Actin Mutations and Their Role in Disease

Human ATP-binding proteins: Structural features, functional diversity, and pharmacotherapeutic potential in disease: A review

ATP-binding proteins (ABPs) form diverse and essential protein families across living organisms. Early life forms likely relied on simple chemical reactions for energy, but with the emergence of ABPs and their evolving functions, organisms became capable of more efficient energy storage and utilization, which drove the complexity of metabolic and life processes. By binding and hydrolyzing ATP through conserved structural motifs such as the Walker motifs, ABPs play critical roles in material transport, signal transduction, cellular structure maintenance, motility, and cell cycle regulation. Dysfunctions arising from mutations, deletions, or misregulation of ABPs are linked to a variety of human diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. The growing recognition of ABPs' significance in disease progression highlights their relevance not only in basic biology but also in clinical applications, particularly as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. This review provides a comprehensive overview of human ABPs, detailing their structural and functional roles, their involvement in disease mechanisms, and the latest advances in understanding their clinical relevance. Additionally, it identifies current research gaps and offers new perspectives for future investigations and therapeutic strategies.

The complete absence of cytoplasmic γ-actin results in no discernible phenotype in mice or primary fibroblasts

Mice and primary fibroblasts derived from mouse embryos completely lacking cytoplasmic β-actin, because the Actb gene was engineered to instead express γ-actin protein, have previously been found to be virtually devoid of phenotype. Here, we report the characterization of mice and mouse embryonic fibroblasts homozygous for an Actg1 allele edited to translate β-actin instead of γ-actin (Actg1-coding beta; Actg1c-b/c-b), which resulted in mice and fibroblasts that are devoid of γ-actin. We demonstrate that these Actg1c-b/c-b mice present with no measurable phenotype in survival, body mass, activity, muscle contractility, or auditory function. Primary fibroblasts derived from Actg1c-b/c-b mouse embryos were still proliferative, with several measured parameters of cell motility not different from wild type. From these and previous data, we conclude that β- and γ-actin proteins are redundant in primary embryonic fibroblasts and during normal mouse development.

Structural and functional mechanisms of actin isoforms

Actin is a highly conserved and fundamental protein in eukaryotes and participates in a broad spectrum of cellular functions. Cells maintain a conserved ratio of actin isoforms, with muscle and non-muscle actins representing the main actin isoforms in muscle and non-muscle cells, respectively. Actin isoforms have specific and redundant functional roles and display different biochemistries, cellular localization, and interactions with myosins and actin-binding proteins. Understanding the specific roles of actin isoforms from the structural and functional perspective is crucial for elucidating the intricacies of cytoskeletal dynamics and regulation and their implications in health and disease. Here, we review how the structure contributes to the functional mechanisms of actin isoforms with a special emphasis on the questions of how post-translational modifications and disease-linked mutations affect actin isoforms biochemistry, function, and interaction with actin-binding proteins and myosin motors.

A De Novo Mutation in ACTC1 and a TTN Variant Linked to a Severe Sporadic Infant Dilated Cardiomyopathy Case

Structural or electrophysiologic cardiac anomalies may compromise cardiac function, leading to sudden cardiac death (SCD). Genetic screening of families with severe cardiomyopathies underlines the role of genetic variations in cardiac-specific genes. The present study details the clinical and genetic characterization of a malignant dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) case in a 1-year-old Mexican child who presented a severe left ventricular dilation and dysfunction that led to SCD. A total of 132 genes (48 structure- and 84 electrical-related genes) were examined by next generation sequencing to identify potential causative mutations in comparison to control population. In silico analysis identified only two deleterious heterozygous mutations within an evolutionarily well-conserved region of the sarcomeric genes ACTC1/cardiac actin (c.664G > A/p.Ala222Thr) and TTN/titin (c.33250G > A/p.Glu11084Lys). Further pedigree analysis revealed the father of the index case to carry with the TTN mutation. Surprisingly, the ACTC1 mutation was not harbored by any first-degree family member. Computational 3D modeling of the mutated proteins showed electrostatic and conformational shifts of cardiac actin compared to wild-type version, as well as changes in the stability of the compact/folded states of titin that normally contributes to avoid mechanic damage. In conclusion, our findings suggest a likely pathogenic de novo mutation in ACTC1 in coexpression of a TTN variant as possible causes of an early onset of a severe DCM and premature death. These results may increase the known clinical pathogenic variations that may critically alter the structure of the heart, whose fatality could be prevented when rapidly detected.

Quantitative proteomics analysis reveals the pathogenesis of obstructed defecation syndrome caused by abnormal expression of dystrophin

BACKGROUND

Obstructed defecation syndrome (ODS) represents the most prevalent form of chronic constipation, affecting a diverse patient population, leading to numerous complications, and imposing a significant burden on healthcare resources. Most ODS patients have insufficient rectal propulsion, but the exact mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of ODS remains unclear.

AIM

To explore the molecular mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of ODS.

METHODS

A total of 30 pairs of rectal samples were collected from patients with ODS (ODS group) or grade IV prolapsed hemorrhoids without constipation (control group) for quantitative proteomic and bioinformatic analysis. Subsequently, 50 pairs of paraffin-embedded rectal specimens were selected for immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence studies to validate the analysis results. Human intestinal smooth cell contractile function experiments and electrophysiological experiments were conducted to verify the physiological functions of target proteins. Cellular ultrastructure was detected using transmission electron microscopy.

RESULTS

In comparison to the control group, the expression level of dystrophin (DMD) in rectal specimens from ODS patients was markedly reduced. This finding was corroborated using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence techniques. The diminished expression of DMD compromised the contractile function of intestinal smooth muscle cells. At the molecular level, nucleoporin protein 153 and L-type voltage-gated calcium channel were found to be overexpressed in intestinal smooth muscle cells exhibiting downregulated DMD expression. Electrophysiological experiments confirmed an excessive influx of calcium ions into these cells. Moreover, vacuolar-like structures which may be associated with excessive calcium influx were observed in the cells by transmission electron microscopy.

CONCLUSION

Decreased DMD expression in intestinal smooth muscle may upregulate L-type voltage-gated calcium channel expression, leading to excessive calcium influx which may cause a decrease in rectal propulsion, thereby contributing to the pathogenesis of ODS.

Actin cytoskeletal regulation of ciliogenesis in development and disease

Primary cilia are antenna-like sensory organelles that are evolutionarily conserved in nearly all modern eukaryotes, from the single-celled green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, to vertebrates and mammals. Cilia are microtubule-based cellular projections that have adapted to perform a broad range of species-specific functions, from cell motility to detection of light and the transduction of extracellular mechanical and chemical signals. These functions render cilia essential for organismal development and survival. The high conservation of cilia has allowed for discoveries in C. reinhardtii to inform our understanding of the basic biology of mammalian primary cilia, and to provide insight into the genetic etiology of ciliopathies. Over the last two decades, a growing number of studies has revealed that multiple aspects of ciliary homeostasis are regulated by the actin cytoskeleton, including centrosome migration and positioning, vesicle transport to the basal body, ectocytosis, and ciliary-mediated signaling. Here, we review actin regulation of ciliary homeostasis, and highlight conserved and divergent mechanisms in C. reinhardtii and mammalian cells. Further, we compare the disease manifestations of patients with ciliopathies to those with mutations in actin and actin-associated genes, and propose that primary cilia defects caused by genetic alteration of the actin cytoskeleton may underlie certain birth defects.

An Update on Reported Variants in the Skeletal Muscle α-Actin (ACTA1) Gene

The ACTA1 gene encodes skeletal muscle alpha-actin, which forms the core of the sarcomeric thin filament in adult skeletal muscle. ACTA1 represents one of six highly conserved actin proteins that have all been associated with human disease. The first 15 pathogenic variants in ACTA1 were reported in 1999, which expanded to 177 in 2009. Here, we update on the now 607 total variants reported in LOVD, HGMD, and ClinVar, which includes 343 reported pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants. We also provide suggested ACTA1-specific modifications to ACMG variant interpretation guidelines based on our analysis of known variants, gnomAD reports, and pathogenicity in other actin isoforms. Using these criteria, we report a total of 447 P/LP ACTA1 variants. From a clinical perspective, the number of reported ACTA1 disease phenotypes has grown from five to 20, albeit with some overlap. The vast majority (74%) of ACTA1 variants cause nemaline myopathy (NEM), but there are increasing numbers that cause cardiomyopathy and novel phenotypes such as distal myopathy. We highlight challenges associated with identifying genotype-phenotype correlations for ACTA1. Finally, we summarize key animal models and review the current state of preclinical treatments for ACTA1 disease. This update provides important resources and recommendations for the study and interpretation of ACTA1 variants.

Actin filament dynamics at barbed ends: New structures, new insights

The dynamic actin cytoskeleton contributes to many critical biological processes by providing the structural support underlying the morphology of most cells, facilitating intracellular transport, and generating forces required for cell motility and division. To execute many of these functions, actin monomers polymerize into polarized filaments that display different structural and biochemical properties at each end. Filament dynamics are regulated by diverse regulatory proteins which collaborate to dictate rates of elongation and disassembly, particularly at the fast-growing barbed (plus) end. This review highlights the biochemical mechanisms of six barbed end regulatory proteins: formin, profilin, capping protein, IQGAP1, cyclase-associated protein, and twinfilin. We discuss how individual proteins influence actin dynamics and how several intriguing complex assemblies influence the polymerization fate of actin filaments. Understanding these mechanisms offers insights into how actin is regulated in essential cell processes and dysregulated in disease.

A yeast based assay establishes the pathogenicity of novel missense ACTA2 variants associated with aortic aneurysms

The ACTA2 gene codes for alpha-smooth muscle actin, a critical component of the contractile apparatus of the vascular smooth muscle cells. Autosomal dominant variants in the ACTA2 gene have been associated to familial non-syndromic thoracic aortic aneurysm/dissection (TAAD). They are thought to act through a dominant-negative mechanism. These variants display incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity, complicating the validation of ACTA2 variants pathogenicity by family segregation studies. In this study, we developed a yeast based assay to test putative TAAD-associated ACTA2 variants. We identified five new heterozygous ACTA2 missense variants in TAAD patients through next generation sequencing. We decided to test their pathogenicity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, since yeast actin is very similar to human alpha-smooth muscle actin, and the residues at which the TAAD-associated variants occur in ACTA2 are well conserved. A wild type yeast strain was transformed with a vector expressing the different mutant alleles, to model the heterozygous condition of patients. Then, we evaluated yeast growth by spot test and cytoskeletal and mitochondrial morphology by fluorescence microscopy. We found that mutant yeast strains displayed only mild growth defects but a significant increase in the percentage of cells with abnormal mitochondrial distribution and abnormal organization of the actin cytoskeleton compared to controls. All variants appeared to interfere with the activity of wild type actin in yeast, suggesting a dominant-negative pathogenic mechanism. Our results demonstrate the utility of using the yeast actin model system to validate the pathogenicity of TAAD-associated ACTA2 variants.

Styxl2 regulates de novo sarcomere assembly by binding to non-muscle myosin IIs and promoting their degradation

Styxl2, a poorly characterized pseudophosphatase, was identified as a transcriptional target of the Jak1-Stat1 pathway during myoblast differentiation in culture. Styxl2 is specifically expressed in vertebrate striated muscles. By gene knockdown in zebrafish or genetic knockout in mice, we found that Styxl2 plays an essential role in maintaining sarcomere integrity in developing muscles. To further reveal the functions of Styxl2 in adult muscles, we generated two inducible knockout mouse models: one with Styxl2 being deleted in mature myofibers to assess its role in sarcomere maintenance, and the other in adult muscle satellite cells (MuSCs) to assess its role in de novo sarcomere assembly. We find that Styxl2 is not required for sarcomere maintenance but functions in de novo sarcomere assembly during injury-induced muscle regeneration. Mechanistically, Styxl2 interacts with non-muscle myosin IIs, enhances their ubiquitination, and targets them for autophagy-dependent degradation. Without Styxl2, the degradation of non-muscle myosin IIs is delayed, which leads to defective sarcomere assembly and force generation. Thus, Styxl2 promotes de novo sarcomere assembly by interacting with non-muscle myosin IIs and facilitating their autophagic degradation.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated editing of ACTB in induced pluripotent stem cells: A model for investigating human ACTB loss-of-function and genetic adaptive responses

Heterozygous beta-actin (ACTB) indel and nonsense mutations are linked to developmental disorders. We generated two CRISPR/Cas9 human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines, WTSIi018-B-19 and WTSIi018-B-20, carrying heterozygous and homozygous indel mutations in ACTB exon 4. Both iPSCs exhibited normal cell morphology, expression of pluripotency markers, and the ability to differentiate into the three primary germ layers. While iPSCs with a heterozygous ACTB mutation maintain genome integrity, homozygous mutants showed a loss of heterozygosity in chromosome three. These mutants provide a powerful model to study the onset, progression, and complex interplay of genetic compensation and phenotypic variation of ACTB-related diseases.

Cardiac manifestations of human ACTA2 variants recapitulated in a zebrafish model

The ACTA2 gene encodes actin α2, a major smooth muscle protein in vascular smooth muscle cells. Missense variants in the ACTA2 gene can cause inherited thoracic aortic diseases with characteristic symptoms, such as dysfunction of smooth muscle cells in the lungs, brain vessels, intestines, pupils, bladder, or heart. We identified a heterozygous missense variant of Gly148Arg (G148R) in a patient with a thoracic aortic aneurysm, dissection, and left ventricular non-compaction. We used zebrafish as an in vivo model to investigate whether or not the variants might cause functional or histopathological abnormalities in the heart. Following the fertilization of one-cell stage embryos, we injected in vitro synthesized ACTA2 mRNA of wild-type, novel variant G148R, or the previously known pathogenic variant Arg179His (R179H). The embryos were maintained and raised for 72 h post-fertilization for a heart analysis. Shortening fractions of heart were significantly reduced in both pathogenic variants. A histopathological evaluation showed that the myocardial wall of ACTA2 pathogenic variants was thinner than that of the wild type, and the total cell number within the myocardium was markedly decreased in all zebrafish with pathogenic variants mRNAs. Proliferating cell numbers were also significantly decreased in the endothelial and myocardial regions of zebrafish with ACTA2 variants compared to the wild type. These results demonstrate the effects of ACTA2 G148R and R179H on the development of left ventricle non-compaction and cardiac morphological abnormalities. Our study highlights the previously unknown significance of the ACTA2 gene in several aspects of cardiovascular development.

The non-muscle actinopathy-associated mutation E334Q in cytoskeletal γ-actin perturbs interaction of actin filaments with myosin and ADF/cofilin family proteins

Various heterozygous cytoskeletal γ-actin mutations have been shown to cause Baraitser-Winter cerebrofrontofacial syndrome, non-syndromic hearing loss, or isolated eye coloboma. Here, we report the biochemical characterization of human cytoskeletal γ-actin carrying mutation E334Q, a mutation that leads to a hitherto unspecified non-muscle actinopathy. Following expression, purification, and removal of linker and thymosin β4 tag sequences, the p.E334Q monomers show normal integration into linear and branched actin filaments. The mutation does not affect thermal stability, actin filament nucleation, elongation, and turnover. Model building and normal mode analysis predict significant differences in the interaction of p.E334Q filaments with myosin motors and members of the ADF/cofilin family of actin-binding proteins. Assays probing the interactions of p.E334Q filaments with human class 2 and class 5 myosin motor constructs show significant reductions in sliding velocity and actin affinity. E334Q differentially affects cofilin-mediated actin dynamics by increasing the rate of cofilin-mediated de novo nucleation of actin filaments and decreasing the efficiency of cofilin-mediated filament severing. Thus, it is likely that p.E334Q-mediated changes in myosin motor activity, as well as filament turnover, contribute to the observed disease phenotype.

IntAct: A nondisruptive internal tagging strategy to study the organization and function of actin isoforms

Mammals have 6 highly conserved actin isoforms with nonredundant biological functions. The molecular basis of isoform specificity, however, remains elusive due to a lack of tools. Here, we describe the development of IntAct, an internal tagging strategy to study actin isoforms in fixed and living cells. We identified a residue pair in β-actin that permits tag integration and used knock-in cell lines to demonstrate that IntAct β-actin expression and filament incorporation is indistinguishable from wild type. Furthermore, IntAct β-actin remains associated with common actin-binding proteins (ABPs) and can be targeted in living cells. We demonstrate the usability of IntAct for actin isoform investigations by showing that actin isoform-specific distribution is maintained in human cells. Lastly, we observed a variant-dependent incorporation of tagged actin variants into yeast actin patches, cables, and cytokinetic rings demonstrating cross species applicability. Together, our data indicate that IntAct is a versatile tool to study actin isoform localization, dynamics, and molecular interactions.

Mucous cell histopathology and label-free quantitative proteomic analysis of skin mucus in fat greenling (Hexagrammos otakii) infected with Vibrio harveyi

Hexagrammos otakii is favored by consumers and aquaculture practitioners because of its strong adaptability and fast growth. However, recently, frequent outbreaks of diseases in the breeding of H. otakii have led to significant economic losses, especially due to bacterial diseases, which limit the healthy breeding of H. otakii. As a luminescent Gram-negative bacterium, Vibrio harveyi is the main pathogenic bacteria of H. otakii. In this study, the histopathology and label-free quantitative proteomics analysis were performed to reveal the changes of skin mucus proteins in H. otakii after infection with V. harveyi. The histopathological changes in the skin of H. otakii showed that when the bacteria were injected into the epithelial cells, it caused an increase in the number of mucous cells and a certain degree of damage and deformation in skin. Moreover, the quantitative proteomics analysis revealed a total of 364 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), and these DEPs were found to be involved in environmental information processing, metabolism, infectious diseases: bacteria, replication and repair. More importantly, the enrichment analysis of the DEPs revealed that these different proteins were mainly targeted immune-related pathways. After infection of bacteria, the host's immune ability will be weakened, causing V. harveyi to enter the organism more easily, resulting in increased mucus in H. otakii, which will eventually lead to a decline in its physical function. These results provided an insight into a series of physiological changes after the bacterial infection of fish at the proteomic level and basic data for further exploration of the potential mechanism of skin mucus. Taken together, the results indicated more opportunities for the future designs and discoveries of effective antibacterial vaccines and antibacterial drugs for H. otakii.

Actin's C-terminus coordinates actin structural changes and functions

Actin is essential to eukaryotic cellular processes. Actin's C-terminus appears to play a direct role in modulating actin's structure and properties, facilitating the binding and function of actin-binding proteins (ABPs). The structural and functional characterization of filamentous actin's C-terminus has been impeded by its inherent flexibility, as well as actin's resistance to crystallization for x-ray diffraction and the historical resolution constraints associated with electron microscopy. Many biochemical studies have established that actin's C-terminus must retain its flexibility and structural integrity to modulate actin's structure and functions. For example, C-terminal structural changes are known to affect nucleotide binding and exchange, as well as propagate actin structural changes throughout extensive allosteric networks, facilitating the binding and function of ABPs. Advances in electron microscopy have resulted in high-resolution structures of filamentous actin, providing insights into subtle structural changes that are mediated by actin's C-terminus. Here, we review existing knowledge establishing the importance of actin's C-terminus within actin structural changes and functions and discuss how modern structural characterization techniques provide the tools to understand the role of actin's C-terminus in cellular processes.

Purification of human β- and γ-actin from budding yeast

Biochemical studies of human actin and its binding partners rely heavily on abundant and easily purified α-actin from skeletal muscle. Therefore, muscle actin has been used to evaluate and determine the activities of most actin regulatory proteins but there is an underlying concern that these proteins perform differently from actin present in non-muscle cells. To provide easily accessible and relatively abundant sources of human β- or γ-actin (i.e. cytoplasmic actins), we developed Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains that express each as their sole source of actin. Both β- or γ-actin purified in this system polymerize and interact with various binding partners, including profilin, mDia1 (formin), fascin and thymosin-β4 (Tβ4). Notably, Tβ4 and profilin bind to β- or γ-actin with higher affinity than to α-actin, emphasizing the value of testing actin ligands with specific actin isoforms. These reagents will make specific isoforms of actin more accessible for future studies on actin regulation.

Exercise-induced changes in gene expression do not mediate post exertional malaise in Gulf War illness

Background

Post-exertional malaise (PEM) is considered a characteristic feature of chronic multi-symptom illnesses (CMI) like Gulf War illness (GWI); however, its pathophysiology remains understudied. Previous investigations in other CMI populations (i.e., Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome) have reported associations between PEM and expression of genes coding for adrenergic, metabolic, and immune function.

Objectives

To investigate whether PEM is meditated by gene expression in Veterans with GWI.

Methods

Veterans with GWI (n = 37) and healthy control Gulf War Veterans (n = 25) provided blood samples before and after 30-min of cycling at 70% of age-predicted heart rate reserve. Relative quantification of gene expression, symptom measurements, and select cardiopulmonary parameters were compared between groups at pre-, 30 minpost-, and 24 hpost-exercise using a doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis of variance (RM-MANOVA). Mediation analyses were used to test indirect effects of changes in gene expression on symptom responses (i.e., PEM) to the standardized exercise challenge.

Results

Veterans with GWI experienced large symptom exacerbations following exercise compared to controls (Cohen's d: 1.65; p < 0.05). Expression of β -actin (ACTB), catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) decreased in Veterans with GWI at 30 min (p < 0.05) and 24 h post-exercise (p < 0.05). Changes in gene expression did not mediate post-exercise symptom exacerbation in GWI (Indirect Effect Slope Coefficient: 0.06 - 0.02; 95% CI: 0.19, 0.12).

Conclusion

An acute bout of moderate intensity cycling reduced the expression of select structural, adrenergic, and immune genes in Veterans with GWI, but the pathophysiological relevance to PEM is unclear.

Roles of the cytoskeleton in human diseases

Recently, researches have revealed the key roles of the cytoskeleton in the occurrence and development of multiple diseases, suggesting that targeting the cytoskeleton is a viable approach for treating numerous refractory diseases. The cytoskeleton is a highly structured and complex network composed of actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. In normal cells, these three cytoskeleton components are highly integrated and coordinated. However, the cytoskeleton undergoes drastic remodeling in cytoskeleton-related diseases, causing changes in cell polarity, affecting the cell cycle, leading to senescent diseases, and influencing cell migration to accelerate cancer metastasis. Additionally, mutations or abnormalities in cytoskeletal proteins and their related proteins are closely associated with several congenital diseases. Therefore, this review summarizes the roles of the cytoskeleton in cytoskeleton-related diseases as well as its potential roles in disease treatment to provide insights regarding the physiological functions and pathological roles of the cytoskeleton.

Modulation of self-organizing circuits at deforming membranes by intracellular and extracellular factors

Mechanical forces exerted to the plasma membrane induce cell shape changes. These transient shape changes trigger, among others, enrichment of curvature-sensitive molecules at deforming membrane sites. Strikingly, some curvature-sensing molecules not only detect membrane deformation but can also alter the amplitude of forces that caused to shape changes in the first place. This dual ability of sensing and inducing membrane deformation leads to the formation of curvature-dependent self-organizing signaling circuits. How these cell-autonomous circuits are affected by auxiliary parameters from inside and outside of the cell has remained largely elusive. Here, we explore how such factors modulate self-organization at the micro-scale and its emerging properties at the macroscale.

Development of three-dimensional primary human myospheres as culture model of skeletal muscle cells for metabolic studies

Introduction: Skeletal muscle is a major contributor to whole-body energy homeostasis and the utilization of fatty acids and glucose. At present, 2D cell models have been the most used cellular models to study skeletal muscle energy metabolism. However, the transferability of the results to in vivo might be limited. This project aimed to develop and characterize a skeletal muscle 3D cell model (myospheres) as an easy and low-cost tool to study molecular mechanisms of energy metabolism. Methods and results: We demonstrated that human primary myoblasts form myospheres without external matrix support and carry structural and molecular characteristics of mature skeletal muscle after 10 days of differentiation. We found significant metabolic differences between the 2D myotubes model and myospheres. In particular, myospheres showed increased lipid oxidative metabolism than the 2D myotubes model, which oxidized relatively more glucose and accumulated more oleic acid. Discussion and conclusion: These analyses demonstrate model differences that can have an impact and should be taken into consideration for studying energy metabolism and metabolic disorders in skeletal muscle.

Structural and functional analysis of actin point mutations leading to nemaline myopathy to elucidate their role in actin function

In this work, we analyzed 78 mutations in the actin protein that cause the disease nemaline myopathy. We analyzed how these mutations are distributed in important regions of the actin molecule (folding nucleus, core of the filament, amyloidogenic regions, disordered regions, regions involved in interaction with other proteins). It was found that 54 mutations (43 residues) fall into the folding nucleus (Ф ≥ 0.5), 11 mutations (10 residues) into the filament core, 14 mutations into the amyloidogenic regions (11 residues), 14 mutations (9 residues) in the unstructured regions, and 24 mutations (22 residues) in regions involved in interaction with other proteins. It was also found that the occurrence of single mutations G44V, V45F, T68I, P72R, K338I and S350L leads to the appearance of new amyloidogenic regions that are not present in native actin. The largest number of mutations (54 out of 78) occurs in the folding nucleus; these mutations are important for folding and therefore can affect the protein folding rate. We have shown that almost all of the considered mutations are associated with the structural characteristics of the actin molecule, and some of the residues we have considered have several important characteristics.

Intestinal Pathology in Patients With Pathogenic ACTG2-Variant Visceral Myopathy: 16 Patients From 12 Families and Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Dominant gamma-smooth muscle actin gene (ACTG2) variants cause clinically diverse forms of visceral myopathy. Many patients undergo intestinal resection or biopsy before identification of their genetic defect. The pathology of ACTG2-variant visceral myopathy has not been evaluated systematically.

METHODS

Glass slides, ultrastructural images, molecular genetic reports, and clinical records from 16 patients with pathogenic (15) or likely pathogenic (1) ACTG2 variants were reviewed and compared with surgical specimens from controls (no evidence of a primary myopathy or pseudo-obstruction due to Hirschsprung disease) and published descriptions.

RESULTS

The variable clinical manifestations in our cohort matched those in the literature. Only non-specific light and electron microscopic findings observed in non-myopathic controls were encountered in 13 of 16 patients. The remaining 3 patients harbored hyalinized cytoplasmic inclusions in smooth muscle cells and 1 of them had polyglucosan bodies in the muscularis propria.

CONCLUSIONS

Apart from hyalinized inclusions, which were only observed in 3/16 patients, intestinal pathology in the majority of patients with ACTG2 variants is not indicative of an underlying visceral myopathy. Molecular testing should be considered even when no diagnostic intestinal pathology is identified.

A solution to the long-standing problem of actin expression and purification

Actin is the most abundant protein in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and interacts with hundreds of proteins to perform essential functions, including cell motility and cytokinesis. Numerous diseases are caused by mutations in actin, but studying the biochemistry of actin mutants is difficult without a reliable method to obtain recombinant actin. Moreover, biochemical studies have typically used tissue-purified α-actin, whereas humans express six isoforms that are nearly identical but perform specialized functions and are difficult to obtain in isolation from natural sources. Here, we describe a solution to the problem of actin expression and purification. We obtain high yields of actin isoforms in human Expi293F cells. Experiments along the multistep purification protocol demonstrate the removal of endogenous actin and the functional integrity of recombinant actin isoforms. Proteomics analysis of endogenous vs. recombinant actin isoforms confirms the presence of native posttranslational modifications, including N-terminal acetylation achieved after affinity-tag removal using the actin-specific enzyme Naa80. The method described facilitates studies of actin under fully native conditions to determine differences among isoforms and the effects of disease-causing mutations that occur in all six isoforms.

Biochemical Pathways of Cellular Mechanosensing/Mechanotransduction and Their Role in Neurodegenerative Diseases Pathogenesis

In this review, we shed light on recent advances regarding the characterization of biochemical pathways of cellular mechanosensing and mechanotransduction with particular attention to their role in neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis. While the mechanistic components of these pathways are mostly uncovered today, the crosstalk between mechanical forces and soluble intracellular signaling is still not fully elucidated. Here, we recapitulate the general concepts of mechanobiology and the mechanisms that govern the mechanosensing and mechanotransduction processes, and we examine the crosstalk between mechanical stimuli and intracellular biochemical response, highlighting their effect on cellular organelles' homeostasis and dysfunction. In particular, we discuss the current knowledge about the translation of mechanosignaling into biochemical signaling, focusing on those diseases that encompass metabolic accumulation of mutant proteins and have as primary characteristics the formation of pathological intracellular aggregates, such as Alzheimer's Disease, Huntington's Disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Parkinson's Disease. Overall, recent findings elucidate how mechanosensing and mechanotransduction pathways may be crucial to understand the pathogenic mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative diseases and emphasize the importance of these pathways for identifying potential therapeutic targets.

Divergent Plasmodium actin residues are essential for filament localization, mosquito salivary gland invasion and malaria transmission

Actin is one of the most conserved and ubiquitous proteins in eukaryotes. Its sequence has been highly conserved for its monomers to self-assemble into filaments that mediate essential cell functions such as trafficking, cell shape and motility. The malaria-causing parasite, Plasmodium, expresses a highly sequence divergent actin that is critical for its rapid motility at different stages within its mammalian and mosquito hosts. Each of Plasmodium actin’s four subdomains have divergent regions compared to canonical vertebrate actins. We previously identified subdomains 2 and 3 as providing critical contributions for parasite actin function as these regions could not be replaced by subdomains of vertebrate actins. Here we probed the contributions of individual divergent amino acid residues in these subdomains on parasite motility and progression. Non-lethal changes in these subdomains did not affect parasite development in the mammalian host but strongly affected progression through the mosquito with striking differences in transmission to and through the insect. Live visualization of actin filaments showed that divergent amino acid residues in subdomains 2 and 4 enhanced localization associated with filaments, while those in subdomain 3 negatively affected actin filaments. This suggests that finely tuned actin dynamics are essential for efficient organ entry in the mosquito vector affecting malaria transmission. This work provides residue level insight on the fundamental requirements of actin in highly motile cells.

Actin is one of the most abundant and conserved proteins known. Actin monomers can join together to form long filaments. The malaria-causing parasite is transmitted by mosquitoes and needs actin to move very rapidly. An actin from the parasite is different to other actins: its amino acid sequence has relatively high amounts of changes compared to animal species and the actin tends to form only short filaments. We previously identified two large parts of the protein that were critical for the parasite since these large parts could not be exchanged with the equivalent regions of other species. In this study, we focused in on these regions by making more discrete mutations. Most mutations of the actin sequence were tolerated by the parasite in the blood stages. However, these mutants has striking defects in progressing through mosquitoes, especially in invading its salivary glands. We used a new filament labeler to visualize how these mutations affect the actin filaments and found surprisingly different effects. Taken together, small changes to the sequence can have large consequences for the parasite, which ultimately affects its ability to transmit to a new host.

Electrical impulse characterization along actin filaments in pathological conditions

We present an interactive Mathematica notebook that characterizes the electrical impulses along actin filaments in both muscle and non-muscle cells for a wide range of physiological and pathological conditions. The simplicity of the theoretical formulation, and high performance of the Mathematica software, enable the analysis of multiple conditions without computational restrictions. The program is based on a multi-scale (atomic → monomer → filament) approach capable of accounting for the atomistic details of a protein molecular structure, its biological environment, and their impact on the travel distance, velocity, and attenuation of monovalent ionic wave packets propagating along microfilaments. The interactive component allows investigators to choose the experimental conditions (intracellular Vs in vitro), nucleotide state (ATP Vs ADP), actin isoform (alpha, gamma, beta, and muscle or non-muscle cell), as well as a conformation model that covers a variety of mutants and wild-type (the control) actin filament. We used the computational tool to analyze environmental changes such as temperature effects and pH changes of the surrounding solutions, as well as structural changes to an actin monomer due to radius changes. Additionally, we investigated for the first time the electrostatic consequences of actin mutations from different disease conditions. These studies may provide an unprecedented molecular understanding of why and how age, inheritance, and disease conditions induce dysfunctions in the biophysical mechanisms underlying the propagation of electrical signals along actin filaments.

Functional Characterization of Cardiac Actin Mutants Causing Hypertrophic (p.A295S) and Dilated Cardiomyopathy (p.R312H and p.E361G)

Human wild type (wt) cardiac α-actin and its mutants p.A295S or p.R312H and p.E361G correlated with hypertrophic or dilated cardiomyopathy, respectively, were expressed by using the baculovirus/Sf21 insect cell system. The c-actin variants inhibited DNase I, indicating maintenance of their native state. Electron microscopy showed the formation of normal appearing actin filaments though they showed mutant specific differences in length and straightness correlating with their polymerization rates. TRITC-phalloidin staining showed that p.A295S and p.R312H exhibited reduced and the p.E361G mutant increased lengths of their formed filaments. Decoration of c-actins with cardiac tropomyosin (cTm) and troponin (cTn) conveyed Ca²⁺-sensitivity of the myosin-S1 ATPase stimulation, which was higher for the HCM p.A295S mutant and lower for the DCM p.R312H and p.E361G mutants than for wt c-actin. The lower Ca²⁺-sensitivity of myosin-S1 stimulation by both DCM actin mutants was corrected by the addition of levosimendan. Ca²⁺-dependency of the movement of pyrene-labeled cTm along polymerized c-actin variants decorated with cTn corresponded to the relations observed for the myosin-S1 ATPase stimulation though shifted to lower Ca²⁺-concentrations. The N-terminal C0C2 domain of cardiac myosin-binding protein-C increased the Ca²⁺-sensitivity of the pyrene-cTM movement of bovine, recombinant wt, p.A295S, and p.E361G c-actins, but not of the p.R312H mutant, suggesting decreased affinity to cTm.

Computational study of the impact of nucleotide variations on highly conserved proteins: In the case of actin

Sequencing of individual human genomes enables studying relationship among nucleotide variations, amino acid substitutions, effect on protein structures and diseases. Many studies have found general tendencies, for instance, that pathogenic variations tend to be found in the buried regions of the protein structures, that benign variations tend to be found on the surface of the proteins, and that variations on evolutionary conserved residues tend to be pathogenic. These tendencies were deduced from globular proteins with standard evolutionary changes in amino acid sequences. In this study, we investigated the variation distribution on actin, one of the highly conserved proteins. Many nucleotide variations and three-dimensional structures of actin have been registered in databases. By combining those data, we found that variations buried inside the protein were rather benign and variations on the surface of the protein were pathogenic. This idiosyncratic distribution of the variation impact is likely ascribed to the extensive use of the surface of the protein for protein-protein interactions in actin.

An in Vitro Reconstitution System Defines the Defective Step in the Biogenesis of Mutated β-Actin Proteins

In vitro reconstitution of whole cellular events is one of the important goals in synthetic biology. Using a cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) system reconstituted with human translation factors and chaperones, we reproduced the biogenesis of β-actin, synthesis, folding, and polymerization in a test tube. This system enabled us to define which step of the β-actin biogenesis was defective in genetic mutations related to diseases. Hence, the CFPS system reconstituted with human factors may be a useful tool for analyzing proteostasis in eukaryotes.

DFNA20/26 and Other ACTG1-Associated Phenotypes: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Since the early 2000s, an ever-increasing subset of missense pathogenic variants in the ACTG1 gene has been associated with an autosomal-dominant, progressive, typically post-lingual non-syndromic hearing loss (NSHL) condition designed as DFNA20/26. ACTG1 gene encodes gamma actin, the predominant actin protein in the cytoskeleton of auditory hair cells; its normal expression and function are essential for the stereocilia maintenance. Different gain-of-function pathogenic variants of ACTG1 have been associated with two major phenotypes: DFNA20/26 and Baraitser-Winter syndrome, a multiple congenital anomaly disorder. Here, we report a novel ACTG1 variant [c.625G>A (p. Val209Met)] in an adult patient with moderate-severe NSHL characterized by a downsloping audiogram. The patient, who had a clinical history of slowly progressive NSHL and tinnitus, was referred to our laboratory for the analysis of a large panel of NSHL-associated genes by next generation sequencing. An extensive review of previously reported ACTG1 variants and their associated phenotypes was also performed.

Cardiomyocyte Dysfunction in Inherited Cardiomyopathies

Inherited cardiomyopathies form a heterogenous group of disorders that affect the structure and function of the heart. Defects in the genes encoding sarcomeric proteins are associated with various perturbations that induce contractile dysfunction and promote disease development. In this review we aimed to outline the functional consequences of the major inherited cardiomyopathies in terms of myocardial contraction and kinetics, and to highlight the structural and functional alterations in some sarcomeric variants that have been demonstrated to be involved in the pathogenesis of the inherited cardiomyopathies. A particular focus was made on mutation-induced alterations in cardiomyocyte mechanics. Since no disease-specific treatments for familial cardiomyopathies exist, several novel agents have been developed to modulate sarcomere contractility. Understanding the molecular basis of the disease opens new avenues for the development of new therapies. Furthermore, the earlier the awareness of the genetic defect, the better the clinical prognostication would be for patients and the better the prevention of development of the disease.

Integration of Cardiac Actin Mutants Causing Hypertrophic (p.A295S) and Dilated Cardiomyopathy (p.R312H and p.E361G) into Cellular Structures

The human mutant cardiac α-actins p.A295S or p.R312H and p.E361G, correlated with hypertrophic or dilated cardiomyopathy, respectively, were expressed by the baculovirus/Sf21 insect cell system and purified to homogeneity. The purified cardiac actins maintained their native state but showed differences in Ca²⁺-sensitivity to stimulate the myosin-subfragment1 ATPase. Here we analyzed the interactions of these c-actins with actin-binding and -modifying proteins implicated in cardiomyocyte differentiation. We demonstrate that Arp2/3 complex and the formin mDia3 stimulated the polymerization rate and extent of the c-actins, albeit to different degrees. In addition, we tested the effect of the MICAL-1 monooxygenase, which modifies the supramolecular actin organization during development and adaptive processes. MICAL-1 oxidized these c-actin variants and induced their de-polymerization, albeit at different rates. Transfection experiments using MDCK cells demonstrated the preferable incorporation of wild type and p.A295S c-actins into their microfilament system but of p.R312H and p.E361G actins into the submembranous actin network. Transduction of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes with adenoviral constructs coding HA-tagged c-actin variants showed their incorporation into microfilaments after one day in culture and thereafter into thin filaments of nascent sarcomeric structures at their plus ends (Z-lines) except the p.E361G mutant, which preferentially incorporated at the minus ends.

Java application for cytoskeleton filament characterization (JACFC)

JACFC is a Java web application (http://neuronanobiophysics.utsa.edu/) that provides both experts and non-experts in the field suitable tools for elucidating the molecular mechanisms modulating the electrical signal propagation, stability, and bundle formation of microtubules and actin filaments under different molecular (wild type, isoforms, mutants) and environmental (physiological and pathological) conditions. This acknowledgment might reveal the potential role of cytoskeleton filaments in neuronal activities, including molecular-level processing of information and neural regeneration. Molecular understanding of the polyelectrolyte properties of bionanowires, is also crucial for development of reliability, highly functioning small devices with biotechnological applications such as bionanosensors and computing bionanoprocessors.

Cancer type-specific alterations in actin genes: Worth a closer look?

Actins form a strongly conserved family of proteins that are central to the functioning of the actin cytoskeleton partaking in natural processes such as cell division, adhesion, contraction and migration. These processes, however, also occur during the various phases of cancer progression. Yet, surprisingly, alterations in the six human actin genes in cancer studies have received little attention and the focus was mostly on deregulated expression levels of actins and even more so of actin-binding or regulatory proteins. Starting from the early mutation work in the 1980s, we propose based on reviewing literature and data from patient cancer genomes that alterations in actin genes are different in distinct cancer subtypes, suggesting some specificity. These actin gene alterations include (missense) mutations, gene fusions and copy number alterations (deletions and amplifications) and we illustrate their occurrence for a limited number of examples including actin mutations in lymphoid cancers and nonmelanoma skin cancer and actin gene copy number alterations for breast, prostate and liver cancers. A challenge in the future will be to further sort out the specificity per actin gene, alteration type and cancer subtype. Even more challenging is (experimentally) distinguishing between cause and consequence: which alterations are passengers and which are involved in tumor progression of particular cancer subtypes?

Myopathy-Sensitive G-Actin Segment 227-235 Is Involved in Salt-Induced Stabilization of Contacts within the Actin Filament

Formation of stable actin filaments, critically important for actin functions, is determined by the ionic strength of the solution. However, not much is known about the elements of the actin fold involved in ionic-strength-dependent filament stabilization. In this work, F-actin was destabilized by Cu²⁺ binding to Cys374, and the effects of solvent conditions on the dynamic properties of F-actin were correlated with the involvement of Segment 227-235 in filament stabilization. The results of our work show that the presence of Mg²⁺ at the high-affinity cation binding site of Cu-modified actin polymerized with MgCl₂ strongly enhances the rate of filament subunit exchange and promotes the filament instability. In the presence of 0.1 M KCl, the filament subunit exchange was 2-3-fold lower than that in the MgCl₂-polymerized F-actin. This effect correlates with the reduced accessibility of the D-loop and Segment 227-235 on opposite filament strands, consistent with an ionic-strength-dependent conformational change that modulates involvement of Segment 227-235 in stabilization of the intermonomer interface. KCl may restrict the mobility of the α-helix encompassing part of Segment 227-235 and/or be bound to Asp236 at the boundary of Segment 227-235. These results provide experimental evidence for the involvement of Segment 227-235 in salt-induced stabilization of contacts within the actin filament and suggest that they can be weakened by mutations characteristic of actin-associated myopathies.

Mechanistic analysis of actin-binding compounds that affect the kinetics of cardiac myosin-actin interaction

Actin-myosin mediated contractile forces are crucial for many cellular functions, including cell motility, cytokinesis, and muscle contraction. We determined the effects of ten actin-binding compounds on the interaction of cardiac myosin subfragment 1 (S1) with pyrene-labeled F-actin (PFA). These compounds, previously identified from a small-molecule high-throughput screen (HTS), perturb the structural dynamics of actin and the steady-state actin-activated myosin ATPase activity. However, the mechanisms underpinning these perturbations remain unclear. Here we further characterize them by measuring their effects on PFA fluorescence, which is decreased specifically by the strong binding of myosin to actin. We measured these effects under equilibrium and steady-state conditions, and under transient conditions, in stopped-flow experiments following addition of ATP to S1-bound PFA. We observed that these compounds affect early steps of the myosin ATPase cycle to different extents. They increased the association equilibrium constant K₁ for the formation of the strongly bound collision complex, indicating increased ATP affinity for actin-bound myosin, and decreased the rate constant k₊₂ for subsequent isomerization to the weakly bound ternary complex, thus slowing the strong-to-weak transition that actin-myosin interaction undergoes early in the ATPase cycle. The compounds' effects on actin structure allosterically inhibit the kinetics of the actin-myosin interaction in ways that may be desirable for treatment of hypercontractile forms of cardiomyopathy. This work helps to elucidate the mechanisms of action for these compounds, several of which are currently used therapeutically, and sets the stage for future HTS campaigns that aim to discover new drugs for treatment of heart failure.

The origin of the expressed retrotransposed gene ACTBL2 and its influence on human melanoma cells' motility and focal adhesion formation

We have recently found that β-actin-like protein 2 (actbl2) forms complexes with gelsolin in human melanoma cells and can polymerize. Phylogenetic and bioinformatic analyses showed that actbl2 has a common origin with two non-muscle actins, which share a separate history from the muscle actins. The actin groups' divergence started at the beginning of vertebrate evolution, and actbl2 actins are characterized by the largest number of non-conserved amino acid substitutions of all actins. We also discovered that ACTBL2 is expressed at a very low level in several melanoma cell lines, but a small subset of cells exhibited a high ACTBL2 expression. We found that clones with knocked-out ACTBL2 (CR-ACTBL2) or overexpressing actbl2 (OE-ACTBL2) differ from control cells in the invasion, focal adhesion formation, and actin polymerization ratio, as well as in the formation of lamellipodia and stress fibers. Thus, we postulate that actbl2 is the seventh actin isoform and is essential for cell motility.

Structural and Biochemical Characterization of EFhd1/Swiprosin-2, an Actin-Binding Protein in Mitochondria

Ca²⁺ regulates several cellular functions, including signaling events, energy production, and cell survival. These cellular processes are mediated by Ca²⁺-binding proteins, such as EF-hand superfamily proteins. Among the EF-hand superfamily proteins, allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) and swiprosin-1/EF-hand domain-containing protein 2 (EFhd2) are cytosolic actin-binding proteins. AIF-1 modulates the cytoskeleton and increases the migration of immune cells. EFhd2 is also a cytoskeletal protein implicated in immune cell activation and brain cell functions. EFhd1, a mitochondrial fraternal twin of EFhd2, mediates neuronal and pro-/pre-B cell differentiation and mitoflash activation. Although EFhd1 is important for maintaining mitochondrial morphology and energy synthesis, its mechanism of action remains unclear. Here, we report the crystal structure of the EFhd1 core domain comprising a C-terminus of a proline-rich region, two EF-hand domains, and a ligand mimic helix. Structural comparisons of EFhd1, EFhd2, and AIF-1 revealed similarities in their overall structures. In the structure of the EFhd1 core domain, two Zn²⁺ ions were observed at the interface of the crystal contact, suggesting the possibility of Zn²⁺-mediated multimerization. In addition, we found that EFhd1 has Ca²⁺-independent β-actin-binding and Ca²⁺-dependent β-actin-bundling activities. These findings suggest that EFhd1, an actin-binding and -bundling protein in the mitochondria, may contribute to the Ca²⁺-dependent regulation of mitochondrial morphology and energy synthesis.

New Model for Stacking Monomers in Filamentous Actin from Skeletal Muscles of Oryctolagus cuniculus

To date, some scientific evidence (limited proteolysis, mass spectrometry analysis, electron microscopy (EM)) has accumulated, which indicates that the generally accepted model of double-stranded of filamentous actin (F-actin) organization in eukaryotic cells is not the only one. This entails an ambiguous understanding of many of the key cellular processes in which F-actin is involved. For a detailed understanding of the mechanism of F-actin assembly and actin interaction with its partners, it is necessary to take into account the polymorphism of the structural organization of F-actin at the molecular level. Using electron microscopy, limited proteolysis, mass spectrometry, X-ray diffraction, and structural modeling we demonstrated that F-actin presented in the EM images has no double-stranded organization, the regions of protease resistance are accessible for action of proteases in F-actin models. Based on all data, a new spatial model of filamentous actin is proposed, and the F-actin polymorphism is discussed.

Urinary Reference Values and First Insight into the Urinary Proteome of Captive Giraffes

Urinalysis is widely recognized to be a useful tool in routine health investigations, since it can diagnose numerous pathologies. Considering the paucity of knowledge concerning giraffes, urine from 44 giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) (18 males and 26 females, from 3 months of age to 21 years of age) underwent routine urinalysis, 1D-electrophoresis, and protein identification using mass spectrometry, with the aim of identifying the urinary reference values and the urine proteome. The urine specific gravity (USG), urine total proteins (uTP), urine creatinine (uCr), and urine protein:creatinine ratio (UPC) reference values, reported as the median, and lower limit (LL) and upper limit (UL), were 1.030 (1006-1.049), 17.58 (4.54-35.31) mg/dL, 154.62 (39.59-357.95) mg/dL, and 0.11 (0.07-0.16), respectively. Mass spectrometry, together with electrophoresis, revealed a pattern of common urinary proteins; albumin, lysozyme C, and ubiquitin were the most represented proteins in the giraffe urine. It has been hypothesized that these proteins could act as a defense against microbes. Moreover, in giraffes, urinalysis could be a valid tool for gauging renal function and physiological status changes.

Editorial of Special Issue "Frontiers in the Actin Cytoskeleton"

The actin cytoskeleton is of fundamental importance for eukaryotic cell homeostasis [...].