intervention in wheat gluten protein (WG) gel formation under a microwave (MW) field. The results showed that the MW treatment had higher ζ-potential values at the same heating rate. After adding l-lysine, the solution conductivity and dielectric loss were significantly increased. Moreover, the WG gel strength enhanced 4.40% under the MW treatment. The Fourier spectra showed that the α-helix content was decreased 13.78% with the addition of lysine. The ultraviolet absorption spectra and fluorescence spectra indicated that MW irradiation impacted the interactions between WG molecules more effectively than the water bath heating, promoting the denaturation and unfolding of the protein structure. In addition, scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that the incorporation of lysine promoted an ordered network structure formation of the protein, which enhanced the gel properties. This indicated that the zwitterion of l-lysine played a regulatory role in the aggregation of proteins in the MW field.

Effects of Alkaline Extraction pH on Amino Acid Compositions, Protein Secondary Structures, Thermal Stability, and Functionalities of Brewer's Spent Grain Proteins

A high alkaline pH was previously demonstrated to enhance the extraction yield of brewer's spent grains (BSG) proteins. The effects of extraction pH beyond the extraction yield, however, has not been investigated before. The present work examined the effects of extraction pH (pH 8-12) on BSG proteins' (1) amino acid compositions, (2) secondary structures, (3) thermal stability, and (4) functionalities (i.e., water/oil holding capacity, emulsifying, and foaming properties). The ideal extraction temperature (60 °C) and BSG-to-solvent ratio (1:20 w/v) for maximizing the extraction yield were first determined to set the conditions for the pH effect study. The results showed that a higher extraction pH led to more balanced compositions between hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids and higher proportions of random coils structures indicating increased protein unfolding. This led to superior emulsifying properties of the extracted proteins with more than twofold improvement between pH 8 and a pH larger than 10. The extraction pH, nevertheless, had minimal impact on the water/oil holding capacity, foaming properties, and thermal denaturation propensity of the proteins. The present work demonstrated that a high alkaline pH at pH 11-12 was indeed ideal for both maximizing the extraction yield (37-46 wt.%) and proteins' functionalities.

Decoding the Duality of Antinutrients: Assessing the Impact of Protein Extraction Methods on Plant-Based Protein Sources

This review aims to provide an updated overview of the effects of protein extraction/recovery on antinutritional factors (ANFs) in plant protein ingredients, such as protein-rich fractions, protein concentrates, and isolates. ANFs mainly include lectins, trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, phenolic compounds, oxalates, saponins, tannins, and cyanogenic glycosides. The current technologies used to recover proteins (e.g., wet extraction, dry fractionation) and novel technologies (e.g., membrane processing) are included in this review. The mechanisms involved during protein extraction/recovery that may enhance or decrease the ANF content in plant protein ingredients are discussed. However, studies on the effects of protein extraction/recovery on specific ANFs are still scarce, especially for novel technologies such as ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extraction and membrane processing. Although the negative effects of ANFs on protein digestibility and the overall absorption of plant proteins and other nutrients are a health concern, it is also important to highlight the potential positive effects of ANFs. This is particularly relevant given the rise of novel protein ingredients in the market and the potential presence or absence of these factors and their effects on consumers' health.

In vitro digestibility and solubility of phosphorus of three plant-based meat analogues

Interest in plant-based meat analogues has increased and can be expected to be applied to pet foods, which necessitates the understanding of the nutrient supply in those foods. Our primary aim was to advance our understanding of the digestive properties of sterilized plant-based meat analogues. The impact of the preparatory processing steps on the solubility of meat analogues was studied. Meat analogues were made by mixing water, salt, and wheat gluten with soy protein isolate, pea protein isolate, or faba bean concentrate. Mixed materials were processed into model meat analogues using shear cell technology. Products were canned in water or gravy and sterilized. An animal-based canned pet food was made as a reference. Products sampled at the processing steps (mixing, shearing, sterilization) were digested in vitro. Samples of digestate were taken at the gastric phase (0 and 120 min) and small intestinal phase (120, 200, 280, and 360 min) for analysis of protein hydrolysis. The extent digestion of nitrogen and dry matter was determined at the end of incubation. Total phosphorus, soluble phosphorus after acid treatment, and after acid and enzymatic treatment were determined. The degree of hydrolysis after gastric digestion was low but increased immediately in the small intestinal phase; products based on pea had the highest values (56%). Nitrogen digestibility was above 90% for all materials at each processing step, indicating that bioactive compounds were absent or inactivated in the protein isolates and concentrate. Phytate seemed to play a minor role in meat analogues, but phosphorus solubility was influenced by processing. Shearing decreased soluble phosphorus, but this effect was partly reversed by sterilization. Nutrient digestibility as well as phosphorus solubility in plant-based products was higher than or comparable with the reference pet food. These findings show that the digestive properties of the tested plant-based meat analogues do not limit the supply of amino acids and phosphorus.

Determining the influence of fava bean pre-processing on extractability and functional quality of protein isolates

In this study, fava bean protein (FPI) was isolated from flours prepared from dehulled seeds and compared to FPI extracted from whole flours; in the latter case, flours were prepared either by dry- or wet-milling. Significant differences in composition and functionality were observed between the three FPIs produced. Dehulling maximized protein purity, oil-absorption capacity, solubility, foamablity and minimized both starchy and non-starchy carbohydrate contents. Protein isolated from wet-milled whole beans provided higher mass and extraction yields, better water-absorption capacity, and exhibited higher surface charge (zeta potential) compared to other samples. The protein extracted from dry-milled whole seed exhibited a higher least gelation concentration, emulsifying activity and zeta value compared to its dehulled counterpart. Dehulling was also found to be a useful process to increase the lightness/whiteness of protein powder. Overall, the present findings provide useful technological information relating to the production of FPI with and without a dehulling step.

Techno-functional properties of dry-fractionated plant-based proteins and application in food product development: a review

Dry-fractionated protein concentrates are gaining attention because they are produced using a versatile and sustainable technology, which can be applied to a wide range of plant material. To facilitate their utilization in new product development, it is crucial to obtain a comprehensive overview of their techno-functional properties. The present review aims to examine the techno-functional properties of dry-fractionated protein concentrates and describe their primary applications in food products, considering the published works in the last decade. The techno-functional properties of proteins, including water absorption capacity, emulsifying and foaming properties, gelling ability or protein solubility, are relevant factors to consider during food formulation. However, these properties are significantly influenced by the extraction technology, the type of protein and its characteristics. Overall, dry-fractionated proteins are characterized by high protein solubility, high foaming ability and foam stability, and high gelling ability. Such properties have been exploited in the development of food, such as bakery products and pasta, with the aim of increasing the protein content and enhancing the nutritional value. Additionally, innovative foods with distinctive textural and nutritional characteristics, such as meat and dairy analogues, have been developed by using dry-fractionated proteins. The results indicate that the study of these ingredients still needs to be improved, including their application with a broader range of plant materials. Nevertheless, this review could represent an initial step to obtaining an overview of the techno-functional properties of dry-fractionated proteins, facilitating their use in foods. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

B Vitamins in Legume Ingredients and Their Retention in High Moisture Extrusion

Legumes have been recognised as healthy and environmentally friendly protein sources. Knowledge about the vitamin B contents in legume ingredients and extrudates is scarce. In this study, we investigated thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folate in various faba bean, lupin, and pea ingredients. Further, the retention of B vitamins in high moisture extrusion was studied. Prior to liquid chromatographic determinations of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folate, vitamins were extracted by acid hydrolysis (niacin), enzymatic treatment (folate), or their combination (thiamin and riboflavin). The contents (on a dry matter basis) varied greatly among different ingredients: the thiamin content was 0.2-14.2 µg/g; riboflavin, 0.3-5.9 µg/g; niacin, 8.8-35.5 µg/g, and folate, 45-1453 ng/g. Generally, the highest levels were in flours and protein concentrates, whereas low levels were observed in isolates. The retention of B vitamins was excellent in high moisture extrusion, except for folate in faba bean, where the folate contents were 42-67% lower in the extrudates than in the respective ingredient mixtures. In terms of both vitamin B contents and their retention, extrudates containing substantial amounts of flour or protein concentrate are promising plant-based sources of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folate.

Dry-fractionated protein concentrate as egg replacer in sponge cake: how the rheological properties of the batters affect the physical and structural quality of the products

BACKGROUND

Egg replacement is a notable food trend for academics and industry. Dry-fractionated protein concentrates (DFp) are minimally processed and sustainable ingredients. DFp from chickpea, red lentil and mung bean, prepared as aqueous dispersions at 20-40% (w/w), were used to replace egg in sponge cakes. To understand the effect of DFp on the physicochemical features of sponge cakes, the batter rheological properties (i.e., flow behavior, frequency-dependent and temperature-dependent behaviors) were investigated.

RESULTS

Frequency sweep revealed a higher storage modulus (G') than loss modulus (G″), indicating predominantly elastic-like behavior, dependent on the frequency. Increasing DFp content, especially at 40%, resulted in firmer batters, indicated by elevated apparent viscosity. During temperature sweep, G' increased starting from 80 °C in all DFp-based batters, indicating protein and starch conformational changes. Higher DFp content better simulated the egg behavior, affecting specific volume and thickness variation after baking but resulting in harder cakes. Crumb structure was similar to the control, highlighting that DFp can emulate the egg behavior in cake preparation. Protein content in cakes containing 30% DFp was similar to the control. However, the addition of DFp caused an increase in phytic acid. Sensory analysis of sponge cakes revealed differences in crust color, sweetness and legume flavor, with minimal effect on astringency. Chickpea and lentil DFp are suggested as preferred alternatives because of their to milder sensory impact.

CONCLUSION

Overall, eggs in cake formulation can be substituted by plant-based protein produced by dry fractionation. However, further research is essential to evaluate the nutritional characteristics. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Tailoring the Techno-Functional Properties of Fava Bean Protein Isolates: A Comparative Evaluation of Ultrasonication and Pulsed Electric Field Treatments

The fava bean protein isolate (FBPI) holds promise as a sustainable plant-based protein ingredient. However, native FBPIs exhibit limited functionality, including unsuitable emulsifying activities and a low solubility at a neutral pH, restricting their applications. This study is focused on the effect of ultrasonication (US) and pulsed electric fields (PEF) on modulating the techno-functional properties of FBPIs. Native FBPIs were treated with US at amplitudes of 60-90% for 30 min in 0.5 s on-and-off cycles and with PEF at an electric field intensity of 1.5 kV/cm with 1000-4000 pulses of 20 μs pulse widths. US caused a reduction in the size and charge of the FBPIs more prominently than the PEF. Protein characterization by means of SDS-PAGE illustrated that US and PEF caused severe-to-moderate changes in the molecular weight of the FBPIs. In addition, a spectroscopic analysis using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and circular dichroism (CD) revealed that US and the PEF induced conformational changes through partial unfolding and secondary structure remodeling from an α-helix to a β-sheet. Crystallographic and calorimetric determinations indicated decreased crystallinity and lowered thermal transition temperatures of the US- and PEF-modified FBPIs. Overall, non-thermal processing provided an effective strategy for upgrading FBPIs' functionality, with implications for developing competitive plant-based protein alternatives.

Effects of Dextran on the Gel Properties of Faba Bean Protein Isolates Prepared Using Different Processes

The properties of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) protein isolate (FPI) gels depend on their starting protein material and can be modulated by the addition of polysaccharides. In order to investigate the interplay between these two factors, commercial FPI (FPI1) and FPI prepared in-house (FPI2) were used to fabricate glucono-delta-lactone-induced gels, with or without dextran (DX) addition. FPI1 exhibited lower solubility in water and a larger mean particle size, likely because it experienced extensive degradation due to the intense conditions involved in its preparation. The FPI1 gel showed a similar water-holding capacity as the FPI2 gel; however, its hardness was lower and viscoelasticity was higher. After DX addition, the hardness of both FPI gels decreased, while their water-holding capacity increased. Interestingly, DX addition decreased the viscoelasticity of the FPI1 gel but enhanced the viscoelasticity of the FPI2 gel. The microstructural analysis demonstrated that the density of the aggregation network decreased in the FPI1 gel after DX addition but increased in the FPI2 gel. This was consistent with the changes observed in the dominant protein interaction forces in these gels after DX addition. Overall, these findings have the potential to guide ingredient selection for the tailored preparation of FPI gels.

Dry fractionation process operations in the production of protein concentrates: A review

The market for plant proteins is expanding rapidly as the negative impacts of animal agriculture on the environment and resources become more evident. Plant proteins offer competitive advantages in production costs, energy requirements, and sustainability. Conventional plant-protein extraction is water and chemical-intensive, posing environmental concerns. Dry fractionation is an energy-efficient and environmentally friendly process for protein separation, preserving protein's native functionality. Cereals and pulses are excellent sources of plant proteins as they are widely grown worldwide. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the dry fractionation process utilized for different seeds to obtain protein-rich fractions with high purity and functionality. Pretreatments, such as dehulling and defatting, are known to enhance the protein separation efficiency. Factors, such as milling speed, mill classifier speed, feed rate, seed type, and hardness, were crucial for obtaining parent flour of desired particle size distribution during milling. The air classification or electrostatic separation settings are crucial in determining the quality of the separated protein. The cut point in air classification is targeted based on the starch granule size of the seed material. Optimization of these operations, applied to different pulses and seeds, led to higher yields of proteins with higher purity. Dual techniques, such as air classification and electrostatic separation, enhance protein purity. The yield of the protein concentrates can be increased by recycling the coarse fractions. Further research is necessary to improve the quality, purity, and yield of protein concentrates to enable more efficient use of plant proteins to meet global protein demands.

Importance of binary and ternary complex formation on the functional and nutritional properties of legume proteins in presence of phytic acid and calcium

Nowadays, legumes are considered as a good source of plant-based proteins to replace animal ones. They are more favorable regarding environmental aspects and health benefits, therefore many people consider moving toward a greener diet. Interestingly, recent consumer trends are promoting pea and faba bean as alternatives to soybean. Both are rich in protein and a good source of essential nutrients and minerals (calcium). However, these advantages can be partially impaired due to their high phytic acid content. This natural polyphosphate is a major antinutrient in plant-based foods, as it can bind minerals (particularly calcium) and proteins, thereby reducing their digestibility and subsequent bioavailability. Indeed, complexes formed are insoluble and limiting the absorption of nutrients, thus lowering the nutritional value of pulses. To understand and overcome these issues, the present review will refine specific mechanisms involved in assemblies between these three essential compounds in legumes as soluble/insoluble binary or ternary complexes. Molecular interactions are influenced by the environmental medium including pH, ionic strength and molar concentrations modulating the stability of these complexes during protein extraction. Protein/phytic acid/calcium complexes stability is of high relevance for food processing affecting not only structure but also functional and nutritional properties of proteins in legume-based foods.

Functionality of pea protein isolate solutions is affected by reconstitution conditions

Pea protein isolate (PPI), a high-concentration protein ingredient derived from peas, is increasingly utilized in food applications, including beverages, meat or dairy alternatives, and baked goods. The protein extraction process typically used to manufacture PPI renders the protein highly denatured, which can have a negative impact on its functionality. Therefore, it is critical to understand how to prepare and utilize PPI to maximize its functionality. The current study evaluates the effect of select reconstitution conditions on the structure and functionality of PPI, across a range of protein concentrations (4%-10%) relevant to a variety of food applications. Temperature during reconstitution with water and hydration time impacted both protein hydration and its functionality. Increasing reconstitution temperature from 20 to 60°C and increasing hydration time from 10 to 40 min decreased PPI particle size in solution and increased PPI solubility. Viscosity of PPI solutions also increased with mild heating and longer hydration time, whereas their flow behavior was highly dependent on protein concentration. Experimental data demonstrates that reconstitution conditions have a significant impact on PPI functionality. These findings can help food formulators develop high-quality food products that utilize PPI as a functional ingredient. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Protein in commercially available pea protein isolates (PPIs) is usually highly denatured, and thus, it is important to find ways to maximize its functionality in practical applications. The findings of this study inform food scientists how to leverage PPI at various protein concentrations with optimal reconstitution conditions to develop high-quality products. Generally, mild heating and longer hydration times improve PPI functional performance.

Investigation of the nutritional quality of raw and processed Canadian faba bean (Vicia faba L.) flours in comparison to pea and soy using a human in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model

Faba bean is an ancient legume that is regaining interest due to its environmental and nutritional benefits. Very little is known on the protein quality of the new faba bean varieties. In this study, the digestibility and the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of the protein quality of three Canadian faba bean varieties (Fabelle, Malik and Snowbird) were compared to pea and soy using the harmonized in vitro digestion procedure developed by the International Network of Excellence on the Fate of Food in the Gastrointestinal Tract (INFOGEST). The impact of boiling on the nutritional quality of faba bean flours was also ascertained. Protein content in faba bean (28.7-32.5%) was lower than defatted soy (56.6%) but higher than pea (24.2%). Total phenolics and phytate content were higher (p < 0.05) in faba bean (2.1-2.4 mg/g and 11.5-16.4 mg/g respectively) and soy (2.4 mg/g and 19.8 mg/g respectively) comparatively to pea (1.3 mg/g and 8.9 mg/g). Trypsin inhibitor activity was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in soy (15.4 mg/g) comparatively to pea (0.7 mg/g) and faba bean (0.8-1.1 mg/g). The digestibility of free amino acids of raw faba bean flours ranged from 31 to 39% while the digestibility of total amino acids ranged from 38 to 39%. The in vitro Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (IV-DIAAS) of raw faba bean flours ranged from 13 to 16 (when calculated based on free amino acid digestibility) to 32-38 (when calculated based on total amino acid digestibility) and was in a similar range to pea (13-31) and soy (11-40). Boiling modified the protein electrophoretic profile and decreased trypsin inhibitor activity (30-86% reduction), while total phenolics and phytate content were unaffected. The IV-DIAAS significantly decreased in all boiled legumes, possibly due to an increased protein aggregation leading into a lower protein digestibility (18-32% reduction). After boiling, the nutritional quality of faba bean was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than soy, but higher than pea. Our results demonstrate that faba bean has a comparable protein quality than other legumes and could be used in similar food applications.

Foaming with Starch: Exploring Faba Bean Aquafaba as a Green Alternative

The demand for sustainable and functional plant-based products is on the rise. Plant proteins and polysaccharides often provide emulsification and stabilization properties to food and food ingredients. Recently, chickpea cooking water, also known as aquafaba, has gained popularity as a substitute for egg whites in sauces, food foams, and baked goods due to its foaming and emulsifying capacities. This study presents a modified eco-friendly process to obtain process water from faba beans and isolate and characterize the foam-inducing components. The isolated material exhibits similar functional properties, such as foaming capacity, to aquafaba obtained by cooking pulses. To isolate the foam-inducing component, the faba bean process water was mixed with anhydrous ethanol, and a precipitated fraction was obtained. The precipitate was easily dissolved, and solutions prepared with the alcohol precipitate retained the foaming capacity of the original extract. Enzymatic treatment with α-amylase or protease resulted in reduced foaming capacity, indicating that both protein and carbohydrates contribute to the foaming capacity. The dried precipitate was found to be 23% protein (consisting of vicilin, α-legumin, and β-legumin) and 77% carbohydrate (amylose). Future investigations into the chemical structure of this foam-inducing agent can inform the development of foaming agents through synthetic or enzymatic routes. Overall, this study provides a potential alternative to aquafaba and highlights the importance of exploring plant-based sources for functional ingredients in the food industry.

Rheological properties of dry-fractionated mung bean protein and structural, textural, and rheological evaluation of meat analogues produced by high-moisture extrusion cooking

A closed cavity rheometer was used to study the rheology of dry-fractionated mung bean protein -DFMB- (55% protein d.m.). Then, the high-moisture extrusion cooking at 40% and 50% moisture contents and different temperatures (115, 125, 135 and 145 °C) was performed, investigating the impact on structural, textural, and rheological properties of extrudates. When subjected to a temperature ramp (40-170 °C), DFMB showed an increase of G* from 70 °C, as a consequence of starch gelatinization and protein gelation. The peak, indicating the end of aggregation reactions, was at 105 °C and 110 °C for DFMB at 50% and 40% moisture content, respectively. The time sweep analysis described the protein behavior in no-shear/shear conditions, highlighting a more pronounced effect of the temperatures compared to moisture content. During the extrusion cooking, the temperature increase led to a decrease of pressure, indicating a reduction of the melt viscosity. The microstructure of the extrudates showed a more pronounced anisotropic profile when higher temperatures were applied. Hardness, chewiness, and cohesion were directly correlated with the temperature, which also affected the rheological properties of extrudates. A combination of textural and rheological analyses can offer a clear overview of the structural characteristics of meat analogues.

Faba Bean Processing: Thermal and Non-Thermal Processing on Chemical, Antinutritional Factors, and Pharmacological Properties

The food industry, academia, food technologists, and consumers have become more interested in using faba bean seeds in the formulation of new products because of their nutritional content, accessibility, low costs, environmental advantages, and beneficial impacts on health. In this review, a systematic and up-to-date report on faba bean seeds' antinutrients and bioactive and processing techniques is comprehensively presented. The chemical composition, including the oil composition and carbohydrate constituents, is discussed. Factors influencing the reduction of antinutrients and improvement of bioactive compounds, including processing techniques, are discussed. Thermal treatments (cooking, autoclaving, extrusion, microwaving, high-pressure processing, irradiation) and non-thermal treatments (soaking, germination, extraction, fermentation, and enzymatic treatment) are identified as methods to reduce the levels of antinutrients in faba bean seeds. Appropriate processing methods can reduce the antinutritional factors and enrich the bioactive components, which is useful for the seeds' efficient utilization in developing functional foods. As a result, this evaluation focuses on the technologies that are employed to reduce the amounts of toxins in faba bean seeds. Additionally, a comparison of these methods is performed in terms of their advantages, disadvantages, viability, pharmacological activity, and potential for improvement using emerging technologies. Future research is expected in this area to fill the knowledge gap in exploiting the nutritional and health benefits of faba bean seeds and increase the utilization of faba bean seeds for different applications.

Nordic Crops as Alternatives to Soy-An Overview of Nutritional, Sensory, and Functional Properties

Soy (Glycine max) is used in a wide range of products and plays a major role in replacing animal-based products. Since the cultivation of soy is limited by cold climates, this review assessed the nutritional, sensory, and functional properties of three alternative cold-tolerant crops (faba bean (Vicia faba), yellow pea (Pisum sativum), and oat (Avena sativa)). Lower protein quality compared with soy and the presence of anti-nutrients are nutritional problems with all three crops, but different methods to adjust for these problems are available. Off-flavors in all pulses, including soy, and in cereals impair the sensory properties of the resulting food products, and few mitigation methods are successful. The functional properties of faba bean, pea, and oat are comparable to those of soy, which makes them usable for 3D printing, gelation, emulsification, and extrusion. Enzymatic treatment, fermentation, and fibrillation can be applied to improve the nutritional value, sensory attributes, and functional properties of all the three crops assessed, making them suitable for replacing soy in a broad range of products, although more research is needed on all attributes.

Green leaf proteins: a sustainable source of edible plant-based proteins

The rise in the global population, which is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, has resulted in an increased demand for proteins in the human diet. The green leaves of many plants are an affordable, abundant, and sustainable source of proteins suitable for human consumption. This article reviews the various sources of green leaf proteins that may play an important role in alleviating global malnutrition, including those from alfalfa, amaranth, cabbage, cassava, duckweed, moringa, olive, radish, spinach, sugar beet, and tea. The structure of green leaves and the location of the proteins within these leaves are described, as well as methods for extracting and purifying these proteins. The composition, nutritional profile, and functional attributes of green leaf proteins are then discussed. The potential advantages and disadvantages of using green leaf proteins as functional food ingredients are highlighted. The importance of obtaining a better understanding of the composition and structure of different green leaves and the proteins extracted from them is highlighted. This includes an assessment of non-protein nitrogen and anti-nutritional compounds that may be present. Furthermore, the impact of isolation and purification techniques on the functionality of the plant protein ingredients obtained must be carefully evaluated.

Processing effects on the protein quality and functional properties of cold-pressed pumpkin seed meal

Environmental and food security challenges due to a growing world population may be overcome by using alternative protein sources for the human diet. By-products from edible oil processing industries are potential sources due to their high protein content. Pumpkin seed meals were evaluated regarding proximate composition, in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD), amino acid profile and score, and antinutritional factors. Conventional thermal processing, microwave, and ultrasound treatments impact on samples' nutritional quality were assessed using a central composite experimental design. Raw pumpkin seed meal presented up to 45% protein content and 86% IVPD. Processing increased IVPD up to 96%, with optimized conditions of 87.8 °C, pH8.0, and 37 min, for all processes. Lysine was the only limiting amino acid for raw and processed samples. Phytic acid decreased by 31%, while trypsin inhibitory activity was reduced by 84%. Pumpkin seed by-product is a promising high-quality plant protein source for food formulations.

Prospects on emerging eco-friendly and innovative technologies to add value to dry bean proteins

The world's growing population and evolving food habits have created a need for alternative plant protein sources, with pulses playing a crucial role as healthy staple foods. Dry beans are high-protein pulses rich in essential amino acids like lysine and bioactive peptides. They have gathered attention for their nutritional quality and potential health benefits concerning metabolic syndrome. This review highlights dry bean proteins' nutritional quality, health benefits, and limitations, focusing on recent eco-friendly emerging technologies for their obtaining and functionalization. Antinutritional factors (ANFs) in bean proteins can affect their in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD), and lectins have been identified as potential allergens. Recently, eco-friendly emerging technologies such as ultrasound, microwaves, subcritical fluids, high-hydrostatic pressure, enzyme technology, and dry fractionation methods have been explored for extracting and functionalizing dry bean proteins. These technologies have shown promise in reducing ANFs, improving IVPD, and modifying allergen epitopes. Additionally, they enhance the techno-functional properties of bean proteins, making them more soluble, emulsifying, foaming, and gel-forming, with enhanced water and oil-holding capacities. By utilizing emerging innovative technologies, protein recovery from dry beans and the development of protein isolates can meet the demand for alternative protein sources while being eco-friendly, safe, and efficient.

Microbial inulinase promotes fructan hydrolysis under simulated gastric conditions

Fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) have emerged as key contributors to digestive discomfort and intolerance to certain vegetables, fruits, and plant-based foods. Although strategies exist to minimize FODMAP consumption and exposure, exogenous enzyme supplementation targeting the fructan-type FODMAPs has been underexploited. The objective of this study was to test the hydrolytic efficacy of a food-grade, non-genetically engineered microbial inulinase preparation toward inulin-type fructans in the INFOGEST in vitro static simulation of gastrointestinal (GI) digestion. Purified inulin was shown to undergo acid-mediated hydrolysis at high gastric acidity as well as predominantly inulinase-mediated hydrolysis at lower gastric acidity. Inulinase dose-response simulations of inulin, garlic, and high-fructan meal digestion in the gastric phase suggest that as little as 50 inulinase units (INU) and up to 800 INU per serving promote fructan hydrolysis better than the control simulations without inulinase. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) profiling of fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) in the gastric digestas following inulinase treatment confirms the fructolytic activity of inulinase under simulated digestive conditions. Altogether, these in vitro digestion data support the use of microbial inulinase as an exogenous enzyme supplement for reducing dietary fructan-type FODMAP exposure.

Mild Fractionation for More Sustainable Food Ingredients

With the rising problems of food shortages, energy costs, and raw materials, the food industry must reduce its environmental impact. We present an overview of more resource-efficient processes to produce food ingredients, describing their environmental impact and the functional properties obtained. Extensive wet processing yields high purities but also has the highest environmental impact, mainly due to heating for protein precipitation and dehydration. Milder wet alternatives exclude, for example, low pH-driven separation and are based on salt precipitation or water only. Drying steps are omitted during dry fractionation using air classification or electrostatic separation. Benefits of milder methods are enhanced functional properties. Therefore, fractionation and formulation should be focused on the desired functionality instead of purity. Environmental impact is also strongly reduced by milder refining. Antinutritional factors and off-flavors remain challenges in more mildly produced ingredients. The benefits of less refining motivate the increasing trend toward mildly refined ingredients.

Associating Compositional, Nutritional and Techno-Functional Characteristics of Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) Protein Isolates and Their Production Side-Streams with Potential Food Applications

Faba beans (Vicia faba L.) show exciting prospects as a sustainable source of protein and fibre, with the potential to transition to a more sustainable food production. This study reveals the compositional, nutritional and techno-functional characteristics of two protein isolates from faba beans (Vicia faba L.), a high-starch fraction and a high-fibre side-stream. During the analysis of those four ingredients, particular attention was paid to the isolates' protein profile and the side-streams' carbohydrate composition. The isoelectric precipitated protein isolate 1 showed a protein content of 72.64 ± 0.31% DM. It exhibited low solubility but superior digestibility and high foam stability. High foaming capacity and low protein digestibility were observed for protein isolate 2, with a protein content of 71.37 ± 0.93% DM. This fraction was highly soluble and consisted primarily of low molecular weight proteins. The high-starch fraction contained 83.87 ± 3.07% DM starch, of which about 66% was resistant starch. Over 65% of the high-fibre fraction was insoluble dietary fibre. The findings of this study provide a detailed understanding of different production fractions of faba beans, which is of great value for future product development.

Strategies for Producing Low FODMAPs Foodstuffs: Challenges and Perspectives

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in a diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs) as a promising therapeutic approach to reduce the symptoms associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Hence, the development of low FODMAPs products is an important challenge for the food industry, and among the various foodstuffs associated with the intake of FODMAPs, cereal-based products represent an issue. In fact, even if their content in FODMAPs is limited, their large use in diet can be an important factor in developing IBS symptoms. Several useful approaches have been developed to reduce the FODMAPs content in processed food products. Accurate ingredient selection, the use of enzymes or selected yeasts, and the use of fermentation steps carried out by specific lactic bacteria associated with the use of sourdough represent the technical approaches that have been investigated, alone or in combination, to reduce the FODMAPs content in cereal-based products. This review aims to give an overview of the technological and biotechnological strategies applicable to the formulation of low-FODMAPs products, specifically formulated for consumers affected by IBS. In particular, bread has been the foodstuff mainly investigated throughout the years, but information on other raw or processed products has also been reported. Furthermore, taking into account the required holistic approach for IBS symptoms management, in this review, the use of bioactive compounds that have a positive impact on reducing IBS symptoms as added ingredients in low-FODMAPs products is also discussed.