The Cytotoxic Effect of Apis mellifera Venom with a Synergistic Potential of Its Two Main Components-Melittin and PLA2-On Colon Cancer HCT116 Cell Lines

Anticancer Activity of Melittin-Containing Bee Venom Fraction Against Glioblastoma Cells In Vitro

Previous observations indicating a lower incidence of various types of cancer in beekeepers suggest that greater exposure to stings reduces the risk of cancer development. However, it is not known which of the active compounds of the bee venom (BV) may be responsible for the observed properties. The aim of this study is to evaluate the anti-glioblastoma effect of the main BV fractions. In addition, the effect of BV fractions on the activity of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) was assessed. Commercially available BV was divided into three fractions containing one of the main BV components: apamin (fraction #1), phospholipase A2 (fraction #2), or melittin (fraction #3). The viability of glioblastoma lines (LN18 and LN229) compared to a physiological line (human MO3.13) was assessed using the MTT. MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity was assessed using gelatin zymography. Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases 1 and 2 (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) levels in cell culture media were measured with the ELISA method. The fraction containing apamin did not show cytotoxic activity up to a concentration of 100 µg/mL. The fraction containing phospholipase A2 partially reduced the cells' viability at a concentration of 100 µg/mL. The greatest activity was demonstrated by the melittin-containing fraction which completely reduced the viability of glioma cells from a concentration of 2.5 μg/mL and inhibited the activity of the assessed metalloproteinases in a dose-dependent manner. After 72 h of incubation, the highest concentrations of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 (approximately 150 ng/mL and 100 ng/mL, respectively) were observed in the LN229 line. In all tested lines, fraction #3, crude BV, and melittin reduced the secretion of both inhibitors into the medium in a dose-dependent manner. The melittin-containing fraction possessed anti-glioma properties in vitro, suggesting that melittin may be the main anticancer compound of BV.

Melittin suppresses ovarian cancer growth by regulating SREBP1-mediated lipid metabolism

BACKGROUND

Melittin, a major peptide component of bee venom, has demonstrated promising anti-cancer activity across various preclinical cell models, making it a potential candidate for cancer therapy. However, its molecular mechanisms, particularly in ovarian cancer, remain largely unexplored. Ovarian cancer is a life-threatening gynecological malignancy with poor clinical outcomes and limited treatment options.

PURPOSE

This study evaluated the efficacy of melittin in suppressing ovarian cancer and elucidated its underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

A subcutaneous xenograft tumor model was established using ID8 cells in C57BL/6J mice. RNA sequencing revealed that melittin's anticancer effects were associated with the downregulation of lipid metabolism, particularly fatty acid synthesis. The impact of melittin on de novo fatty acid synthesis was assessed by measuring free fatty acid (FFA), triglyceride (TG), and total cholesterol (TC) levels in ovarian cancer cells. Lipogenic gene expression and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) were analyzed by Western blot and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The regulation of FASN transcription by SREBP1 was explored using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Plasmid DNA transfection and the SREBP1 inhibitor Fatostatin were employed to identify the signaling pathway mediating melittin's anticancer effects.

RESULTS

Our results confirmed that melittin significantly reduced de novo fatty acid synthesis, as evidenced by lower FFA, TG, and lipid droplet levels. Additionally, melittin inhibited the nuclear translocation of SREBP1 and specifically reduced SREBP1-mediated FASN transcription, demonstrating effects similar to those of Fatostatin. The motif (-424/-415) within the FASN promoter is a potential SREBP-1 binding site. SREBP1 overexpression through plasmid DNA transfection significantly counteracted melittin's downregulation of FASN promoter activity and counteracted its inhibitory effects on de novo fatty acid synthesis, cell proliferation, and colony formation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggested that melittin acts as a novel modulator of the SREBP1/FASN pathway, reducing lipogenesis and inhibiting ovarian cancer growth. This study was the first to demonstrate melittin's ability to target the SREBP1/FASN axis in ovarian cancer, identifying SREBP1 as a novel therapeutic target. These results highlighted melittin as a potential therapeutic agent for ovarian cancer by attenuating SREBP1-mediated lipid metabolism and suggested novel treatment strategies for targeting ovarian cancer.

Influence of Apis mellifera syriaca Bee Venom on Nociception and Inflammatory Cytokine Profiles in Experimental Hyperalgesia

Hyperalgesia is a condition marked by an abnormal increase in pain sensitivity, often occurring in response to tissue injury, inflammation, or prolonged exposure to certain medications. Inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, play a central role in this process, amplifying pain perception. Developing effective treatments that address the underlying mechanisms of hyperalgesia is an active field of research. Apis mellifera syriaca venom demonstrated potential immunomodulatory activity associated with cytokine release in vivo. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of Apis mellifera syriaca bee venom (AmsBV) on pain sensitivity in a formalin-induced hyperalgesia mice model and to evaluate the potential role of cytokines associated with the nociception of pain. The hotplate test, used to measure pain latency, showed that hypersensitivity to pain was induced in formalin-injected male mice only, with no changes in females, suggesting a sex-based response to formalin. When applied, AmsBV reduced pain sensitivity in males, suggesting pain relief potential. At the molecular level, AmsBV was able to reduce pro-inflammatory interleukin IL-4 and cytokine IFN-γ, emphasizing its immunomodulatory potential. Interestingly, the venom restored anti-inflammatory IL-10 levels that were significantly decreased in hyperalgesia males. Together, these findings highlight the therapeutic potential for AmsBV in managing inflammation and reducing pain, particularly hyperalgesia.

Melittin and phospholipase A2: Promising anti-cancer candidates from bee venom

As the research on cancer-related treatment deepens, integrating traditional therapies with emerging interventions reveals new therapeutic possibilities. Melittin and phospholipase A2, the primary anti-cancer components of bee venom, are currently gaining increasing attention. This article reviews the various formulations of melittin in cancer therapy and its potential applications in clinical treatments. The reviewed formulations include melittin analogs, hydrogels, adenoviruses, fusion toxins, fusion peptides/proteins, conjugates, liposomes, and nanoparticles. The article also explored the collaborative therapeutic effects of melittin with natural products, synthetic drugs, radiotherapy, and gene expression regulatory strategies. Phospholipase A2 plays a key role in bee venom anti-cancer strategy due to its unique biological activity. Using an extensive literature review and the latest scientific results, this paper explores the current state and challenges of this field, with the aim to provide new perspectives that guide future research and potential clinical applications. This will further promote the application of bee venom in cancer therapy.

Effect of Apis mellifera syriaca Bee Venom on Glioblastoma Cancer: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive and fatal primary brain tumor. The resistance of GBM to conventional treatments is attributed to factors such as the blood-brain barrier, tumor heterogeneity, and treatment-resistant stem cells. Current therapeutic efforts show limited survival benefits, emphasizing the urgent need for novel treatments. In this context, natural anti-cancer extracts and especially animal venoms have garnered attention for their potential therapeutic benefits. Bee venom in general and that of the Middle Eastern bee, Apis mellifera syriaca in particular, has been shown to have cytotoxic effects on various cancer cell types, but not glioblastoma. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential of A. mellifera syriaca venom as a selective anti-cancer agent for glioblastoma through in vitro and in vivo studies. Our results revealed a strong cytotoxic effect of A. mellifera syriaca venom on U87 glioblastoma cells, with an IC50 of 14.32 µg/mL using the MTT test and an IC50 of 7.49 µg/mL using the LDH test. Cells treated with the bee venom became permeable to propidium iodide without showing any signs of early apoptosis, suggesting compromised membrane integrity but not early apoptosis. In these cells, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) underwent proteolytic cleavage similar to that seen in necrosis. Subsequent in vivo investigations demonstrated a significant reduction in the number of U87 cells in mice following bee venom injection, accompanied by a significant increase in cells expressing caspase-3, suggesting the occurrence of cellular apoptosis. These findings highlight the potential of A. mellifera syriaca venom as a therapeutically useful tool in the search for new drug candidates against glioblastoma and give insights into the molecular mechanism through which the venom acts on cancer cells.

Hybrid bio-nanoporous peptide loaded-polymer platforms with anticancer and antibacterial activities

In this study, hybrid bio-nanoporous peptides loaded onto poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-butylacrylate) (pNIPAM-co-BA) coatings were designed and obtained via matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) technique. The incorporation of cationic peptides magainin (MG) and melittin (Mel) and their combination was tailored to target synergistic anticancer and antibacterial activities with low toxicity on normal mammalian cells. Atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as well as contact angle and surface energy measurements revealed the successful and functional incorporation of both the peptides within porous polymeric nanolayers as well as surface modifications (i.e. variation in the pore size diameter, surface roughness, and wettability) after Mel, MG or Mel-MG incorporation compared to pNIPAM-co-BA. In vitro testing revealed the impairment of biofilm formation on all the hybrid coatings while testing with S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Moreover, MG was shown to modulate the effect of Mel in the combined Mel-MG extract formulation released via pNIPAM-platforms, thus significantly reducing cancer cell proliferation through apoptosis/necrosis as revealed by flow cytometry analysis performed in vitro on HEK293T, A375, B16F1 and B16F10 cells. To the best of our knowledge, Mel-MG combination entrapped in the pNIPAM-co-BA copolymer has not yet been reported as a new promising candidate with anticancer and antibacterial properties for improved utility in the biomedical field. Mel-MG incorporation compared to pNIPAM-co-BA in in vitro testing revealed the impairment of biofilm formation in all the hybrid formulations.

Melittin-Phospholipase A2 Synergism Is Mediated by Liquid-Liquid Miscibility Phase Transition in Giant Unilamellar Vesicles

The primary constituents of honeybee venom, melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), display toxin synergism in which the PLA2 activity is significantly enhanced by the presence of melittin. It has been shown previously that this is accomplished by the disruption in lipid packing, which allows PLA2 to become processive on the membrane surface. In this work, we show that melittin is capable of driving miscibility phase transition in giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) and that it raises the miscibility transition temperature (Tmisc) in a concentration-dependent manner. The induced phase separation enhances the processivity of PLA2, particularly at its boundaries, where a substantial difference in domain thickness creates a membrane discontinuity. The catalytic action of PLA2, in response, induces changes in the membrane, rendering it more conducive to melittin binding. This, in turn, facilitates further lipid phase separation and eventual vesicle lysis. Overall, our results show that melittin has powerful membrane-altering capabilities that activate PLA2 in various membrane contexts. More broadly, they exemplify how this biochemical system actively modulates and capitalizes on the spatial distribution of membrane lipids to efficiently achieve its objectives.

Immunomodulatory activities and biomedical applications of melittin and its recent advances

Melittin (MLT), a peptide containing 26 amino acids, is a key constituent of bee venom. It comprises ∼40%-60% of the venom's dry weight and is the main pricing index for bee venom, being the causative factor of pain. The unique properties of MLT extracted from bee venom have made it a very valuable active ingredient in the pharmaceutical industry as this cationic and amphipathic peptide has propitious effects on human health in diverse biological processes. It has the ability to strongly impact the membranes of cells and display hemolytic activity with anticancer characteristics. However, the clinical application of MLT has been limited by its severe hemolytic activity, which poses a challenge for therapeutic use. By employing more efficient mechanisms, such as modifying the MLT sequence, genetic engineering, and nano-delivery systems, it is anticipated that the limitations posed by MLT can be overcome, thereby enabling its wider application in therapeutic contexts. This review has outlined recent advancements in MLT's nano-delivery systems and genetically engineered cells expressing MLT and provided an overview of where the MLTMLT's platforms are and where they will go in the future with the challenges ahead. The focus is on exploring how these approaches can overcome the limitations associated with MLT's hemolytic activity and improve its selectivity and efficacy in targeting cancer cells. These advancements hold promise for the creation of innovative and enhanced therapeutic approaches based on MLT for the treatment of cancer.

Exploring the antibiofilm effects on Escherichia coli biofilm associated with colon cancer and anticancer activities on HCT116 cell line of bee products

The association between dysbiotic microbiota biofilm and colon cancer has recently begun to attract attention. In the study, the apitherapeutic effects of bee products (honey, bee venom, royal jelly, pollen, perga and propolis) obtained from the endemic Yığılca ecotype of Apis mellifera anatoliaca were investigated. Antibiofilm activity were performed by microplate assay using crystal violet staining to measure adherent biofilm biomass of Escherichia coli capable of forming biofilms. Bee venom showed the highest inhibition effect (73.98%) at 50% concentration. Honey, perga and royal jelly reduced biofilm formation by >50% at all concentrations. The antiproliferation effect on the HCT116 colon cancer cell line was investigated with the water‑soluble tetrazolium salt‑1 assay. After 48 h of honey application at 50% concentration, cell proliferation decreased by 86.51%. The high cytotoxic effects of royal jelly and bee venom are also remarkable. Additionally, apoptotic pathway analysis was performed by ELISA using caspase 3, 8 and 9 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. All bee products induced a higher expression of caspase 9 compared with caspase 8. Natural products that upregulate caspase proteins are promising therapeutic targets for proliferative diseases.

The current landscape of the antimicrobial peptide melittin and its therapeutic potential

Melittin, a main component of bee venom, is a cationic amphiphilic peptide with a linear α-helix structure. It has been reported that melittin can exert pharmacological effects, such as antitumor, antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo. In particular, melittin may be beneficial for the treatment of diseases for which no specific clinical therapeutic agents exist. Melittin can effectively enhance the therapeutic properties of some first-line drugs. Elucidating the mechanism underlying melittin-mediated biological function can provide valuable insights for the application of melittin in disease intervention. However, in melittin, the positively charged amino acids enables it to directly punching holes in cell membranes. The hemolysis in red cells and the cytotoxicity triggered by melittin limit its applications. Melittin-based nanomodification, immuno-conjugation, structural regulation and gene technology strategies have been demonstrated to enhance the specificity, reduce the cytotoxicity and limit the off-target cytolysis of melittin, which suggests the potential of melittin to be used clinically. This article summarizes research progress on antiviral, antitumor and anti-inflammatory properties of melittin, and discusses the strategies of melittin-modification for its future potential clinical applications in preventing drug resistance, enhancing the selectivity to target cells and alleviating cytotoxic effects to normal cells.

Enhanced Apigenin Dissolution and Effectiveness Using Glycyrrhizin Spray-Dried Solid Dispersions Filled in 3D-Printed Tablets

This study aimed to prepare glycyrrhizin-apigenin spray-dried solid dispersions and develop PVA filament-based 3D printlets to enhance the dissolution and therapeutic effects of apigenin (APN); three formulations (APN1-APN3) were proportioned from 1:1 to 1:3. A physicochemical analysis was conducted, which revealed process yields of 80.5-91% and APN content within 98.0-102.0%. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the structural preservation of APN, while Powder-XRD analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry indicated its transformation from a crystalline to an amorphous form. APN2 exhibited improved flow properties, a lower Angle of Repose, and Carr's Index, enhancing compressibility, with the Hausner Ratio confirming favorable flow properties for pharmaceutical applications. In vitro dissolution studies demonstrated superior performance with APN2, releasing up to 94.65% of the drug and revealing controlled release mechanisms with a lower mean dissolution time of 71.80 min and a higher dissolution efficiency of 19.2% compared to the marketed APN formulation. This signified enhanced dissolution and improved therapeutic onset. APN2 exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity; superior cytotoxicity against colon cancer cells (HCT-116), with a lower IC50 than APN pure; and increased antimicrobial activity. A stability study confirmed the consistency of APN2 after 90 days, as per ICH, with an f2 value of 70.59 for both test and reference formulations, ensuring reliable pharmaceutical development. This research underscores the potential of glycyrrhizin-apigenin solid dispersions for pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications, particularly highlighting the superior physicochemical properties, dissolution behavior, biological activities, and stability of APN2, while the development of a 3D printlet shell offers promise for enhanced drug delivery and therapeutic outcomes in colon cancer treatment, displaying advanced formulation and processing techniques.

Investigation the effects of bee venom and H-dental-derived mesenchymal stem cells on non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549)

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer, one of the most common oncological diseases worldwide, continues to be the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. The development of new approaches for lung cancer, which still has a low survival rate despite medical advances, is of great importance.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, bee venom (BV), conditioned medium of MSCs isolated from dental follicles (MSC-CM) and cisplatin were applied at different doses and their effects on A549 cell line were evaluated. Dental follicles were used as a source of MSCs source and differentiation kits, and characterization studies (flow cytometry) were performed. Cell viability was measured by the MTT method and apoptosis was measured by an Annexin V-FITC/PI kit on flow cytometer. IC50 dose values were determined according to the 24th hour and were determined as 15.8 µg/mL for BV, 10.78% for MSC-CM and 5.77 µg/mL for cisplatin. IC50 values found for BV and MSC-CM were also given in combination and the effects were observed. It was found that the applied substances caused BV to decrease in cell viability and induced apoptosis in cells. In addition to the induction of apoptosis in BV, MSC-CM, and combined use, all three applications led to an increase in Bax protein expression and a decrease in Bcl-2 protein expression. The molecular mechanism of anticancer activity through inhibition of Bax and Bcl-2 proteins and the NF-κB signaling pathway may be suggested.

CONCLUSION

Isolated MSCs in our study showed anticancer activity and BV and MSC-CM showed synergistic antiproliferative and apoptotic effects.

Bee Venom and Its Two Main Components-Melittin and Phospholipase A2-As Promising Antiviral Drug Candidates

Viruses are known to infect most types of organisms. In humans, they can cause several diseases that range from mild to severe. Although many antiviral therapies have been developed, viral infections continue to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, the discovery of new and effective antiviral agents is desperately needed. Animal venoms are a rich source of bioactive molecules found in natural goods that have been used since ancient times in alternative medicine to treat a variety of human diseases. Recently, and with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, scientists have regained their interest in the possible use of natural products, such as bee venom (BV), as a potential antiviral agent to treat viral infections. BV is known to exert many therapeutic activities such as anti-proliferative, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, there is limited discussion of the antiviral activity of BV in the literature. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the antiviral properties of BV and its two primary constituents, melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), against a variety of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Finally, the innovative strategies used to reduce the toxicity of BV and its two compounds for the development of new antiviral treatments are also considered.

Bothrops atrox venom: Biochemical properties and cellular phenotypes of three highly toxic classes of toxins

Snake venoms have a complex mixture of compounds that are conserved across species and act synergistically, triggering severe local and systemic effects. Identification of the toxin classes that are most damaging to cell homeostasis would be a powerful approach to focus on the main activities that underpin envenomation. Here, we focus on the venom of Bothrops atrox, snake responsible for most of the accidents in Amazon region of South America. We identified the key cytotoxic toxin fractions from B. atrox venom and mapped their biochemical properties, protein composition and cell damage. Five fractions were obtained by mass exclusion chromatography and contained either a single class of enzymatic activity (i.e., L-amino acid oxidases or Hyaluronidases) or different activities co-distributed in two or more protein fractions (e.g., Metalloproteinases, Serine Proteases, or Phospholipases A2). Only three protein fractions reduced cell viability of primary human cells. Strikingly, such activity is accompanied by disruption of cell attachment to substratum and to neighbouring cells. Such strong perturbation of morphological cell features indicates likely defects in tissue integrity in vivo. Mass spectrometry identified the main classes of toxins that contribute to these phenotypes. We provide here a strategy for the selection of key cytotoxic proteins for targeted investigation of their mechanism of action and potential synergism during snakebite envenomation. Our data highlights putative toxins (or combinations of) that may be the focus of future therapeutic interference.

Evaluation of anti-cancer effects of carnosine and melittin-loaded niosomes in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

Background: We investigated the anti-cancer effect of carnosine-loaded niosomes (Car-NIO) and melittin-loaded niosomes (Mel-NIO) with olaparib in breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231). Methods: The thin film method was used for preparing the niosomes and characterized in terms of morphology, size, and polydispersity index (PDI). We further evaluated the impact of these peptides on breast cancer cells viability, RT-qPCR assays, malondialdehyde (MDA) activity, and cell cycle progression, to determine if these are linked to carnosine and melittin's anti-proliferative properties. Results: Car-NIO and Mel-NIO in vitro study inhibited cancer cell viability. They have also upregulated the expression of protein 53 (P53), BCL2-Associated X Protein (Bax), caspase-9, caspase-3, programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4), and Forkhead box O3 (FOXO3), while downregulated the expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2), poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP 1), and MicroRNA-183 (miRNA-183). The MCF-7 cells were arrested at the G2/M phase in Car-NIO, on the other hand, the MDA-MB-231 cells were arrested at the S phase. While the Mel-NIO and olaparib arrested the MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells at the G0/1 phase. Conclusion: Our study successfully declared that Mel-NIO had more anti-cancer effects than Car-NIO in both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells.

Can Bee Venom Be Used as Anticancer Agent in Modern Medicine?

Honey bee venom in its composition contains many biologically active peptides and enzymes that are effective in the fight against diseases of various etiologies. The history of the use of bee venom for medicinal purposes dates back thousands of years. There are many reports in the literature on the pharmacological properties of bee venom and/or its main components, e.g., anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial or neuroprotective properties. In addition, both crude venom and melittin exhibit cytotoxic activity against a wide range of tumor cells, with significant anti-metastatic activity in pre-clinical studies. Due to the constantly increasing incidence of cancer, the development of new therapeutic strategies in oncology is a particular challenge for modern medicine. A review paper discusses the various properties of bee venom with an emphasis on its anticancer properties. For this purpose, the PubMed database was searched, and publications related to "bee", "venom", "cancer" from the last 10 years were selected.

An Updated Review Summarizing the Anticancer Efficacy of Melittin from Bee Venom in Several Models of Human Cancers

Apitherapy (using bee products) has gained broad recognition in cancer therapeutics globally. Honeybee venom has a broad range of biological potential, and its utilization is rapidly emerging in apitherapy. Bee products have significant potential to strengthen the immune system and improve human health. Thus, this review is targeted toward recapitulating the chemo-preventive potential of melittin (MEL), which constitutes a substantial portion of honeybee venom. Honeybee venom (apitoxin) is produced in the venom gland of the honeybee abdomen, and adult bees utilize it as a primary colony defense mechanism. Apitoxin comprises numerous biologically active compounds, including peptides, enzymes, amines, amino acids, phospholipids, minerals, carbohydrates, and volatile components. We are mainly focused on exploring the potential of melittin (a peptide component) of bee venom that has shown promising potential in the treatment of several human cancers, including breast, stomach, lung, prostate, ovary, kidney, colon, gastric, esophageal, cervical cancers, melanoma, osteosarcoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review has summarized all potential studies related to the anticancerous efficacy of melittin (apitoxin), its formulations, conjugates, and nano-formulations against several human carcinomas, which would further pave the way for future researchers in developing potent drugs for cancer management.

Antimicrobial Activity of Apis mellifera Bee Venom Collected in Northern Peru

Due to the emergence of microorganisms resistant to antibiotics and the failure of antibiotic therapies, there is an urgent need to search for new therapeutic options, as well as new molecules with antimicrobial potential. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of Apis mellifera venom collected in the beekeeping areas of the city of Lambayeque in northern Peru against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Bee venom extraction was performed by electrical impulses and separated using the Amicon ultra centrifugal filter. Subsequently, the fractions were quantified by spectrometric 280 nm and evaluated under denaturant conditions in SDS-PAGE. The fractions were pitted against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. A purified fraction (PF) of the venom of A. mellifera and three low molecular weight bands of 7 KDa, 6 KDa, and 5 KDa were identified that showed activity against E. coli with a MIC of 6.88 µg/mL, while for P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, it did not present a MIC. No hemolytic activity at a concentration lower than 15.6 µg/mL and no antioxidant activity. The venom of A. mellifera contains a potential presence of peptides and a predilection of antibacterial activity against E. coli.

Bee Products and Colorectal Cancer—Active Components and Mechanism of Action

Colorectal cancer is one of the most common malignancies in the world. Lifestyle and eating patterns may have a significant impact on the prevention of this type of cancer. Bioactive food ingredients influence the gut microbiome and can have a protective effect. Bee products (honey, propolis, royal jelly, and bee venom) or pharmacologically active fractions obtained from them are widely used in many fields of medicine, pharmacy, and cosmetics. Some evidence suggests that bee products may have anti-cancer potential. The main bioactive components with anti-colon cancer potential from propolis and bee honey are polyphenols such as pinocembrin, galangin, luteolin, CAPE, Artepilin C, chrysin, caffeic, and p-coumaric acids. This review is focused on the new data on epidemiology, risk factors for colon cancer, and current reports on the potential role of bee products in the chemoprevention of this type of cancer.

Melittin inhibits the proliferation migration and invasion of HCC cells by regulating ADAMTS9-AS2 demethylation

BACKGROUND

Melittin (MEL) has been reported to exhibit anti-cancer effects in vitro against several types of cancer. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) ADAMTS9-AS2 can be used as a tumor suppressor. However, there is insufficient data on the potential link between MEL and ADAMTS9-AS2 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

METHODS

RT-qPCR, CCK-8, colony formation, scratch wound healing and transwell assays were used to detect the function of MEL or ADAMTS9-AS2 on HCC cells. Furthermore, Western blot analysis was applied to determine that whether an association existed in MEL or ADAMTS9-AS2 with the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signal pathway. In addition, RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis validated that whether MEL has a demethylation effect.

RESULTS

All the experimental data showed that MEL or ADAMTS9-AS2 inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of MHCC97-H and HepG2 cells, which may relate to PI3K/AKT/mTOR signal pathway. Moreover, the result showed that MEL treatment inhibited the expression of DNA methyltransferase protein-1 (DNMT1), which acted as the role of demethylation, and then up-regulated the expression of ADAMTS9-AS2, affecting the development of HCC.

CONCLUSIONS

ADAMTS9-AS2 played a role in MEL-induced HCC inhibition. This study provided an interesting theoretical basis and further evidence for the potential application of MEL in the treatment of HCC.

Pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of honey bee venom

Honey bee venom (BV) is a valuable product, and has a wide range of biological effects, and its use is rapidly increasing in apitherapy. Therefore, the current study, we reviewed the existing knowledge about BV composition and its numerous pharmacological properties for future research and use. Honey bee venom or apitoxin is produced in the venom gland in the honey bee abdomen. Adult bees use it as a primary colony defense mechanism. It is composed of many biologically active substances including peptides, enzymes, amines, amino acids, phospholipids, minerals, carbohydrates as well as some volatile components. Melittin and phospholipase A₂ are the most important components of BV, having anti-cancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis, anti-nociceptive and other curative potentials. Therefore, in medicine, BV has been used for centuries against different diseases like arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, and various inflammatory infections. Nowadays, BV or its components separately, are used for the treatment of various diseases in different countries as a natural medicine with limited side effects. Consequently, scientists as well as several pharmaceutical companies are trying to get a new understanding about BV, its substances and its activity for more effective use of this natural remedy in modern medicine.

Pharmacological effects and mechanisms of bee venom and its main components: Recent progress and perspective

Bee venom (BV), a type of defensive venom, has been confirmed to have favorable activities, such as anti-tumor, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-infectivity effects, etc. This study reviewed the recent progress on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of BV and its main components against cancer, neurological disorders, inflammatory diseases, pain, microbial diseases, liver, kidney, lung and muscle injury, and other diseases in literature during the years 2018-2021. The related target proteins of BV and its main components against the diseases include Akt, mTOR, JNK, Wnt-5α, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JAK2, Nrf2, BDNF, Smad2/3, AMPK, and so on, which are referring to PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JAK/STAT, Nrf2/HO-1, TrkB/CREB/BDNF, TGF-β/Smad2/3, and AMPK signaling pathways, etc. Further, with the reported targets, the potential effects and mechanisms on diseases were bioinformatically predicted via Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway, disease ontology semantic and enrichment (DOSE) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) analyses. This review provides new insights into the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of BV and its main components on diseases.

Bee venom-loaded EGFR-targeting peptide-coupled chitosan nanoparticles for effective therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma by inhibiting EGFR-mediated MEK/ERK pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the world's most risky diseases due to the lack of clear and cost-effective therapeutic targets. Currently, the toxicity of conventional chemotherapeutic medications and the development of multidrug resistance is driving research into targeted therapies. The nano-biomedical field's potential for developing an effective therapeutic nano-sized drug delivery system is viewed as a significant pharmaceutical trend for the encapsulation and release of numerous anticancer therapies. In this regard, current research is centered on the creation of biodegradable chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) for the selective and sustained release of bee venom into liver cancer cells. Furthermore, surface modification with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and GE11 peptide-conjugated bee venom-CSNPs allows for the targeting of EGFR-overexpressed liver cancer cells. A series of in vitro and in vivo cellular analyses were used to investigate the antitumor effects and mechanisms of targeted bee venom-CSNPs. Targeted bee venom-CSNPs, in particular, were found to have higher cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells than SMMC-7721 cells, as well as stronger cellular uptake and a substantial reduction in cell migration, leading to improved cancer suppression. It also promotes cancer cell death in EGFR overexpressed HepG2 cells by boosting reactive oxygen species, activating mitochondria-dependent pathways, inhibiting EGFR-stimulated MEK/ERK pathway, and elevating p38-MAPK in comparison to native bee venom. In hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-induced mice, it has anti-cancer properties against tumor tissue. It also improved liver function and architecture without causing any noticeable toxic side effects, as well as inhibiting tumor growth by activating the apoptotic pathway. The design of this cancer-targeted nanoparticle establishes GE11-bee venom-CSNPs as a potential chemotherapeutic treatment for EGFR over-expressed malignancies. Finally, our work elucidates the molecular mechanism underlying the anticancer selectivity of targeted bee venom-CSNPs and outlines therapeutic strategies to target liver cancer.

Apis mellifera syriaca Venom: Evaluation of Its Anticoagulant Effect, Proteolytic Activity, and Cytotoxicity along with Its Two Main Compounds-MEL and PLA2-On HeLa Cancer Cells

Bee venom (BV) is one of the most remarkable natural products that has been a subject of studies since ancient times. Recent studies have shown that Apis mellifera syriaca venom possesses antibacterial as well as cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines. The venom contains a variety of bioactive molecules-mainly melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), as well as other compounds that are not well characterized. In this work, we continue the biological characterization of A. mellifera syriaca venom by testing its anticoagulant effect on human plasma using the prothrombin time (PT) test, as well as assessing its proteolytic activity. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the crude venom-and of its two main components, MEL and PLA2-was tested on HeLa cancer cell lines for the first time. The results obtained showed the capacity of A. mellifera syriaca venom to increase clotting time, thereby proving its anticoagulant effect. Moreover, the venom did not demonstrate a significant proteolytic activity unless administrated at concentrations ≥ 5 mg/mL. Finally, we showed that crude A. mellifera syriaca venom, along with MEL, exhibit a strong in vitro cytotoxic effect on HeLa cancer cell lines, even at low concentrations. In summary, our findings could serve as a basis for the development of new natural-based drug candidates in the therapeutic field.

Single-molecule phospholipase A2 becomes processive on melittin-induced membrane deformations

While it is established that the topology of lipid membranes plays an important role in biochemical processes, few direct observations exist regarding how the membranes are actively restructured and its consequences on subsequent reactions. In this work, we investigated how the two major components of bee venom, melittin and phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂), achieve activation by such membrane remodeling. Their membrane-disrupting functions have been reported to increase when both are present, but the mechanism of this synergism had not been established. Using membrane reconstitution, we found that melittin can form large-scale membrane deformities upon which PLA₂ activity is 25-fold higher. Tracking of single-molecule PLA₂ revealed that its processive behavior on these deformities underlies the enhanced activity. These results show how melittin and PLA₂ work synergistically to enhance the lytic effects of the bee venom. More broadly, they also demonstrate how the membrane topology may be actively altered to modulate cellular membrane-bound reactions.

High PLA2 level is correlated with glioblastoma progression via regulating DNA replication

Phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are a superfamily of enzymes, playing a critical role in the development of various human cancers. However, the mechanism of PLA2 as an oncogene in glioblastoma remains largely unknown. In this study, we explored the effects of PLA2 on glioblastoma and investigated the underlying mechanism. The results showed that PLA2 was highly expressed in glioblastoma. Patients with a high PLA2 level have low overall survival than those with low PLA2 expression. PLA2 overexpression promoted glioblastoma cell proliferation and viability and inhibited cell apoptosis by inducing cell cycle transition from G1 to S stage. Knockdown of PLA2 inhibited tumor growth in the xenograft mice model. In addition, PLA2 knockdown decreased the protein level of MCM2 and MCM5. These findings identify PLA2 as an oncogene in glioblastoma progression and provide a promising strategy to treat glioblastoma in the future.

Synergistic Cytotoxic Effect of Honey Bee Venom and Cisplatin on Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cell Line

BACKGROUND: Tongue cancer is one of the most common head and neck cancers in the world. Nowadays, natural compounds are important resources of many anti-cancer drugs. Venom from honey bees possesses potent anti-cancer activities. Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic drug that has been used for decades to treat cancer cells. Recently, combination therapy has been a popular treatment choice for cancer patients. AIM: This study was conducted to evaluate the synergistic cytotoxic effect of honey bee venom (BV) and cisplatin on tongue squamous cell carcinoma 25 (SCC-25) cell lines. METHODS: The cytotoxic effect was determined using methyl thiazol tetrazolium assay, microscopic examination, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and statistical analysis. RESULTS: The findings revealed that the cytotoxic potential of the tested drugs on SCC-25 cells was dose-dependent. Microscopic examination showed that BV and cisplatin alone and in combination mainly produced apoptotic cell death. Regarding RT-PCR results, P53 and caspase-3 expression levels were significantly increased in SCC-25-treated cells (p = 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The combined use of BV and cisplatin induced a marked synergistic cytotoxic effect on SCC-25 cell line.

Beehive Products as Antibacterial Agents: A Review

Honeybees are one of the most marvelous and economically beneficial insects. As pollinators, they play a vital role in every aspect of the ecosystem. Beehive products have been used for thousands of years in many cultures for the treatment of various diseases. Their healing properties have been documented in many religious texts like the Noble Quran and the Holy Bible. Honey, bee venom, propolis, pollen and royal jelly all demonstrated a richness in their bioactive compounds which make them effective against a variety of bacterial strains. Furthermore, many studies showed that honey and bee venom work as powerful antibacterial agents against a wide range of bacteria including life-threatening bacteria. Several reports documented the biological activities of honeybee products but none of them emphasized on the antibacterial activity of all beehive products. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the antibacterial activity of honey, bee venom, propolis, pollen and royal jelly, that are produced by honeybees.