Anticancer Activity of Toxins from Bee and Snake Venom-An Overview on Ovarian Cancer

Enhancing the Efficacy of Melanoma Treatment: The In Vitro Chemosensitising Impact of Vipera ammodytes Venom on Human Melanoma Cell Lines

Research on viper venom has expanded into diverse medical applications, including cancer treatment. This study investigates the potential of Vipera ammodytes venom in oncology, evaluating its cytotoxicity and chemosensitising effects on malignant melanoma cells. Proteomic analysis identified 125 proteins in the venom, with Phospholipases A2, C-type lectins, and metalloproteinases among the most abundant components. These proteins are associated with cytotoxic, anti-proliferative, and tumor-inhibiting properties. Three melanoma cell lines (M001, Me501, and A375) were used to assess venom cytotoxicity. The IC50 values demonstrated consistent venom sensitivity across cell lines (approximately 1.1 µg/mL). Combined treatment with venom and cisplatin significantly increased the cytotoxicity compared to single-agent treatments. Notably, venom enhanced the sensitivity of cisplatin in resistant cell lines (M001 and Me501), increasing cell mortality by up to 40%. The A375 cell line, inherently more sensitive to cisplatin, exhibited additional cytotoxic effects only at higher venom doses. The morphological changes observed under microscopy confirmed venom-induced cellular changes, further supporting its potential as an anti-cancer agent. The selective targeting of melanoma cells by venom components, particularly in muscle-associated metastases, suggests a unique therapeutic niche. While cisplatin was chosen for this pilot study due to its established cytotoxicity, future research will explore venom combinations with contemporary treatments such as immunotherapy and targeted therapies. Although preliminary, these findings provide a foundation for integrating venom-based strategies into advanced melanoma protocols, aiming to improve outcomes in resistant or metastatic cases.

Bee venom: Yesterday's enemy becomes modern medicine for skin cancer

Malignant melanoma is one of the most lethal human malignancies, particularly when it spreads from its initial site in the skin to distant locations with few therapeutic options. While a range of treatment approaches exist, such as chemotherapy, radiation, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, they typically fail to treat skin cancer, particularly in its late stages. The complex cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive melanoma growth and metastatic dissemination are both varied and complicated, posing significant challenges to the development of effective treatment approaches. As the incidence and burden of this malignancy increase, there is an urgent need for innovative therapeutic techniques. Therefore, it is vital to research alternate therapy options. Several research undertaken in recent years have found that bee venom influences a variety of cancers. The more research into using bee venom to cure skin cancer, the less attention it receives. In this context, the purpose of this proposal is to review a comprehensive assessment of the clinical impact of bee venom against skin cancer, as well as to highlight challenges and excitement down the road.

Low-dose Bee Venom as a Potential Therapeutic Agent Against Human Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia Cells

Bee venom is secreted by a gland in the abdominal cavity of bees. The venom, especially that of honeybees, contains certain enzymes and peptides that, when administered in high doses, are effective against various diseases. Peptides such as melittin and phospholipase A2 can target various cancer cells. In this study, we investigated the antiproliferative effects of administering low-dose bee venom in K-562 chronic myeloid leukaemia cells. Our proteomic study revealed regional variation of the content of bee venom and high levels of melittin, apamin and secapin, as well as phospholipase A2 and hyaluronidase. In addition, eight new, previously unidentified proteins were identified. The effects of bee venom on cell viability and drug-cell interaction were investigated at 24, 48 and 72 h. According to the MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide) results, the bee venom decreased K-562 cell viability dose-dependently at all time points. Cell viability decreased 48 and 72 h after bee venom administration but increased in the control group left untreated for 72 h. The inhibition percentages for the highest bee venom concentration (0.4 µM) at 24, 48 and 72 h were 55%, 80% and 92%, respectively. The cell-drug interactions indicated that the cell surfaces, which were smooth and clear before drug application, gradually deteriorated and started to shrink after the application. In conclusion, at increasing doses, bee venom was found to have a strong antiproliferative effect in K-562 chronic myeloid leukaemia cell lines.

Unlocking nature's arsenal: Nanotechnology for targeted delivery of venom toxins in cancer therapy

AIM

The aim of the present review is to shed light on the nanotechnological approaches adopted to overcome the shortcomings associated with the delivery of venom peptides which possess inherent anti-cancer properties.

BACKGROUND

Venom peptides although have been reported to demonstrate anti-cancer effects, they suffer from several disadvantages such as in vivo instability, off-target adverse effects, limited drug loading and low bioavailability. This review presents a comprehensive compilation of different classes of nanocarriers while underscoring their advantages, disadvantages and potential to carry such peptide molecules for in vivo delivery. It also discusses various nanotechnological aspects such as methods of fabrication, analytical tools to assess these nanoparticulate formulations, modulation of nanocarrier polymer properties to enhance loading capacity, stability and improve their suitability to carry toxic peptide drugs.

CONCLUSION

Nanotechnological approaches bear great potential in delivering venom peptide-based molecules as anticancer agents by enhancing their bioavailability, stability, efficacy as well as offering a spatiotemporal delivery approach. However, the challenges associated with toxicity and biocompatibility of nanocarriers must be duly addressed.

PERSPECTIVES

The everlasting quest for new breakthroughs for safer delivery of venom peptides in human subjects is fuelled by unmet clinical needs in the current landscape of chemotherapy. In addition, exhaustive efforts are required in obtaining and purifying the venom peptides followed by designing and optimizing scale up technologies.

Emerging anticancer potential and mechanisms of snake venom toxins: A review

Animal-derived venom, like snake venom, has been proven to be valuable natural resources for the drug development. Previously, snake venom was mainly investigated in its pharmacological activities in regulating coagulation, vasodilation, and cardiovascular function, and several marketed cardiovascular drugs were successfully developed from snake venom. In recent years, snake venom fractions have been demonstrated with anticancer properties of inducing apoptotic and autophagic cell death, restraining proliferation, suppressing angiogenesis, inhibiting cell adhesion and migration, improving immunity, and so on. A number of active anticancer enzymes and peptides have been identified from snake venom toxins, such as L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), metalloproteinases (MPs), three-finger toxins (3FTxs), serine proteinases (SPs), disintegrins, C-type lectin-like proteins (CTLPs), cell-penetrating peptides, cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs). In this review, we focus on summarizing these snake venom-derived anticancer components on their anticancer activities and underlying mechanisms. We will also discuss their potential to be developed as anticancer drugs in the future.

Hive Products: Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Therapeutic Applications

Beekeeping provides products with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical characteristics. These products are characterized by abundance of bioactive compounds. For different reasons, honey, royal jelly, propolis, venom, and pollen are beneficial to humans and animals and could be used as therapeutics. The pharmacological action of these products is related to many of their constituents. The main bioactive components of honey include oligosaccharides, methylglyoxal, royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), and phenolics compounds. Royal jelly contains jelleins, royalisin peptides, MRJPs, and derivatives of hydroxy-decenoic acid, particularly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuromodulatory, metabolic syndrome-preventing, and anti-aging properties. Propolis has a plethora of activities that are referable to compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Peptides found in bee venom include phospholipase A2, apamin, and melittin. In addition to being vitamin-rich, bee pollen also includes unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and phenolics compounds that express antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the constituents of hive products are particular and different. All of these constituents have been investigated for their properties in numerous research studies. This review aims to provide a thorough screening of the bioactive chemicals found in honeybee products and their beneficial biological effects. The manuscript may provide impetus to the branch of unconventional medicine that goes by the name of apitherapy.

Bioactive Properties of Venoms Isolated from Whiptail Stingrays and the Search for Molecular Mechanisms and Targets

The venom-containing barb attached to their 'whip-like' tail provides stingrays a defensive mechanism for evading predators such as sharks. From human encounters, dermal stingray envenomation is characterized by intense pain often followed by tissue necrosis occurring over several days to weeks. The bioactive components in stingray venoms (SRVs) and their molecular targets and mechanisms that mediate these complex responses are not well understood. Given the utility of venom-derived proteins from other venomous species for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, we set out to characterize the bioactivity of SRV extracts from three local species that belong to the Dasyatoidea 'whiptail' superfamily. Multiple cell-based assays were used to quantify and compare the in vitro effects of these SRVs on different cell lines. All three SRVs demonstrated concentration-dependent growth-inhibitory effects on three different human cell lines tested. In contrast, a mouse fibrosarcoma cell line was markedly resistant to all three SRVs, indicating the molecular target(s) for mediating the SRV effects are not expressed on these cells. The multifunctional SRV responses were characterized by an acute disruption of cell adhesion leading to apoptosis. These findings aim to guide future investigations of individual SRV proteins and their molecular targets for potential use in biomedical applications.

Anticancer potency of Egyptian venom snakes on MCF-7 and HepG2 carcinoma cells

Breast and hepatic cancers are the leading incidences in the globe occurring of the human sufferings from various cancers. Snake venoms have been reported to provide effective therapeutic agents. The current study investigates the anticancer potency of Egyptian venoms snakes on two cells: breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and hepato-cancer cells (HepG2) (In vitro assay). The examined venoms were more potent on MCF-7 than HepG2 cells. Their inhibition % on MCF-7 ranged from 71.47 to 99.02% with medium inhibition concentrations (IC50s): 3.48, 3.60, 3.70, 4.33, and 4.49 μg/ml for venoms: Echis pyramid (E.H), Cerastes vipera (C.V), Naja haje (N.H), Echis coloratus (E.C), and Cerastes cerastes (C.C), respectively. The values of IC50s on HepG2 were 4.32, 17.77, 59.72, 63.75, and 217.90 μg/ml for toxins: E.C, E.P, C.V, C.C, and N.H, respectively. Some biomarkers were conducted to investigate the apoptotic effects of toxins into the cells. Increasing profiles of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and levels of glutathione content (GSH) and malodialdhyde (MDA) as well as repairment of DNA indicated such these actions. So, more reliable investigations on these venoms were needed to provide intelligent therapeutic agent for cancer treatment.

Bee Sting Venom as a Viable Therapy for Breast Cancer: A Review Article

Breast cancer is a kind of aggressive cancer that significantly affects women worldwide, thus making research on alternative and new therapies necessary. The potential impact of bee venom on breast cancer is the main subject of this analysis of this research article. Bee venom has drawn the attention of the world with the help of its constituent ingredients, namely the bioactive compounds, enzymes, and complex blend of proteins. They have a particularly varied chemical makeup and proven anti-cancer capabilities. This is a detailed review demonstrating the components of bee venom and their individual functions in fighting cancer, as well as the results of previously conducted in-vitro and in-vivo research. As described later, bee venom has given positive results in triggering apoptosis, preventing cell migration, inhibiting metastasis and invasion, and suppressing the existing breast cancer cells. It is found to have worked better along with the already existing chemotherapy treatments. These results were also proved with the help of various animal studies that showed reduced tumor development, reduced metastasis, and improved therapeutic effectiveness. Furthermore, certain studies and case reports from all over the world have exhibited consistent results in females affected by breast cancer. This study found that people receiving chemotherapy experienced improved health outcomes and reduced discomfort, with fewer negative side effects. It is important to conduct extensive research on the safety and effectiveness of this treatment because it is yet to be approved. The ideal dosage and administration methods must be explored in clinical trials. Moreover, it is imperative to evaluate the results of any combined treatments with current medications. There should be constant monitoring to prevent any potential side effects. Other important things like allergic reactions and hidden concerns should also be considered.

Three snake venoms from Bothrops genus induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in K562 human leukemic cell line

Cancer is indisputably one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Snake venoms are a potential source of bioactive compounds, complex mixtures constituted mainly of proteins and peptides with several pharmacological possibilities, including the potential to inhibit tumoral cell growth. In the present study, it was evaluated the antitumor effect of crude venom of Bothrops erythromelas (BeV), Bothrops jararaca (from Southern and Southeastern- BjsV and BjsdV, respectively) and Bothrops alternatus (BaV) in in vitro Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cancer cell line model. After 24 h of cell exposure to 10 and 50 μg/mL, BjsV, BjsdV, and BaV exerted a decrease in cell viability in both concentrations. BeV was not cytotoxic and, therefore wasn't chosen for further mechanism of action investigation. Furthermore, morphological alterations show modification typical of apoptosis. Also, was observes a significant cell cycle arrest in the S phase by BjsdV and BaV treatment. Flow cytometry evidenced the involvement of changes in the cell membrane permeability and the mitochondrial function by BjsV and BjsdV, corroborating with the triggering of the apoptotic pathway by the venom administration. BjsV, BjsdV, and BaV also led to extensive DNA damage and were shown to modulate the gene expression of transcripts related to the cell cycle progression and suppress the expression of the BCR-ABL1 oncogene. Altogether, these findings suggest that the venoms trigger the apoptosis pathway due to mitochondrial damage and cell cycle arrest, with modulation of intracellular pathways important for CML progression. Thus, indicating the pharmacological potential of these venoms in the development of new antitumoral compounds.

Snake venom, a potential treatment for melanoma. A systematic review

Despite advances in treating patients with melanoma, there are still many treatment challenges to overcome. Studies with snake venom-derived proteins/peptides describe their binding potential, and inhibition of some proliferative mechanisms in melanoma. The combined use of these compounds with current therapies could be the strategic gap that will help us discover more effective treatments for melanoma. The present study aimed to carry out a systematic review identifying snake venom proteins and peptides described in the literature with antitumor, antimetastatic, or antiangiogenic effects on melanoma and determine the mechanisms of action that lead to these anti-tumor effects. Snake venoms contain proteins and peptides which are antiaggregant, antimetastatic, and antiangiogenic. The in vivo results are encouraging, considering the reduction of metastases and tumor size after treatment. In addition to these results, it was reported that these venom compounds could act in combination with chemotherapeutics (Acurhagin-C; Macrovipecetin), sensitizing and preparing tumor cells for treatment. There is a consensus that snake venom is a promising strategy for the improvement of antimelanoma therapies, but it has been little explored in the current context, combined with inhibitors, immunotherapy or tumor microenvironment, for example. We suggest Lebein as a candidate for combination therapy with BRAF inhibitors.

Oxineur, a novel peptide from Caspian cobra Naja naja oxiana against HT-29 colon cancer

Colon cancer ranks fourth in mortality. This cancer is still an important clinical challenge worldwide due to its high prevalence and poor prognosis. Proteomic studies revealed that snake venom is a diverse and variable mixture of enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins and peptides. Despite the toxic effects of these molecules, several proteins and peptides have been isolated that have practical applications and appear to induce apoptosis and prevent cell metastasis. In this study, we worked on cytotoxic effects and anticancer activity of Naja naja oxiana (Iranian Caspian cobra) snake venom components on HT-29 cell line colon cancer. Separated Fraction-5 by FPLC indicated the high cytotoxicity on HT-29 cell line colon cancer by MTT test. Further isolation of F5 by HPLC showed that the purified peak 2, nominated as Oxineur that contains a cytotoxic effect on HT-29 cells and reduces cell viability at 8 μg/ml to 4% in 24 h. Oxineur has the least cytotoxic effect on HEK-293 normal cells. Further studies on Oxineur peptide confirmed the apoptotic effects with high expression of CASP9 gene and DNA fragmentation in cancerous cells. The partial sequence of Oxineur revealed 71% homology with the neurotoxin II from Naja naja oxiana. Since our target molecule is a peptide in the molecular weight range of 7 kDa, it has potentially a therapeutic value.

Pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of honey bee venom

Honey bee venom (BV) is a valuable product, and has a wide range of biological effects, and its use is rapidly increasing in apitherapy. Therefore, the current study, we reviewed the existing knowledge about BV composition and its numerous pharmacological properties for future research and use. Honey bee venom or apitoxin is produced in the venom gland in the honey bee abdomen. Adult bees use it as a primary colony defense mechanism. It is composed of many biologically active substances including peptides, enzymes, amines, amino acids, phospholipids, minerals, carbohydrates as well as some volatile components. Melittin and phospholipase A₂ are the most important components of BV, having anti-cancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis, anti-nociceptive and other curative potentials. Therefore, in medicine, BV has been used for centuries against different diseases like arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, and various inflammatory infections. Nowadays, BV or its components separately, are used for the treatment of various diseases in different countries as a natural medicine with limited side effects. Consequently, scientists as well as several pharmaceutical companies are trying to get a new understanding about BV, its substances and its activity for more effective use of this natural remedy in modern medicine.

Pllans-II Induces Cell Death in Cervical Cancer Squamous Epithelial Cells via Unfolded Protein Accumulation and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Due to the lack of chemotherapeutic drugs that selectively affect cervical cancer cells, natural sources such as snake venom are currently being investigated for molecules with antitumor potential. Pllans–II, a phospholipase A₂ type–Asp49 from Porthidium lansbergii lansbergii snake venom, induced cell death in a cervical cancer cell line—Ca Ski—related to dysfunction in the ability to resolve endoplasmic reticulum stress, evidenced by sub–expression of genes such as PERK, ERO1 PDIs, HSP70, and CHOP. Western blot analysis validated the last two genes′ sub–expression at the protein level. In addition, Pllans–II presented a dose–dependent cytotoxic effect on cancer cells and an insignificant effect on healthy endothelial cells (HUVEC). Additionally, Pllans–II inhibited cancer cells′ adhesion and migration capacity, induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase, and induced apoptosis stimulated possibly by the extrinsic route. These results demonstrate for the first time that Pllans–II has an antitumor effect on a squamous epithelial cervical cancer cell line and represents a possible biotechnological tool for designing a prominent antitumor agent.

Optimized Apamin-Mediated Nano-Lipidic Carrier Potentially Enhances the Cytotoxicity of Ellagic Acid against Human Breast Cancer Cells

Ellagic acid has recently attracted increasing attention regarding its role in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Surface functionalized nanocarriers have been recently studied for enhancing cancer cells' penetration and achieving better tumor-targeted delivery of active ingredients. Therefore, the present work aimed at investigating the potential of APA-functionalized emulsomes (EGA-EML-APA) for enhancing cytototoxic activity of EGA against human breast cancer cells. Phospholipon® 90 G: cholesterol molar ratio (PC: CH; X1, mole/mole), Phospholipon® 90 G: Tristearin weight ratio (PC: TS; X2, w/w) and apamin molar concentration (APA conc.; X3, mM) were considered as independent variables, while vesicle size (VS, Y1, nm) and zeta potential (ZP, Y2, mV) were studied as responses. The optimized formulation with minimized vs. and maximized absolute ZP was predicted successfully utilizing a numerical technique. EGA-EML-APA exhibited a significant cytotoxic effect with an IC50 value of 5.472 ± 0.21 µg/mL compared to the obtained value from the free drug 9.09 ± 0.34 µg/mL. Cell cycle profile showed that the optimized formulation arrested MCF-7 cells at G2/M and S phases. In addition, it showed a significant apoptotic activity against MCF-7 cells by upregulating the expression of p53, bax and casp3 and downregulating bcl2. Furthermore, NF-κB activity was abolished while the expression of TNfα was increased confirming the significant apoptotic effect of EGA-EML-APA. In conclusion, apamin-functionalized emulsomes have been successfully proposed as a potential anti-breast cancer formulation.

Anticancer Activity of Bee Venom Components against Breast Cancer

While the survival rate has increased due to treatments for breast cancer, the quality of life has decreased because of the side effects of chemotherapy. Various toxins are being developed as alternative breast cancer treatments, and bee venom is drawing attention as one of them. We analyzed the effect of bee venom and its components on breast cancer cells and reviewed the mechanism underlying the anticancer effects of bee venom. Data up to March 2022 were searched from PubMed, EMBASE, OASIS, KISS, and Science Direct online databases, and studies that met the inclusion criteria were reviewed. Among 612 studies, 11 were selected for this research. Diverse drugs were administered, including crude bee venom, melittin, phospholipase A2, and their complexes. All drugs reduced the number of breast cancer cells in proportion to the dose and time. The mechanisms of anticancer effects included cytotoxicity, apoptosis, cell targeting, gene expression regulation, and cell lysis. Summarily, bee venom and its components exert anticancer effects on human breast cancer cells. Depending on the mechanisms of anticancer effects, side effects are expected to be reduced by using various vehicles. Bee venom and its components have the potential to prevent and treat breast cancer in the future.

The myth of cobra venom cytotoxin: More than just direct cytolytic actions

Cobra venom cytotoxin (CTX) is a non-enzymatic three-finger toxin that constitutes 40-60% of cobra venom. Thus, it plays an important role in the pathophysiology of cobra envenomation, especially in local dermonecrosis. The three-finger hydrophobic loops of CTX determine the cytotoxicity. Nevertheless, the actual mechanisms of cytotoxicity are not fully elucidated as they involve not only cytolytic actions but also intracellular signalling-mediated cell death pathways. Furthermore, the possible transition cell death pattern remains to be explored. The actual molecular mechanisms require further studies to unveil the relationship between different CTXs from different cobra species and cell types which may result in differential cell death patterns. Here, we discuss the biophysical interaction of CTX with the cell membrane involving four binding modes: electrostatic interaction, hydrophobic partitioning, isotropic phase, and oligomerisation. Oligomerisation of CTX causes pore formation in the membrane lipid bilayer. Additionally, the CTX-induced apoptotic pathway can be executed via death receptor-mediated extrinsic pathways and mitochondrial-mediated intrinsic pathways. We also discuss lysosomal-mediated necrosis and the occurrence of necroptosis following CTX action. Collectively, we provided an insight into concentration-dependent transition of cell death pattern which involves different mechanistic actions. This contributes a new direction for further investigation of cytotoxic pathways activated by the CTXs for future development of biotherapeutics targeting pathological effects caused by CTX.

Naja atra Cardiotoxin 1 Induces the FasL/Fas Death Pathway in Human Leukemia Cells

This study aimed to investigate the mechanistic pathway of Naja atra (Taiwan cobra) cardiotoxin 1 (CTX1)-induced death of leukemia cell lines U937 and HL-60. CTX1 increased cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, leading to the death of U937 cells. It was found that Ca²⁺-induced NOX4 upregulation promoted ROS-mediated p38 MAPK phosphorylation, which consequently induced c-Jun and ATF-2 phosphorylation. Using siRNA knockdown, activated c-Jun and ATF-2 were demonstrated to regulate the expression of Fas and FasL, respectively. Suppression of Ca²⁺-mediated NOX4 expression or ROS-mediated p38 MAPK activation increased the survival of U937 cells exposed to CTX1. FADD depletion abolished CTX1-induced cell death, caspase-8 activation, and t-Bid production, supporting the correlation between the Fas death pathway and CTX1-mediated cytotoxicity. Among the tested N. atra CTX isotoxins, only CTX1 induced Fas and FasL expression. Chemical modification studies revealed that intact Met residues were essential for the activity of CTX1 to upregulate Fas and FasL expression. Taken together, the data in this study indicate that CTX1 induces c-Jun-mediated Fas and ATF-2-mediated FasL transcription by the Ca²⁺/NOX4/ROS/p38 MAPK axis, thereby activating the Fas death pathway in U937 cells. Furthermore, CTX1 activates Fas/FasL death signaling in the leukemia cell line HL-60.

Apamin-Conjugated Alendronate Sodium Nanocomplex for Management of Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic cancer has a low survival rate and has limited therapeutic options due to the peculiarity of the tumor tissue. Cancer nanotechnology provides several opportunities to resolve such difficulties as a result of the high surface-to-volume ratio of nanostructures. Peptide-drug nanocomplexes have proved to have immense potential in anticancer activity against pancreatic cancer cells. Thus, in the present study apamin (APA) and alendronate sodium (ALS) were combined to form nanocomplexes (APA-ALS-NC) against pancreatic cancer cells. Optimization of ALS, incubation time, and sonication time in terms of particle size of the nanocomplex was carried out. The optimized formulation was evaluated for anticancer activities in pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1 cells). A Box-Behnken design using ALS, incubation time, and sonication time as independent factors and particle size as the response was chosen to optimize the APA-ALS-NC formulation. The optimized APA-ALS-NC had a particle size of 161.52 ± 8.4 nm. The evaluation of APA-ALS-NC in PANC-1 cells was carried out using various in vitro tests. The IC₅₀ values were determined by MTT assay and found to be 37.6 ± 1.65, 13.4 ± 0.59, and 1.01 ± 0.04 µg/mL for ALS, APA, and APA-ALS-NC, respectively. The higher cytotoxicity activity of APA-ALS-NC was confirmed from the higher percentage of cells in the necrosis phase (apoptosis study) and the G2-M phase (cell cycle study) compared to that of ALS and APA. While the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential was less for APA-ALS-NC, the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, caspase-3, ROS, IL-6, and NF-kB showed that APA-ALS-NC can significantly enhance apoptosis and cytotoxicity in PANC-1 cells. Moreover, Bax (10.87 ± 1.36), Bcl-2 (0.27 ± 0.02), and p53 (9.16 ± 1.22) gene expressions confirmed that APA-ALS-NC had a significant apoptotic effect compared to ALS and APA. In summary, the APA-ALS-NC had a more significant cytotoxic effect than ALS and APA. The results of the present study are promising for further evaluation in pre-clinical and clinical trials for arriving at a successful therapeutic strategy against pancreatic cancer.

Pharmaceutical Prospects of Bee Products: Special Focus on Anticancer, Antibacterial, Antiviral, and Antiparasitic Properties

Bee products have long been used in traditional healing practices to treat many types of disorders, including cancer and microbial-related diseases. Indeed, several chemical compounds found in bee products have been demonstrated to display anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, and antiparasitic properties. With the improvement of research tools and in view of recent advances related to bee products, this review aims to provide broad yet detailed insight into the pharmaceutical prospects of bee products such as honey, propolis, bee pollen, royal jelly, bee bread, beeswax, and bee venom, in the domain of cancer and infectious disease management. Available literature confirms the efficacy of these bee products in the alleviation of cancer progression, inhibition of bacterial and viral proliferation, and mitigation of parasitic-related symptoms. With such potentials, bioactive components isolated from the bee products can be used as an alternative approach in the long-run effort to improve humans’ health at a personal and community level.

A Comprehensive Study Monitoring the Venom Composition and the Effects of the Venom of the Rare Ethiopian Endemic Snake Species Bitis parviocula

The Ethiopian endemic snake of the species Bitis parviocula, recognized for its colorful patterns, might be more interesting as we look deeper into the venom activity. We assayed the effects of venoms from the most widespread venomous African Bitis arietens and closely related species Bitis parviocula using The Hen’s Egg Test—Chorioallantoic membrane test (HET-CAM) and Chicken embryotoxicity screening test (CHEST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) analysis, cytotoxicity assay performed on cell lines and protein analysis of selected venoms. Our results indicated that B. parviocula venom contains vasoactive compounds that have a direct effect on blood vessels. The AChE analysis showed significant ability inhibiting AChE activity in embryonic tissue. Cytotoxicity observed on A549 ATCC^® CCL-185™ cells indicates the possible presence of cytotoxic agents in B. parviocula venom. We proved previously described differences in the composition of venom obtained from B. arietans and B. parviocula by using electrophoresis and total protein concentration. Based on similarities in vasoactive effects observed after administration of venoms onto a chicken chorioallantoic membrane, we suggest that venom from B. arietans and B. parviocula might share certain venom proteins responsible for haemotoxicity. The main active components of B. parviocula venom are unknown. Our results suggest that it might be worth performing proteomic analysis of B. parviocula venom as it might contain medically valuable compounds.

Bee Venom: An Updating Review of Its Bioactive Molecules and Its Health Applications

Bee venom (BV) is usually associated with pain since, when humans are stung by bees, local inflammation and even an allergic reaction can be produced. BV has been traditionally used in ancient medicine and in acupuncture. It consists of a mixture of substances, principally of proteins and peptides, including enzymes as well as other types of molecules in a very low concentration. Melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) are the most abundant and studied compounds of BV. Literature of the main biological activities exerted by BV shows that most studies focuses on the comprehension and test of anti-inflammatory effects and its mechanisms of action. Other properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective or antitumor effects have also been assessed, both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, human trials are necessary to confirm those clinical applications. However, notwithstanding the therapeutic potential of BV, there are certain problems regarding its safety and the possible appearance of adverse effects. On this perspective, new approaches have been developed to avoid these complications. This manuscript is aimed at reviewing the actual knowledge on BV components and its associated biological activities as well as the latest advances on this subject.

LC-Trapped Ion Mobility Spectrometry-TOF MS Differentiation of 2- and 3-Disulfide-Bonded Isomers of the μ-Conotoxin PIIIA

Disulfide bonds within cysteine-rich peptides are important for their stability and biological function. In this respect, the correct disulfide connectivity plays a decisive role. The differentiation of individual disulfide-bonded isomers by traditional high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) is limited due to the similarity in physicochemical properties of the isomers sharing the same amino acid sequence. By using trapped ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (TIMS-MS), several 2- and 3-disulfide-bonded isomers of the μ-conotoxin PIIIA were investigated for their distinguishability by collision cross section (CCS) values and their characteristic mobilogram traces. The isomers could be differentiated by TIMS-MS and also identified in mixing experiments. Thus, TIMS-MS provides a highly valuable and enriching addition to standard HPLC and MS analysis of conformational isomers of disulfide-rich peptides and proteins.

Quantitative Measurement of Melittin in Asian Honeybee Venom Using a New Method Including UPLC-QqTOF-MS

Asian honeybee venom is widely used in traditional oriental medicine. Melittin is the main component of Asian honeybee venom. In the present study, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqTOF-MS) method was used for accurate qualitative and quantitative analyses of melittin in Asian honeybee venom. The results showed that the dynamic linear range of melittin was from 0.094 to 20 μg/mL, and the limit of quantification was 0.3125 μg/mL. The spiking recovery of melittin in honeybee venom ranged from 84.88% to 93.05%. Eighteen Asian honeybee venom samples in eighteen batches were collected from two different zones of China, and their melittin contents were measured. The contents of melittin in Asian honeybee venom samples was 33.9–46.23% of dry weight. This method proved a useful tool for the rapid evaluation of the authenticity and quality of Asian honeybee venom in terms of the melittin contents, and will contribute to a broader understanding of Asian honeybee venom.

TFPR1 acts as an immune regulator and an efficient adjuvant for proteins and peptides by activating immune cells, primarily through TLR2

Triflin, a non-toxic protein found in the venom of the Habu snake, belongs to the CRISP (cysteine-rich secretory protein) family, which comprises two domains: a C-terminal cysteine-rich domain (CRD) and an N-terminal pathogenesis-related-1 (PR-1) domain. The function of the highly structurally conserved PR-1 domain is unknown. Here, we successfully expressed the PR-1 domain of triflin (hereafter called TFPR1) in E. coli. Animal experiments showed that TFPR1 augmented Th1-biased antibody- and cell-mediated immune responses in mice immunized with two protein antigens (OVA and HBsAg) or a peptide antigen (HIV-1 pep). A flow cytometry-based binding assay and in vitro stimulation with TFPR1 showed that it triggered Th1-biased proinflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokine secretion primarily by binding to B cells and macrophages within the mouse splenocyte population. Quantitative RT-PCR, antibody blocking assays using a specific anti-mTLR2 antibody, and stimulatory experiments in vitro using splenocytes from TLR2-KO mice demonstrated that TFPR1 activated murine immune cells, primarily by stimulating toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). These results suggest that TFPR1 acts as a novel immune modulator and potent adjuvant primarily by activating TLR2. Thus, the PR-1-based core domain might play a role in immune regulation.

Cytotoxic effects of Pseudocerastes persicus venom and its HPLC fractions on lung cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Several studies have pointed out that certain snake venoms contain compounds presenting cytotoxic activities that selectively interfere with cancer cell metabolism. In this study, Pseudocerastes persicus venom and its fractions were investigated for their anticancer potential on lung cancer cells.

METHODS

Lung cancer cells (A549) and normal fibroblast cells (Hu02) were treated with the P. persicus venom and its HPLC fractions and the cell cytotoxic effects were analyzed using MTT and lactate dehydrogenase release assays. Apoptosis was determined in venom-treated cell cultures using caspase-3 and caspase-9 assay kits.

RESULTS

The treatment of cells with HPLC fraction 21 (25-35 kDa) of P. persicus venom resulted in high LDH release in normal fibroblast cells and high caspase-3 and caspase-9 activities in lung cancer cells. These results indicate that fraction 21 induces apoptosis in cancer cells, whereas necrosis is predominantly caused by cell death in the normal cells. Fraction 21 at the final concentration of 10 μg/mL killed approximately 60% of lung cancer cells, while in normal fibroblast cells very low cell cytotoxic effect was observed.

CONCLUSION

HPLC fraction 21 at low concentrations displayed promising anticancer properties with apoptosis induction in the lung cancer cells. This fraction may, therefore, be considered a promising candidate for further studies.

Circulating miRNAs as Biomarkers for Endometriosis and Endometriosis-Related Ovarian Cancer-An Overview

Early detection and accurate diagnosis are pivotal in the management of endometriosis and endometriosis-related ovarian neoplasms (ERONs), yet there is no clear common ground regarding their pathogenesis. Endometriosis is a debilitating pathology that profoundly impairs the quality of life. Although the spontaneous resolution of endometriosis is possible, studies suggest that it can be a progressive condition, and ERONs can develop. The gold standard for diagnosis remains as the invasive method of laparoscopy followed by histological confirmation. In recent years, novel biomarkers have been discovered. MicroRNAs (miRNA) represent important epigenetic modulators of gene expression and are very attractive as biomarkers due to their lower complexity, tissue specificity, and stability in bodily fluids. Several studies have advanced the possibility of miRNAs becoming potential biomarkers in endometriosis and ERONs. Our aim is to bring these studies together in order to have a better understanding of whether, how, and when miRNAs might be used as biomarkers for these pathologies.

METHODS

We selected the reviewed papers from Google Academic, PubMed, and CrossRef. A total of eight studies met the inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

MiR-200 family, miR-143, 145, miR-20a, and miR199a were the most commonly dysregulated miRNAs in endometriosis, and miR-200 family was found to be dysregulated in both ERONs and endometriosis.

CONCLUSIONS

No single miRNA was considered as a sole biomarker for this pathology. However, since the prognostic value of biomarkers is generally enhanced if more are assessed at the same time, a panel of miRNAs could be a better indicator of the disease.

Coagulation Factor XIIIa Inhibitor Tridegin: On the Role of Disulfide Bonds for Folding, Stability, and Function

Tridegin is a potent and specific 66mer peptide inhibitor of coagulation factor XIIIa with six cysteines involved in three disulfide bonds. Three of the 15 possible 3-disulfide-bonded isomers have been identified, which share a bridge between cysteines 19 and 25. We synthesized the three possible 2-disulfide-bonded analogues using a targeted protecting group strategy to investigate the impact of the C19-C25 bond on tridegin's folding, stability, and function. The FXIIIa inhibitory activity of the analogues was retained, which was shown by in vitro fluorogenic activity and whole blood clotting assays. Molecular dynamics simulations of wild-type tridegin and the analogues as well as molecular docking studies with FXIIIa were performed to elucidate the impact of the C19-C25 bond on conformational stability and binding mode. The strategy of selectively reducing disulfide bonds to facilitate large-scale synthesis, while retaining the functionality of disulfide-bonded peptides, has been demonstrated with our present study.

Structurally Simple Phenanthridine Analogues Based on Nitidine and Their Antitumor Activities

A series of novel structurally simple analogues based on nitidine was designed and synthesized in search of potent anticancer agents. The antitumor activity against human cancer cell lines (HepG2, A549, NCI-H460, and CNE1) was performed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay in vitro. The results showed that some of them had good anticancer activities, especially derivatives with a [(dimethylamino)ethyl]amino side chain in the C-6 position. Planar conjugated compounds 15a, 15b, and 15c, with IC₅₀ values of 1.20 μM, 1.87 μM, and 1.19 μM against CNE1 cells, respectively, were more active than nitidine chloride. Compound 15b and compound 15c with IC₅₀ values of 1.19 μM and 1.37 μM against HepG2 cells and A549 cells demonstrated superior activities to nitidine. Besides, compound 5e which had a phenanthridinone core displayed extraordinary cytotoxicity against all test cells, particularly against CNE1 cells with the IC₅₀ value of 1.13 μM.

To bee or not to bee: The potential efficacy and safety of bee venom acupuncture in humans

Bee venom acupuncture is a form of acupuncture in which bee venom is applied to the tips of acupuncture needles, stingers are extracted from bees, or bees are held with an instrument exposing the stinger, and applied to acupoints on the skin. Bee venom is a complex substance consisting of multiple anti-inflammatory compounds such as melittin, adolapin, apamin. Other substances such as phospholipase A2 can be anti-inflammatory in low concentrations and pro-inflammatory in others. However, bee venom also contains proinflammatory substances, melittin, mast cell degranulation peptide 401, and histamine. Nevertheless, in small studies, bee venom acupuncture has been used in man to successfully treat a number of musculoskeletal diseases such as lumbar disc disease, osteoarthritis of the knee, rheumatoid arthritis, adhesive capsulitis, and lateral epicondylitis. Bee venom acupuncture can also alleviate neurological conditions, including peripheral neuropathies, stroke and Parkinson's Disease. The treatment has even been piloted in one series to alleviate depression. An important concern is the safety of bee venom. Bee venom can cause anaphylaxis, and several deaths have been reported in patients who successfully received the therapy prior to the adverse event. While the incidence of adverse events is unknown, the number of published reports of toxicity is small. Refining bee venom to remove harmful substances may potentially limit its toxicity. New uses for bee venom acupuncture may also be considered.

Millepachine showed novel antitumor effects in cisplatin-resistant human ovarian cancer through inhibiting drug efflux function of ATP-binding cassette transporters

Millepachine (MIL), a bioactive natural chalcone from Chinese herbal medicine Millettia pachycarpa Benth, exhibits strong antitumor effects against many human cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we found that MIL significantly inhibited the proliferation of cisplatin-resistant A2780CP cells via inducing obvious G2/M arrest and apoptosis and down-regulating the activity of topoisomerase II protein. We further found that the mechanism by which MIL showed good antitumor effects in cisplatin-resistant human ovarian cancer was associated with inhibiting the expression of ATP-binding cassette transporters in cisplatin-resistant A2780CP cells. Importantly, MIL did not only significantly inhibit the tumor growth in cisplatin-sensitive A2780S xenograft model, with an inhibitory rate of 73.21%, but also inhibited the tumor growth in the cisplatin-resistant A2780CP xenograft model, with an inhibitory rate of 65.68% (p < 0.001 vs. control; p < 0.001 vs. DDP). In addition, MIL did not induce acquired drug resistance in A2780S tumor-bearing mice with an inhibitory rate of 60.03%. The promising in vitro and in vivo performance indicated that MIL exhibited potential significance for drug research and development.