Formulation and Characterization of Acetazolamide/Carvedilol Niosomal Gel for Glaucoma Treatment: In Vitro, and In Vivo Study

Acetazolamide-loaded intravitreal implants for the treatment of glaucoma: formulation, physicochemical characterization and assessment of in vitro and in vivo safety

Glaucoma is a leading cause of permanent blindness, currently affecting over 75 million individuals worldwide. Treatments primarily aim to lower intraocular pressure (IOP), with acetazolamide being a common pharmacotherapy. However, systemic side effects and poor bioavailability limit its clinical effectiveness. This study presents the development and physicochemical and safety evaluation of biodegradable intravitreal implants loaded with acetazolamide using polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), designed to enhance targeted drug delivery directly to the vitreous humor. The acetazolamide-loaded PLGA implants were successfully fabricated via hot molding, yielding cylindrical rods measuring 5.00 ± 0.02 mm in diameter. Incorporation efficiency reached approximately 92 %, with a uniform drug dose of 230 μg/g. Comprehensive physicochemical characterization confirmed compatibility between the drug and polymer, with stability demonstrated for at least 6 months. The implants exhibited a biphasic drug release profile, sustaining approximately 50 % of the drug over 42 days without an initial burst, indicating their potential for effective and prolonged glaucoma management. Safety assessments revealed that the implants did not induce retinal toxicity at doses up to 0.020 mmol/L. In vitro cytotoxicity assays with ARPE-19 cells and in vivo tests - electroretinography, Goldmann applanation tonometry, optical coherence tomography, and histological analysis - showed no adverse effects on retinal function or structure. Importantly, the implants significantly reduced IOP in normotensive rabbits, confirming their therapeutic potential. This innovative approach represents a promising alternative for glaucoma treatment, addressing the limitations of current modalities while providing sustained drug delivery and enhanced safety.

Formulation Advances in Posterior Segment Ocular Drug Delivery

Posterior segment ocular diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and retinal vein occlusion, are leading causes of vision impairment and blindness worldwide. Effective management of these conditions remains a formidable challenge due to the unique anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye, including the blood-retinal barrier and rapid drug clearance mechanisms. To address these hurdles, nanostructured drug delivery systems are proposed to overcome ocular barriers, target the retina, and enhance permeation while ensuring controlled release. Traditional therapeutic approaches, such as intravitreal injections, pose significant drawbacks, including patient discomfort, poor compliance, and potential complications. Therefore, understanding the physiology and clearance mechanism of eye could aid in the design of novel formulations that could be noninvasive and deliver drugs to reach the target site is pivotal for effective treatment strategies. This review focuses on recent advances in formulation strategies for posterior segment ocular drug delivery, highlighting their potential to overcome these limitations. Furthermore, the potential of nanocarrier systems such as in-situ gel, niosomes, hydrogels, dendrimers, liposomes, nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions for drug delivery more effectively and selectively is explored, and supplemented with illustrative examples, figures, and tables. This review aims to provide insights into the current state of posterior segment drug delivery, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary approaches to develop patient-centric, minimally invasive, and effective therapeutic solutions.

Nano-spanlastics-loaded dissolving microneedle patches for ketotifen fumarate: advanced strategies for allergic conjunctivitis treatment and molecular insights

Allergic conjunctivitis (AC) is the most common inflammatory disease affecting the eye's ocular surface, lid, conjunctiva, and cornea. However, effective ocular drug delivery remains challenging due to physiological barriers such as the corneal barrier. Ketotifen (KF), a widely used antihistamine and mast cell stabilizer, for treating AC and atopic asthma but belongs to the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS II) have poor solubility. This study developed a multiple strategies approach for the first time, utilizing the spanlastics nano-vesicular carriers' system (SP) containing KF using an ethanol injection method. The optimized KF-SP exhibited the smallest particle size, largest zeta-potential and entrapment efficiency ∼232.5 ± 1.9 nm, -28 ± 0.51 and 73 ± 0.02%, respectively were further incorporated into PVA/PVP polymeric dissolving microneedles (MNs) by using a micromolding technique. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed well-defined tips and morphology, and in vitro studies showed a controlled 93% cumulative release over 72 h, with a zero-order kinetic release profile, providing stable therapeutic levels. Pharmacodynamic evaluation using the Ovalbumin/Aluminium hydroxide-induced AC model demonstrated significant reductions in IgE, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels by 68.7%, 71.3%, and 67.6%, respectively, while TGF-β and IL-10 levels increased by 70.1% and 62.7% using ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay). Gene expression analysis (IGF-1, Annexin A1, and Bcl2) further supported the therapeutic potential of this system. In this study, we proved the topical application of the multiple strategies approach KF-SP loaded PVA/PVP MNs patch offers a targeted, sustained release treatment for AC, with promising implications for prolonged ocular therapy.

Quality by design for Niosome-Based nanocarriers to improve transdermal drug delivery from lab to industry

Niosomes are essentially multilamellar or unilamellar vesicles based on non-ionic surfactants. They consist of surfactant macromolecules arranged in a bilayer, which surrounds an aqueous solute solution. Amphiphilic, biodegradable, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly materials are utilized for encapsulating the drugs in vesicles that enhance the bioavailability, therapeutic efficacy, penetration of drug via the skin, and drug release in a controlled or sustained manner, and are employed to target the anticipated area via modifying composition that acts to minimize undesirable effects. With cholesterol as the lipid, Tween 20, Span 60, and Tween 60 are mostly employed as surfactants. Many medications, including Glibenclamide for diabetic kidney disease and anti-cancer medications including gemcitabine, cisplatin, and nintedanib, have been effectively encapsulated into niosomes. The traditional approach for creating niosomes at the lab scale is a thin film hydration process. The ideal ratio between primary components as well as critical manufacturing process parameters is key component in creating the best niosomal formulations with substantial drug loading and nanometric form. Utilizing the Design of Experiments (DoE) and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) in conjunction with Quality by design (QbD) is essential for comprehending how these variables interact both during lab preparation and during the scale-up process. Research on the development of anti-aging cosmetics is being done by Loreal. Niosomal preparations like Lancome are sold in stores. An overview of niosomes, penetration mechanisms, and quality by design from laboratory to industrial scale is provided in this article.

Enhancing Photothermal Therapy for Antibiofilm Wound Healing: Insights from Graphene Oxide-Cranberry Nanosheet Loaded Hydrogel in vitro, in silico, and in vivo Evaluation

Background

Diabetic foot ulcers present a formidable challenge due to colonization by biofilm-forming microorganisms, heightened oxidative stress, and continuous wound maceration caused by excessive exudation.

Methods

To address these issues, we developed a robust, stretchable, electro-conductive, self-healing, antioxidant, and antibiofilm hydrogel. This hydrogel was synthesized through the crosslinking of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and chitosan (CH) with boric acid. To enhance its antimicrobial efficacy, graphene oxide (GO), produced via electrochemical exfoliation in a zinc ion-based electrolyte medium, was incorporated. For optimal antibiofilm performance, GO was functionalized with cranberry (CR) phenolic extracts, forming a graphene oxide-cranberry nanohybrid (GO-CR).

Results

The incorporation of GO-CR into the hydrogel significantly improved its stretchability (280% for PVA/CH/GO-CR compared to 200% for PVA/CH). Additionally, the hydrogel demonstrated efficient photothermal conversion under near-infrared (NIR) light, enabling dynamic exudate removal, which is expected to minimize retained exudate between the wound and the dressing, reducing the risk of wound maceration. The hydrogel effectively reduced levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced skin inflammation markers, significantly lowering the expression of NLRP3, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β by 39.2%, 31.9%, 41%, and 52.3%, respectively. Histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses further confirmed reduced inflammation and enhanced wound healing.

Conclusion

The PVA/CH/GO-CR hydrogel exhibits multifunctional properties that enhance wound healing ulcers. Its superior mechanical, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties and ability to promote angiogenesis make it a promising candidate for effective wound management in diabetic patients.

Coassembly of Cell-Penetrating Peptide Octaarginine with Acetazolamide: Emergent Interactions with E. coli

The investigation of established pharmaceutical agents for recalibrating usage strongly supplements new drug development. In this work, we have prepared coassembled complexes of acetazolamide (AZM) with the cationic peptide octaarginine (R8) in an attempt to enhance its potency and scope of use. R8 and AZM in different weight ratios coassemble into remarkable nano- and microstructures such as ribbons, sheets, and stick-like structures. A combination of FTIR, XRD, SEM, and DSC has been used to characterize the R8:AZM coassemblies. The sulfonamide SO2 and NH2 groups of AZM are associated with the guanidinium amine, free amine, and terminal carbonyl groups of R8 resulting in distinctive topologies. Treatment of Escherichia coli with the complexes results in a distinctive pattern of membrane disruption and pore formation. The R8:AZM coassemblies inhibit carbonic anhydrase and E. coli growth with greater efficiency compared to bare AZM. The 1:5 w/w complex leads to pronounced outer and inner membrane rupture and significantly restricts glucose uptake by E. coli. The ability of R8 and AZM to coassemble into a distinctive set of structures based solely on differences in their relative proportions and their engagement with E. coli as more than the sum of their parts are novel facets of R8 and AZM behavior and underscore a straightforward and elegant approach for enhancing the scope of use of small molecule drugs.

Design, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic evaluation of a lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticle-loaded dual-responsive in situ gel of nebivolol for effective treatment of glaucoma

In this research work, optimized nebivolol-loaded lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles (NEB-LCNPs) were prepared using sequential screening and optimization designs. The design of experiments software (DoE) was used to obtain a robust formulation that can improve ocular delivery of the NEB in the treatment of glaucoma. The optimized NEB-LCNPs had a mean particle size of 170.5 ± 5.3 nm and drug loading of 10.5 ± 1.2%. These were further loaded in a dual-responsive in situ gel, designed and reported previously by our group. The NEB-LCNPs loaded in situ gel (NEB-LCNPs-ISG) was characterized for physicochemical properties, rheological behavior, stability, in vitro dissolution, and ocular in vivo studies. The ocular pharmacokinetics showed that NEB-LCNPs-ISG had two-fold higher aqueous humor exposure with AUC0-tlast of 375.4 ng × h/mL and sustained drug concentrations for longer durations (1.7-folds higher duration with a mean residence time of 10.6 h) in comparison to a conventional aqueous suspension of NEB (NEB-Susp). Similarly, the pharmacodynamic study showed that NEB-LCNPs-ISG resulted in a higher percentage reduction in intraocular pressure (% ΔIOP) of 28.1 ± 1.8% × h, which was 2.2-times higher reduction compared to NEB-Susp (74.2 ± 3.2% × h). In addition, the pharmacodynamic effect was more sustained with a mean response time of 11.3 ± 0.2 h, a 2.8-times higher response time compared to NEB-Susp (4.06 ± 0.3 h). These results suggest that NEB-LCNPs-ISG was more effective than the conventional aqueous suspension of NEB in the treatment of glaucoma.

Intranasal bilosomes in thermosensitive hydrogel: advancing desvenlafaxine succinate delivery for depression management

Depression, the second biggest cause of disability worldwide, is widespread. Many antidepressant medications, including Desvenlafaxine Succinate (D.V.S.), function by elevating neurotransmitter levels at the synapse through the inhibition of reabsorption by neurons. However, the effectiveness of these treatments is often limited by their inability to reach the brain using conventional administration methods. Bilosome-stabilized nanovesicles containing bile salts have drawn much interest because of their adaptability and versatility in various applications. This study aimed to address this issue by formulating intranasal bilosomes incorporated into a mucoadhesive in situ gel to deliver D.V.S. directly to the brain for depression treatment. The desvenlafaxine-loaded bilosomes were developed using a thin film hydration method based on the l-optimal design. They were intended to provide a more convenient route of administration for antidepressants, enhancing bioavailability and brain targeting through intranasal delivery. The study assessed the optimized bilosomes for particle size (311.21 ± 0.42 nm), Zeta potential (-37.35 ± 0.43)and encapsulation efficiency (99.53 ± 0.41%) and further evaluated them in ex vivo and in vivo pharmacokinetics studies. Pharmacokinetic data reveal enhanced brain uptake compared to a free drug. A statistically optimized bilosome formulation was determined. The intranasal administration of mucoadhesive in situ gel containing desvenlafaxine succinate-loaded bilosomes facilitated direct nose-to-brain drug delivery, improving brain bioavailability.

Fabrication of acetazolamide loaded leciplex for intraocular delivery: Optimization by 32 full factorial design, in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo pharmacodynamics

The complex structure of the eye poses challenges in delivering drugs effectively, which can be circumvented by employing nanotechnologies. The present study aimed to prepareacetazolamide-loadedleciplex (ACZ - LP) using a simple one-step fabrication approach followed byoptimization employing a 32 Full Factorial Design. The ACZ - LP demonstrated high entrapment efficiency (93.25 ± 2.32 %), average diameter was recorded around 171.03 ± 3.32 with monodisperse size distribution and zeta potential of 41.33 ± 2.10 mV. Invitro release and ex vivo permeation studies of prepared formulation demonstrated an initial burst release in 1 h followed by sustained release pattern as compared to plain acetazolamide solution. Moreover, an ex vivo corneal drug retention (27.05 ± 1.20 %) and in vitro mucoadhesive studies with different concentration of mucin indicated strong electrostatic bonding confirming the mucoadhesive characteristics of the formulation. Additionally, the histopathological studies ensured that the formulation was non-irritant and nontoxic while and HET-CAM ensured substantial tolerability of the formulation. The in vivo pharmacodynamic investigation carried out on a rabbit model demonstrated that treatment with ACZ - LP resulted in a significant and prolonged reduction in intraocular pressure as compared to plain acetazolamide solution, acetazolamide oral tablet, and Brinzox®. In summary, the ACZ - LP is anefficient and versatile drug delivery approach which demonstrates significant potential in controlling glaucoma.

Enhanced Antibacterial Activity of Clindamycin Using Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Nanoparticles Loaded with Polyurethane Nanofibrous Scaffolds for the Treatment of Acne Vulgaris

Acne vulgaris, a prevalent skin condition, arises from an imbalance in skin flora, fostering bacterial overgrowth. Addressing this issue, clindamycin molecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles (Clin-MIP) loaded onto polyurethane nanofiber scaffolds were developed for acne treatment. Clin-MIP was synthesized via precipitation polymerization using methacrylic acid (MAA), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA), and azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as functional monomers, crosslinkers, and free-radical initiators, respectively. MIP characterization utilized Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) before being incorporated into polyurethane nanofibers through electrospinning. Further analysis involved FTIR, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in vitro release studies, and an ex vivo study. Clin-MIP showed strong antibacterial activity against S. aureus, with inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of 0.39 and 6.25 μg/mL, respectively. It significantly dropped the bacterial count from 1 × 108 to 39 × 101 CFU/mL in vivo and has bactericidal activity within 180 min of incubation in vitro. The pharmacodynamic and histopathology studies revealed a significant decrease in infected animal skin inflammation, epidermal hypertrophy, and congestion upon treatment with Clin-MIP polyurethane nanofiber and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines (NLRP3, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) conducive to acne healing. Consequently, the recently created Clin-MIP polyurethane nanofibrous scaffold. This innovative approach offers insight into creating materials with several uses for treating infectious wounds caused by acne.

Formulation, optimization and evaluation of ocular gel containing nebivolol Hcl-loaded ultradeformable spanlastics nanovesicles: In vitro and in vivo studies

The study aims to improve the ocular delivery of Nebivolol HCL (NBV) belonging to the Biopharmaceutics classification system (BCSII) by using spanlastic nanovesicles (SNVs) for ophthalmic delivery and incorporating them into hydroxypropyl methylcellulose gel with ketorolac tromethamine (KET) as an anti-inflammatory to improve glaucoma complications like Conjunctivitis. SNVs were prepared by ethanol injection technique using span (60) as a surfactant and labrasol as an edge activator (EA). The impact of formulation factors on SNVs properties was investigated using a Box-Behnken design. In vitro evaluations showed that the formulations (F1, F4, and F14), containing Span 60 and labrasol as EA (25%, 50%, and 25%), exhibited high EE% with low PS and high ZP and DI. Additionally, 61.72 ± 0.77%, 58.97 ± 1.44%, and 56.20 ± 2.32% of the NBV amount were released from F1, F4, and F14 after 5 h, compared to 93.94 ± 1.21% released from drug suspension. The selected formula (G1), containing F1 in combination with KET and 2% w/w HPMC, exhibited 76.36 ± 0.90% drug release after 12 h. Ex vivo Confocal laser scanning revealed a high penetration of NBV-SNVs gel that ascertained the results of the in-vitro study. In vivo studies showed a significant decrease in glaucoma compared to drug suspension, and histopathological studies showed improvement in glaucomatous eye retinal atrophy. G1 is considered a promising approach to improving ocular permeability, absorption, and anti-inflammatory activity, providing a safer alternative to current regimens.

Optimized mucoadhesive niosomal carriers for intranasal delivery of carvedilol: A quality by design approach

Carvedilol (CV), a β-blocker essential for treating cardiovascular diseases, faces bioavailability challenges due to poor water solubility and first-pass metabolism. This study developed and optimized chitosan (CS)-coated niosomes loaded with CV (CS/CV-NS) for intranasal (IN) delivery, aiming to enhance systemic bioavailability. Utilizing a Quality-by-Design (QbD) approach, the study investigated the effects of formulation variables, such as surfactant type, surfactant-to-cholesterol (CHOL) ratio, and CS concentration, on CS/CV-NS properties. The focus was to optimize specific characteristics including particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (EE%), and mucin binding efficiency (MBE%). The optimal formulation (Opt CS/CV-NS), achieved with a surfactant: CHOL ratio of 0.918 and a CS concentration of 0.062 g/100 mL, using Span 60 as the surfactant, exhibited a PS of 305 nm, PDI of 0.36, ZP of + 33 mV, EE% of 63 %, and MBE% of 57 %. Opt CS/CV-NS was characterized for its morphological and physicochemical properties, evaluated for stability under different storage conditions, and assessed for in vitro drug release profile. Opt CS/CV-NS demonstrated a 1.7-fold and 4.8-fold increase in in vitro CV release after 24 h, compared to uncoated CV-loaded niosomes (Opt CV-NS) and free CV, respectively. In vivo pharmacokinetic (PK) study, using a rat model, demonstrated that Opt CS/CV-NS achieved faster Tmax and higher Cmax compared to free CV suspension indicating enhanced absorption rate. Additionally, Opt CV-NS showed a 1.68-fold higher bioavailability compared to the control. These results underscore the potential of niosomal formulations in enhancing IN delivery of CV, offering an effective strategy for improving drug bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy.

Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles from Althaea officinalis Flower Extract Coated with Chitosan for Potential Healing Effects on Diabetic Wounds by Inhibiting TNF-α and IL-6/IL-1β Signaling Pathways

Background

Diabetes Mellitus is a multisystem chronic pandemic, wound inflammation, and healing are still major issues for diabetic patients who may suffer from ulcers, gangrene, and other wounds from uncontrolled chronic hyperglycemia. Marshmallows or Althaea officinalis (A.O.) contain bioactive compounds such as flavonoids and phenolics that support wound healing via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. Our study aimed to develop a combination of eco-friendly formulations of green synthesis of ZnO-NPs by Althaea officinalis extract and further incorporate them into 2% chitosan (CS) gel.

Method and Results

First, develop eco-friendly green Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) and incorporate them into a 2% chitosan (CS) gel. In-vitro study performed by UV-visible spectrum analysis showed a sharp peak at 390 nm, and Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometry showed a peak of zinc and oxygen. Besides, Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) was used to qualitatively validate biosynthesized ZnO-NPs, and transmission electron microscope (TEM) showed spherical nanoparticles with mean sizes of 76 nm and Zeta potential +30mV. The antibacterial potential of A.O.-ZnO-NPs-Cs was examined by the diffusion agar method against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Based on the zone of inhibition and minimal inhibitory indices (MIC). In addition, an in-silico study investigated the binding affinity of A.O. major components to the expected biological targets that may aid wound healing. Althaea Officinalis, A.O-ZnO-NPs group showed reduced downregulation of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α and increased IL-10 levels compared to the control group signaling pathway expression levels confirming the improved anti-inflammatory effect of the self-assembly method. In-vivo study and histopathological analysis revealed the superiority of the nanoparticles in reducing signs of inflammation and wound incision in rat models.

Conclusion

These biocompatible green zinc oxide nanoparticles, by using Althaea Officinalis chitosan gel ensure an excellent new therapeutic approach for quickening diabetic wound healing.

Drug interactions of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and activators

INTRODUCTION

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) have been established drug targets for decades, with their inhibitors and activators possessing relevant pharmacological activity and applications in various fields. At least 11 sulfonamides/sulfamates are clinically used as diuretics, antiglaucoma, antiepileptic, or antiobesity agents and one derivative, SLC-0111, is in clinical trials as antitumor/antimetastatic agent. The activators were less investigated with no clinically used agent.

AREAS COVERED

Drug interactions between CA inhibitors/activators and various other agents are reviewed in publications from the period March 2020 - January 2024.

EXPERT OPINION

Drug interactions involving these agents revealed several interesting findings. Acetazolamide plus loop diuretics is highy effective in acute decompensated heart failure, whereas ocular diseases such as X-linked retinoschisis and macular edema were treated by acetazolamide plus bevacizumab or topical NSAIDs. Potent anti-infective effects of acetazolamide and other CAIs, alone or in combination with other agents were demonstrated for the management of Neisseria gonorrhoea, vancomycin resistant enterococci, Acanthamoeba castellanii, Trichinella spiralis, and Cryptococcus neoformans infections. Topiramate, in combination with phentermine is incresingly used for the management of obesity, whereas zonisamide plus levodopa is highly effective for Parkinson's disease. Acetazolamide, methazolamide, ethoxzolamide, and SLC-0111 showed synergistic antitumor/antimetastatic action in combination with many other antitumor drugs.

The study of wound healing activity of Thespesia populnea L. bark, an approach for accelerating healing through nanoparticles and isolation of main active constituents

The present study provides an evaluation for the wound healing activity of the ethanolic extract of Thespesia populnea L. bark (EBE) and its successive fractions in two doses level (1&2%), designed for determining the most bioactive fraction and the suitable dose. Furthermore, development of the most convenient formulation for these bioactive fractions through either their direct incorporation into hydrogel formulations or incorporation of chitosan-loaded nanoparticles with these bioactive fractions into hydrogel formulations. The highest excision wound healing activity was observed in petroleum ether (Pet-B) followed by ethyl acetate (Etac-B) fractions at the high dose (2%). The most suitable formulation designed for the Etac-B fraction was found to be the chitosan-loaded nanoparticles incorporated in the hydrogel formulation, while the conventional hydrogel formulation was observed to be the highly acceptable formulation for Pet-B fraction. Further phytochemical studies of the bioactive fractions led to the isolation of many compounds of different chemical classes viz; beta-sitosterol and lupeol acetate isolated from the Pet-B, in addition to cyanidin and delphinidin from the Etac-B. Our results revealed that EBE and its bioactive fractions (Pet-B & Etac-B) could be considered as strong wound healers through their anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, in addition to stimulating collagen synthesis.

Revolutionizing Psoriasis Topical Treatment: Enhanced Efficacy Through Ceramide/Phospholipid Composite Cerosomes Co-Delivery of Cyclosporine and Dithranol: In-Vitro, Ex-Vivo, and in-Vivo Studies

Purpose

Improving the treatment of psoriasis is a serious challenge today. Psoriasis is an immune-mediated skin condition affecting 125 million people worldwide. It is commonly treated with cyclosporine-A (CsA) and dithranol (DTH). CsA suppresses the activation of T-cells, immune cells involved in forming psoriatic lesions. Meanwhile, DTH is a potent anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative drug that effectively reduces the severity of psoriasis symptoms such as redness, scaling, and skin thickness. CsA and DTH belong to BCS class II with limited oral bioavailability. We aim to develop a drug delivery system for topical co-delivery of CsA and DTH, exploring its therapeutic potential.

Methods

Firstly, we developed a niosomal drug delivery system based on ceramide IIIB to form Cerosomes. Cerosomes were prepared from a mixture of Ceramide, hyaluronic acid, and edge activator using a thin-film hydration technique. To co-deliver CsA and DTH topically for the treatment of psoriasis. These two hydrophobic drugs encapsulated into our synthesized positively charged particle cerosomes.

Results

 Cerosomes had an average particle size of (222.36 nm± 0.36), polydispersity index of (0.415±0.04), Entrapment Efficiency of (96.91%± 0.56), and zeta potential of (29.36±0.38mV) for selected formula. In vitro, In silico, in vivo, permeation, and histopathology experiments have shown that cerosomes enhanced the skin penetration of both hydrophobic drugs by 66.7% compared to the CsA/DTH solution. Imiquimod (IMQ) induced psoriatic mice model was topically treated with our CsA/DTH cerosomes. We found that our formulation enhances the skin penetration of both drugs and reduces psoriasis area and severity index (PASI score) by 2.73 times and 42.85%, respectively, compared to the CsA/DTH solution. Moreover, it reduces the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-10, and IL-6 compared to CsA/DTH solution administration.

Conclusion

The Cerosomes nano-vesicle-containing CsA/DTH represents a more promising topical treatment for psoriasis, giving new hope to individuals with psoriasis, compared to commercial and other conventional alternatives.

Cross-Linked Alginate Dialdehyde/Chitosan Hydrogel Encompassing Curcumin-Loaded Bilosomes for Enhanced Wound Healing Activity

The current study aimed to fabricate curcumin-loaded bilosomal hydrogel for topical wound healing purposes, hence alleviating the poor aqueous solubility and low oral bioavailability of curcumin. Bilosomes were fabricated via the thin film hydration technique using cholesterol, Span® 60, and two different types of bile salts (sodium deoxycholate or sodium cholate). Bilosomes were verified for their particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (EE%), and in vitro drug release besides their morphological features. The optimum formulation was composed of cholesterol/Span® 60 (molar ratio 1:10 w/w) and 5 mg of sodium deoxycholate. This optimum formulation was composed of a PS of 246.25 ± 11.85 nm, PDI of 0.339 ± 0.030, ZP of -36.75 ± 0.14 mv, EE% of 93.32% ± 0.40, and the highest percent of drug released over three days (96.23% ± 0.02). The optimum bilosomal formulation was loaded into alginate dialdehyde/chitosan hydrogel cross-linked with calcium chloride. The loaded hydrogel was tested for its water uptake capacity, in vitro drug release, and in vivo studies on male Albino rats. The results showed that the loaded hydrogel possessed a high-water uptake percent at the four-week time point (729.50% ± 43.13) before it started to disintegrate gradually; in addition, it showed sustained drug release for five days (≈100%). In vivo animal testing and histopathological studies supported the superiority of the curcumin-loaded bilosomal hydrogel in wound healing compared to the curcumin dispersion and plain hydrogel, where there was a complete wound closure attained after the three-week period with a proper healing mechanism. Finally, it was concluded that curcumin-loaded bilosomal hydrogel offered a robust, efficient, and user-friendly dosage form for wound healing.

Emphasis on Nanostructured Lipid Carriers in the Ocular Delivery of Antibiotics

BACKGROUND

Drug distribution to the eye is still tricky because of the eye's intricate structure. Systemic delivery, as opposed to more traditional methods like eye drops and ointments, is more effective but higher doses can be harmful.

OBJECTIVE

The use of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs) as a method of drug delivery has been the subject of research since the 1990s. Since SLNPs are derived from naturally occurring lipids, they pose no health risks to the user. To raise the eye's absorption of hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, SLNs can promote corneal absorption and improve the ocular bioavailability of SLNPs.

METHODS

To address problems related to ocular drug delivery, many forms of nano formulation were developed. Some of the methods developed are, emulsification and ultra-sonication, high-speed stirring and ultra-sonication, thin layer hydration, adapted melt-emulsification, and ultrasonication techniques, hot o/w micro-emulsion techniques, etc. Results: Nanostructured lipid carriers are described in this review in terms of their ocular penetration mechanism, structural characteristic, manufacturing process, characterization, and advantages over other nanocarriers.

CONCLUSION

Recent developments in ocular formulations with nanostructured bases, such as surfacemodified attempts have been made to increase ocular bioavailability in both the anterior and posterior chambers by incorporating cationic chemicals into a wide variety of polymeric systems.

Development of Carvedilol Nanoformulation-Loaded Poloxamer-Based In Situ Gel for the Management of Glaucoma

The objective of the current study was to fabricate a thermosensitive in situ gelling system for the ocular delivery of carvedilol-loaded spanlastics (CRV-SPLs). In situ gel formulations were prepared using poloxamer analogs by a cold method and was further laden with carvedilol-loaded spanlastics to boost the precorneal retention of the drug. The gelation capacity, rheological characteristics, muco-adhesion force and in vitro release of various in situ gel formulations (CS-ISGs) were studied. The optimized formula (F2) obtained at 22% w/v poloxamer 407 and 5% w/v poloxamer 188 was found to have good gelation capacity at body temperature with acceptable muco-adhesion properties, appropriate viscosity at 25 °C that would ease its ocular application, and relatively higher viscosity at 37 °C that promoted prolonged ocular residence of the formulation post eye instillation and displayed a sustained in vitro drug release pattern. Ex vivo transcorneal penetration studies through excised rabbit cornea revealed that F2 elicited a remarkable (p ˂ 0.05) improvement in CRV apparent permeation coefficient (Papp = 6.39 × 10-6 cm/s) compared to plain carvedilol-loaded in situ gel (CRV-ISG; Papp = 2.67 × 10-6 cm/s). Most importantly, in normal rabbits, the optimized formula (F2) resulted in a sustained intraocular pressure reduction and a significant enhancement in the ocular bioavailability of carvedilol, as manifested by a 2-fold increase in the AUC0-6h of CRV in the aqueous humor, compared to plain CRV-ISG formulation. To sum up, the developed thermosensitive in situ gelling system might represent a plausible carrier for ophthalmic drug delivery for better management of glaucoma.

Development of canagliflozin nanocrystals sublingual tablets in the presence of sodium caprate permeability enhancer: formulation optimization, characterization, in-vitro, in silico, and in-vivo study

Canagliflozin (CFZ) is a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2) that lowers albuminuria in type-2 diabetic patients, cardiovascular, kidney, and liver disease. CFZ is classified as class IV in the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) and is characterized by low permeability, solubility, and bioavailability, most likely attributed to hepatic first-pass metabolism. Nanocrystal-based sublingual formulations were developed in the presence of sodium caprate, as a wetting agent, and as a permeability enhancer. This formulation is suitable for children and adults and could enhance solubility, permeability, and avoid enterohepatic circulation due to absorption through the sublingual mucosa. In the present study, formulations containing various surfactants (P237, P338, PVA, and PVP K30) were prepared by the Sono-homo-assisted precipitation ion technique. The optimized formula prepared with PVP-K30 showed the smallest particle size (157 ± 0.32 nm), Zeta-potential (-18 ± 0.01), and morphology by TEM analysis. The optimized formula was subsequently formulated into a sublingual tablet containing Pharma burst-V® with a shorter disintegration time (51s) for the in-vivo study. The selected sublingual tablet improved histological and biochemical markers (blood glucose, liver, and kidney function), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and protein kinase B (AKT) pathway compared to the market formula, increased CFZ's antidiabetic potency in diabetic rabbits, boosted bioavailability by five-fold, and produced faster onset of action. These findings suggest successful treatment of diabetes with CFZ nanocrystal-sublingual tablets.

PEGylated Tween 80-functionalized chitosan-lipidic nano-vesicular hybrids for heightening nose-to-brain delivery and bioavailability of metoclopramide

A PEGylated Tween 80-functionalized chitosan-lipidic (PEG-T-Chito-Lip) nano-vesicular hybrid was developed for intranasal administration as an alternative delivery route to help improve the poor oral bioavailability of BCS class-III model/antiemetic (metoclopramide hydrochloride; MTC). The influence of varying levels of chitosan, cholesterol, PEG 600, and Tween 80 on the stability/release parameters of the formulated nanovesicles was optimized using Draper-Lin Design. Two optimized formulations (Opti-Max and Opti-Min) with both maximized and minimized MTC-release goals, were predicted, characterized, and proved their vesicular outline via light/electron microscopy, along with the mutual prompt/extended in-vitro release patterns. The dual-optimized MTC-loaded PEG-T-Chito-Lip nanovesicles were loaded in intranasal in-situ gel (ISG) and further underwent in-vivo pharmacokinetics/nose-to-brain delivery valuation on Sprague-Dawley rats. The absorption profiles in plasma (plasma-AUC_0-∞) of the intranasal dual-optimized MTC-loaded nano-vesicular ISG formulation in pretreated rats were 2.95-fold and 1.64-fold more than rats pretreated with orally administered MTC and intranasally administered raw MTC-loaded ISG formulation, respectively. Interestingly, the brain-AUC_0-∞ of the intranasal dual-optimized MTC-loaded ISG was 10 and 3 times more than brain-AUC_0-∞ of the MTC-oral tablet and the intranasal raw MTC-loaded ISG, respectively. It was also revealed that the intranasal dual-optimized ISG significantly had the lowest liver-AUC_0-∞ (862.19 ng.g^-1.h^-1) versus the MTC-oral tablet (5732.17 ng.g^-1.h^-1) and the intranasal raw MTC-loaded ISG (1799.69 ng.g^-1.h^-1). The brain/blood ratio profile for the intranasal dual-optimized ISG was significantly enhanced over all other MTC formulations (P < 0.05). Moreover, the 198.55% drug targeting efficiency, 75.26% nose-to-brain direct transport percentage, and 4.06 drug targeting index of the dual-optimized formulation were significantly higher than those of the raw MTC-loaded ISG formulation. The performance of the dual-optimized PEG-T-Chito-Lip nano-vesicular hybrids for intranasal administration evidenced MTC-improved bioavailability, circumvented hepatic metabolism, and enhanced brain targetability, with increased potentiality in heightening the convenience and compliance for patients.

Formulation of lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles of the phytochemical Fisetin and its in vivo assessment against severe acute pancreatitis

Fisetin (FST) is a naturally occurring flavonol that has recently emerged as a bioactive phytochemical with an impressive array of biological activities. To the author knowledge, boosting the activity of FST against severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) through a nanostructured delivery system (Nanophytomedicine) has not been achieved before. Thereupon, FST-loaded lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (FST-loaded LPHNPs) were prepared through conjoined ultrasonication and double emulsion (w/o/w) techniques. Comprehensive in vitro and in vivo evaluations were conducted. The optimized nanoparticle formula displayed a high entrapment efficiency % of 61.76 ± 1.254%, high loading capacity % of 32.18 ± 0.734, low particle size of 125.39 ± 0.924 nm, low particle size distribution of 0.357 ± 0.012, high zeta potential of + 30.16 ± 1.416 mV, and high mucoadhesive strength of 35.64 ± 0.548%. In addition, it exhibited a sustained in vitro release pattern of FST. In the in vivo study, oral pre-treatment of FST-loaded LPHNPs protected against L-arginine induced SAP and multiple organ injuries in rats compared to both FST alone and plain LPHNPs, as well as the untreated group, proven by both biochemical studies, that included both amylase and lipase activities, and histochemical studies of pancreas, liver, kidney and lungs. Therefore, the study could conclude the potential efficacy of the novel phytopharmaceutical delivery system of FST as a prophylactic regimen for SAP and consequently, associated multiple organ injuries.

Chitosan-decorated and tripolyphosphate-crosslinked pH-sensitive niosomal nanogels for Controlled release of fluoropyrimidine 5-fluorouracil

In the present study, 5-fluorouracil-loaded niosomal nanoparticles were successfully prepared and coated with chitosan and subsequently crosslinked by tripolyphosphate to form niosomal nanogels. The prepared niosomal formulations were fully characterized for their particle size, zeta potential, particle morphology, drug entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release profile. The prepared niosomal nanocarriers exhibited nanoscale particle sizes of 165.35 ± 2.75-322.85 ± 2.75 nm. Chitosan-coated and TPP-crosslinked niosomes exhibited a slightly decreased in particle size and a switch of zeta potential from negative to positive values. In addition, high yield percentage, drug encapsulation efficiency, and drug loading values of 92.11 ± 2.07 %, 66.59 ± 6.06, and 4.65 ± 0.5 were obtained for chitosan-coated formulations, respectively. Moreover, lowering the rate of 5-FU in vitro release was achieved within 72 h by using chitosan-coated formulations. All prepared formulations revealed hemocompatible properties in hemolysis assay with less than 5 % hemolysis percentage at their higher possible concentrations (500 µM and 1 mM). The cell viability by MTT assay showed higher anticancer activity against B16F10 cancerous cells and lower cytotoxicity toward NIH3T3 normal cells than control and pure 5-FU in the studied concentration range (10-100 µM). Investigating the cell migration inhibition properties of fabricated formulations revealed similar results with in vitro cell viability assay with a higher migration inhibition rate for B16F10 cells than NIH3T3 cells, controls, and free 5-FU.

OPTIMIZING LEVETIRACETAM SURFACTANT-BASED NANOVESICLES (LEV-NVS) GEL FOR TREATING EPILEPSY USING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Objective: To develop and estimate the intranasal delivery of Levetiracetam surfactant-based nanovesicles (Lev-Nvs) as a brain-targeted antiepileptic delivery system prepared via solvent evaporation technique. Methods: Optimized formulation F (OPT) chosen by the Design-Expert® program gave the highest entrapment efficiency (EE%) was incorporated into the gel. An experimental design was adopted utilizing various (span 65) surfactants and different cholesterol ratios. The (Lev-Nvs) nanovesicles were formulated by solvent evaporation technique and evaluated for in vitro characterization parameters such as zeta sizer, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), zeta potential. The nasal gel was evaluated for drug-excipient interactions utilizing Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and subjected to in vitro and in vivo release studies. Results: The results indicated that the entrapment efficiency (EE%) of Levetiracetam surfactant-based nano-vesicles (Lev-Nvs) could be modulated by the alterations in surfactant and cholesterol concentrations. Optimized formulation F (OPT) showed an entrapment efficiency of (87.9±1.06 %), (206.7±20.43 nm) particle size, (-34.1) zeta potential and (0.979) PDI. The nanovesicle nasal gels of the F(OPT) were prepared using Carbopol 940 at different concentrations. G 0.375 formulation showed the best in vitro drug release (87.36%) after 12 h. Finally, the comparative in vivo pharmaco-kinetics release studies on rats revealed considerable, sustained release of the nanovesicle nasal gel and higher relative bioavailability than an equivalent dose of oral solution (293.85%). Conclusion: Our study proves the improved efficacy of Levetiracetam as a surfactant-based nanovesicle intranasal gel in the brain targeting antiepileptic medication.

Recent Progress in Chitosan-Based Nanomedicine for Its Ocular Application in Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a degenerative, chronic ocular disease that causes irreversible vision loss. The major symptom of glaucoma is high intraocular pressure, which happens when the flow of aqueous humor between the front and back of the eye is blocked. Glaucoma therapy is challenging because of the low bioavailability of drugs from conventional ocular drug delivery systems such as eye drops, ointments, and gels. The low bioavailability of antiglaucoma agents could be due to the precorneal and corneal barriers as well as the low biopharmaceutical attributes of the drugs. These limitations can be overcome by employing nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. Over the last decade, there has been a lot of interest in chitosan-based nanoparticulate systems to overcome the limitations (such as poor residence time, low corneal permeability, etc.) associated with conventional ocular pharmaceutical products. Therefore, the main aim of the present manuscript is to review the recent research work involving the chitosan-based nanoparticulate system to treat glaucoma. It discusses the significance of the chitosan-based nanoparticulate system, which provides mucoadhesion to improve the residence time of drugs and their ocular bioavailability. Furthermore, different types of chitosan-based nanoparticulate systems are also discussed, namely nanoparticles of chitosan core only, nanoparticles coated with chitosan, and hybrid nanoparticles of chitosan. The manuscript also provides a critical analysis of contemporary research related to the impact of this chitosan-based nanomedicine on the corneal permeability, ocular bioavailability, and therapeutic performance of loaded antiglaucoma agents.

Enhanced Efficacy of Carvedilol by Utilization of Solid Dispersion and Other Novel Strategies: A Review

Carvedilol is classified as a second class drug of Biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS), and it is an excellent beta blocker and vasodilating agent. It is used in a diverse range of disease states. Despite having tremendous advantages, the drug cannot be used effectively and productively due to aquaphobicity and poor bioavailability. To overcome this limitation, numerous novel approaches and tactics have been introduced over the past few years, such as Selfmicro emulsifying drug delivery systems (SMEDDS), nanoparticles, solid dispersions and liposomal drug delivery. The present review aims to accentuate the role of solid dispersion in improving the dissolution profile and aqua solubility of carvedilol and also to emphasize other novel formulations of carvedilol proposed to prevail the limitations of carvedilol. Solid dispersion and other novel approaches were found to play a significant role in overcoming the drawbacks of carvedilol, among which solid dispersion is the most feasible and effective approach being used worldwide. Reduced particle size, more wettability, and large surface area are obtained by the implementation of solid dispersion technique, hence improving carvedilol solubility and bioavailability.

Biosynthesis and Characterization of Gold and Copper Nanoparticles from Salvadora persica Fruit Extracts and Their Biological Properties

Introduction

Metal nanoparticle synthesis using plant has emerged as an eco-friendly, clean, and viable strategy alternative to chemical and physical approaches.

Methods

The fruit extract of Salvadora persica (SP) was utilized as a reducing and stabilizing agent in the synthesis of gold (AuNPs) and copper (CuNPs) nanoparticles.

Results

UV-Vis spectra of the AuNPs and CuNPs showed peaks at the wavelengths of 530 nm and 440 nm, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy showed that nanoparticles exhibited a mainly spherical form, with a distribution range of 100 to 113 nm in diameter for AuNPs and of 130 to 135 nm in diameter for CuNPs. While energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy was able to confirm the existence of AuNPs and CuNPs. The alcoholic extract of the fruit SP was analyzed by GC-MS in order to identify whether or not it contained any active phytochemicals. Fourier-transform infrared spectra confirmed the presence capping functional biomolecules of SP on the surface of nanoparticles that acts as stabilizers. Analysis of the zeta potential revealed that NPs with high degree of stability, as demonstrated by a strong negative potential value in the range of 25.2 to 28.7 mV. Results showed that both green AuNPs and CuNPs have potential antimicrobial activity against human pathogens such gram-negative bacteria and gram-positive bacteria, with CuNPs having antimicrobial activity higher than AuNPs. In addition, AuNPs and CuNPs have promising antioxidant and anticancer properties when applied to MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Studies of molecular docking of SP bioactive compounds were conducted against methenyl tetrahydrofolate synthetase. Among all of them, Beta - Sitosterol was the most prominent.

Conclusion

These AuNPs and CuNPs are particularly appealing in a variety of applications in the pharmaceutical and medicinal industries due to their economical and environmentally friendly production.

Fabrication of nanostructured lipid carriers ocugel for enhancing Loratadine used in treatment of COVID-19 related symptoms: statistical optimization, in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo studies evaluation

Loratadine (LORA), is a topical antihistamine utilized in the treatment of ocular symptoms of COVID-19. The study aimed to develop a Loratadine Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Ocugel (LORA-NLCs Ocugel), enhance its solubility, trans-corneal penetrability, and bioavailability. full-factorial design was established with 2⁴ trials to investigate the impact of several variables upon NLCs properties. LORA-NLCs were fabricated by using hot melt emulsification combined with high-speed stirring and ultrasonication methods. All obtained formulae were assessed in terms of percent of entrapment efficiency (EE%), size of the particle (PS), zeta potential (ZP), as well as in-vitro release. Via using Design Expert® software the optimum formula was selected, characterized using FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and stability studies. Gel-based of optimized LORA-NLCs was prepared using 4% HPMC k100m which was further evaluated in terms of physicochemical properties, Ex-vivo, and In-vivo studies. The optimized LORA-NLCs, comprising Compritol 888 ATO^®, Labrasol^®, and Span^® 60 showed EE% of 95.78 ± 0.67%, PS of 156.11 ± 0.54 nm, ZP of -40.10 ± 0.55 Mv, and Qh6% of 99.67 ± 1.09%, respectively. Additionally, it illustrated a spherical morphology and compatibility of LORA with other excipients. Consequently, gel-based on optimized LORA-NLCs showed pH (7.11 ± 0.52), drug content (98.62%± 1.31%), viscosity 2736 cp, and Q12% (90.49 ± 1.32%). LORA-NLCs and LORA-NLCs Ocugel exhibited higher ex-vivo trans-corneal penetrability compared with the aqueous drug dispersion. Confocal laser scanning showed valuable penetration of fluoro-labeled optimized formula and LORA-NLCs Ocugel through corneal. The optimized formula was subjected to an ocular irritation test (Draize Test) that showed the absence of any signs of inflammation in rabbits, and histological analysis showed no effect or damage to rabbit eyeballs. C_max and the AUC_0-24 were higher in LORA-NLCs Ocugel compared with pure Lora dispersion-loaded gel The research findings confirmed that NLCs could enhance solubility, trans-corneal penetrability, and the bioavailability of LORA.

Chitosan-coated bovine serum albumin nanoparticles for topical tetrandrine delivery in glaucoma: in vitro and in vivo assessment

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness. Therapies available suffer from several drawbacks including low bioavailability, repeated administration and poor patient compliance with adverse effects thereafter. In this study, bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA-NPs) coated with chitosan(CS) were developed for the topical delivery of tetrandrine (TET) for glaucoma management. Optimized nanoparticles were prepared by desolvation. pH, BSA, CS and cross-linking agent concentrations effects on BSA-NPs colloidal properties were investigated. CS-BSA-NPs with particle size 237.9 nm and zeta potential 24 mV was selected for further evaluation. EE% exceeded 95% with sustained release profile. In vitro mucoadhesion was evaluated based on changes in viscosity and zeta potential upon incubation with mucin. Ex vivo transcorneal permeation was significantly enhanced for CS coated formulation. In vitro cell culture studies on corneal stromal fibroblasts revealed NPs biocompatibility with enhanced cellular uptake and improved antioxidant and anti-proliferative properties for the CS-coated formulation. Moreover, BSA-NPs were nonirritant as shown by HET-CAM test. Also, bioavailability in rabbit aqueous humor showed 2-fold increase for CS-TET-BSA-NPs compared to TET with a sustained reduction in intraocular pressure in a rabbit glaucoma model. Overall, results suggest CS-BSA-NPs as a promising platform for topical ocular TET delivery in the management of glaucoma.

Lipid-Based Nanovesicular Drug Delivery Systems

In designing a new drug, considering the preferred route of administration, various requirements must be fulfilled. Active molecules pharmacokinetics should be reliable with a valuable drug profile as well as well-tolerated. Over the past 20 years, nanotechnologies have provided alternative and complementary solutions to those of an exclusively pharmaceutical chemical nature since scientists and clinicians invested in the optimization of materials and methods capable of regulating effective drug delivery at the nanometer scale. Among the many drug delivery carriers, lipid nano vesicular ones successfully support clinical candidates approaching such problems as insolubility, biodegradation, and difficulty in overcoming the skin and biological barriers such as the blood-brain one. In this review, the authors discussed the structure, the biochemical composition, and the drug delivery applications of lipid nanovesicular carriers, namely, niosomes, proniosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, pharmacosomes, ufasomes, phytosomes, catanionic vesicles, and extracellular vesicles.

Transdermal Delivery of Telmisartan: Formulation, in vitro, ex vivo, Iontophoretic Permeation Enhancement and Comparative Pharmacokinetic Study in Rats

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to prepare telmisartan transethosomes, incorporate them into a gel, evaluate them for in vitro drug release and in vivo permeation using iontophoresis to enhance their transdermal delivery.

Materials and Methods

TE formulae were prepared using various surfactants (SAAs), different ethanol concentrations, and different phospholipid-to-SAA ratios with different cholesterol ratios, characterized according to their entrapment efficiency percentage (EE%), zeta potential (ZP), particle size (PS), and polydispersity index (PDI). The optimum three formulae were incorporated into a gel, evaluated physically, in vitro dissolution, and ex vivo drug permeation using rat skin and Iontophoresis was performed on the best formula.

Results

The optimum three formulae (F29, F31, F32) had an EE% of 97±0.26%, 89±0.25% and 88±0.17%, PS of 244±5.88 nm, 337±4.6 nm and 382.2±3.06 nm, PDI of 0.57±1.9, 0.5±1.4 and 0.63±2.2 and ZP of −31.6±1.59 mV, −28.3±3.79 mV and −31±5.65, respectively. Selecting F29 for in vivo study by iontophoretic enhancement, Cmax was increased by 1.85 folds compared to the commercial oral tablet and by 1.5 folds compared to transdermal gel. Tmax decreased by half using iontophoresis compared to commercial tablets and transdermal gel.

Conclusion

The transethosomal formulation of telmisartan enhanced its transdermal absorption and increased its bioavailability as well. Iontophoresis was used to increase maximum plasma concentration and reduce Tmax by half.