Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs): An Advanced Drug Delivery System Targeting Brain through BBB

Harnessing unique architecture and emerging strategies of solid lipid nanoparticles to combat colon cancer: A state-of-the-art review

Cancer is a serious worldwide public health problem, ranking as the second leading cause of death in the United States. The third most prevalent tumor kind in the world is a colon or rectal tumor. Colon Cancer (CC) is the third most common cancer worldwide and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally. In the US, CC has become the 2nd most common cause of death after having different advancements like detection, surgery, and chemotherapy. The current strategies for treating colon cancer have several disadvantages, including higher toxicity, drug resistance, damage to healthy cells, solubility, specificity, a lower therapeutic index, and more. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are a viable targeted treatment option for colon cancer to avoid this problem. This comprehensive review discussed the severity, pathophysiology, risk factors, and stages of colon cancer. The review covers the most effective colon cancer therapy and diagnostic procedures, including HSgFOBT, Fecal immunological test (FIT), Colonoscopy, FIT-DNA Test/mt-sDNA screening test, Colon capsule (CCE), Blood-based DNA Tests, and Flexible sigmoidoscopy. This reviewemphasizes the need for novel and specific approaches to colon cancer treatment to improve patient outcomes.

Emerging nano-derived therapy for the treatment of dementia: a comprehensive review

Dementia includes a variety of neurodegenerative diseases that affect and target the brain's fundamental cognitive functions. It is undoubtedly one of the diseases that affects people globally. The ameliorating the disease is still not known; the symptoms, however, can be prevented to an extent. Dementia encompasses Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Lewy body dementia, mixed dementia, and various other diseases. The aggregation of β-amyloid protein plaques and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles have been concluded as the foremost cause for the onset of the disease. As the cases climb, new neuroprotective methods are being developed in the form of new drug delivery systems that provide targeted delivery. Herbal drugs like Ashwagandha, Brahmi, and Cannabis have shown satisfactory results by not only treating the symptoms but have also been shown to reduce and ameliorate the formation of amyloid plaque formation. This article explores the intricate possibilities of drug delivery and the absolute use of herbal drugs to target neurodegenerative diseases. The various possibilities of nanotechnology currently available with new emerging techniques are also discussed.

Melatonin and the nervous system: nanomedicine perspectives

The mechanism of action of melatonin on the nervous system, sleep, cognitive deficits, and aging is not fully understood. Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) are one of the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide. Sleeping and cognitive impairments also represent common and serious public health problems, particularly deteriorating with the aging process. Melatonin, as a neuromodulatory hormone, regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle, with functions extending to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-aging properties. However, melatonin is a hydrophobic compound with relatively low water solubility and a short half-life. While melatonin can cross the blood-brain barrier, exogenous melatonin administered orally or intravenously has poor bioavailability, undergoes rapid metabolism in the circulation, and shows limited brain accumulation, ultimately compromising its therapeutic efficacy. In recent years, the convergence of melatonin research with nanomedicine ensures safe therapeutic uses, limited drug degradation, and perspectives for targeted drug delivery to the central nervous system. Here we outline the promising neurotherapeutic properties of nanomaterials as carriers loaded with melatonin drug alone or in combinations with other active molecules.

Slightly viscous oxidized alginate dispersions as vehicles for intranasal administration of the α-synuclein aggregation inhibitor Anle 138b in free form or encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles

The aim of the present work was to evaluate the performance of slightly viscous dispersions (SVDs) of the mucoadhesive oxidized alginate (Alg OX) with or without hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) as vehicles for brain delivery of the α-synuclein aggregation inhibitor Anle 138b loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (Anle 138b SLNs) by intranasal administration. For this purpose, the required Anle 138b loaded SLNs were prepared employing the self-emulsifying Gelucire® 50/13 as lipid matrix following the melt emulsification method. The resulting nanocarriers showed a mean diameter of 99 ± 3 nm, an average zeta potential of -5.0 ± 0.2 mV and the encapsulation efficiency of 65 ± 2 %. Their stability on storage was found of a month at 4 °C and 24 h at 37 °C. Solid state studies on Anle 138b SLNs, based on FT-IR and Raman at mid- and at higher-frequency spectra, suggested that the inhibitor is endowed with higher fluidity compared to the pure drug and X-ray diffraction spectra allowed us to assess the reduced crystallinity state for Anle 138b SLNs. The Alg OX based SVDs were prepared by aqueous dispersion of mucoadhesive polymer at low concentrations to which SLN pellets were added. Drug release studies employing SVDs and SNF/mucin mixture as release medium showed quantitative release of the inhibitor within 48 h. We conclude that Anle 138b SLN Alg OX/HPMC SVD constitutes a promising formulation due to its capability to provide the inhibitor in quantitative and sustained way, being not cytotoxic towards human RPMI 2650 cells and neuronal SH-SY5Y cells.

Lipid Nanocarriers as Precision Delivery Systems for Brain Tumors

Brain tumors, particularly glioblastomas, represent the most complicated cancers to treat and manage due to their highly invasive nature and the protective barriers of the brain, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The efficacy of currently available treatments, viz., radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, are frequently limited by major side effects, drug resistance, and restricted drug penetration into the brain. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a promising and targeted delivery system for brain tumors. Lipid nanocarriers have gained tremendous attention for brain tumor therapeutics due to multiple drug encapsulation abilities, controlled release, better biocompatibility, and ability to cross the BBB. Herein, a detailed analysis of the design, mechanisms, and therapeutic benefits of LNPs in brain tumor treatment is discussed. Moreover, we also discuss the safety issues and clinical developments of LNPs and their current and future challenges. Further, we also focused on the clinical transformation of LNPs in brain tumor therapy by eliminating side effects and engineering the LNPs to overcome the related biological barriers, which provide personalized, affordable, and low-risk treatment options.

Development and optimization of curcumin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles using Box-Behnken design and evaluation of its efficacy in modulating morphine-induced conditioned place preference: in vivo and in silico studies

Drug addiction, particularly to opioids like morphine, remains a pressing global health issue. Curcumin, a natural flavonoid, holds promise for treating neurological disorders, yet faces challenges, such as poor solubility and limited bioavailability across the blood-brain barrier. Solid lipid nanoparticles offer a solution, facilitating drug delivery to the brain. Using the Box-Behnken design, nanoparticles were optimised, yielding particles sized 152 nm, with a polydispersity index of 0.254, and an encapsulation efficiency of 70.74%. These nanoparticles enhance curcumin concentration and retention in brain tissue. Behavioural experiments using the conditioned place preference (CPP) test confirmed curcumin's impact on morphine addiction and its modulation of c-Fos gene expression. Pharmacological network analysis identified potential mechanisms of action, highlighting common targets in calcium and serotonin pathways. Docking simulations showed curcumin's affinity for proteins like 5HT1A, MAO-A, and TRPV1, relevant to addiction pathways. This research underscores the potential of curcumin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles as a therapeutic approach for combating opioid addiction and neurological disorders.

Advancing neurological disorders therapies: Organic nanoparticles as a key to blood-brain barrier penetration

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a vital role in protecting the central nervous system (CNS) by preventing the entry of harmful pathogens from the bloodstream. However, this barrier also presents a significant obstacle when it comes to delivering drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain cancer. Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology have paved the way for the creation of a wide range of nanoparticles (NPs) that can serve as carriers for diagnosis and therapy. Regarding their promising properties, organic NPs have the potential to be used as effective carriers for drug delivery across the BBB based on recent advancements. These remarkable NPs have the ability to penetrate the BBB using various mechanisms. This review offers a comprehensive examination of the intricate structure and distinct properties of the BBB, emphasizing its crucial function in preserving brain balance and regulating the transport of ions and molecules. The disruption of the BBB in conditions such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease highlights the importance of developing creative approaches for delivering drugs. Through the encapsulation of therapeutic molecules and the precise targeting of transport processes in the brain vasculature, organic NP formulations present a hopeful strategy to improve drug transport across the BBB. We explore the changes in properties of the BBB in various pathological conditions and investigate the factors that affect the successful delivery of organic NPs into the brain. In addition, we explore the most promising delivery systems associated with NPs that have shown positive results in treating neurodegenerative and ischemic disorders. This review opens up new possibilities for nanotechnology-based therapies in cerebral diseases.

Peptide-based inhibitors and nanoparticles: Emerging therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes, impacting millions of individuals worldwide. Despite significant research into its cellular and molecular mechanisms, no cure has been found to treat AD to date. For over two decades, research aimed at treating AD has focused on targeting amyloid-β (Aβ); however, these strategies have not demonstrated substantial effectiveness. Consequently, research is now expanding towards targeting other hallmarks of the disease, such as tau protein and brain metal ions. Among potential therapeutics against these pathophysiological targets, peptide-based inhibitors are notable for their high selectivity and low toxicity. Despite these advantages, they face obstacles such as a short half-life in vivo and low efficiencies in crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The use of nanoparticles (NPs) to deliver peptide-based inhibitors to the brain offers unique advantages, such as enhanced stability against degradation, improvement in targeted delivery, and reduced potential for immunogenic responses. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of emerging peptides tested as treatments for AD against Aβ, tau protein, and brain metal ions and to evaluate NPs as a means to overcome the limitations. These peptide-based inhibitors are promising, as they not only alleviate symptoms but also aim to prevent progressive neuronal loss, and NPs can be highly effective in delivering these inhibitors.

A review on the role of nanoparticles for targeted brain drug delivery: synthesis, characterization, and applications

Unfortunately, nowadays, brain disorders, which include both neurological and mental disorders, are the main cause of years spent living with a disability worldwide. There are serious diseases with a high prevalence and a high mortality rate. However, the outmoded technical infrastructure makes their treatment difficult. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) serves as a protective mechanism for the central nervous system (CNS) and regulates its homeostatic processes. The brain is protected against injury and illness by an extremely complex system that precisely regulates the flow of ions, very few tiny molecules, and an even smaller number of macromolecules from the blood to the brain. Nevertheless, the BBB also considerably inhibits the delivery of medications to the brain, making it impossible to treat a variety of neurological diseases. Several strategies are now being studied to enhance the transport of drugs over the BBB. According to this research, nanoparticles are one of the most promising agents for brain disease treatment while many conventional drugs are also capable of crossing this barrier but there are amazing facts about nanoparticles in brain drug delivery. For example, 1. Precision Targeting: Through mechanisms such as receptor-mediated transport, ligand attachment, or the use of external stimuli (e.g., magnetic or thermal guidance), nanoparticles can deliver drugs specifically to diseased areas of the brain while minimizing exposure to healthy tissues. This targeted approach reduces side effects and enhances therapeutic outcomes. 2. Improved Drug Stability: Drugs can be encapsulated by nanoparticles, which keeps them stable and shields them from deterioration while being transported to the brain. 3. Therapeutic Payload: Nanoparticles possess a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, enabling them to encapsulate a substantial quantity of therapeutic agents relative to their size. This allows for enhanced drug delivery efficiency, maximizing therapeutic outcomes while potentially reducing the required dosage to achieve the desired effect. 4. Imaging Properties: Certain nanoparticles can also act as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), allowing for the real-time visualization of drug distribution and administration in the brain. 5. Combination Therapy Possibility: Nanoparticles can be designed to co-deliver multiple medications or therapeutic agents, which could enhance synergistic effects. There have been in vivo studies where nanoparticles were successfully used for combination therapies, demonstrating potential for personalized treatments. One notable example is in cancer treatment, where nanoparticles have been designed to co-deliver multiple chemotherapeutic agents. In general, brain medication delivery by nanoparticles is a novel strategy that has the potential to revolutionize neurological disease therapy and enhance patient outcomes. The study furthermore includes a concise depiction of the structural and physiological characteristics of the BBB, and it also provides an overview of the nanoparticles that are most often used in medicine. A brief overview of the structural and physiochemical characteristics of the NPs, as well as the most popular nanoparticles used in medicine, is also included in the review.

Nanotherapeutics for Meningitis: Enhancing Drug Delivery Across the Blood-Brain Barrier

Meningitis is the acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes, surrounding the brain and spinal cord, and this inflammatory process spreads throughout the subarachnoid space. The traditional drug delivery methods pose a disadvantage in limiting the capacity of crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the central nervous system (CNS). Hence, it is imperative to develop novel approaches that can overcome these constraints and offer efficient therapy for meningitis. Nanoparticle (NP)-based therapeutic approaches have the potential to address the limitations such as penetrating the BBB and achieving targeted drug release in specific cells and tissues. This review highlights recent advancements in nanotechnology-based approaches, such as functionalized polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, liposomes, transferosomes, and metallic NPs for the treatment of meningitis. Recently, bionics has emerged as a next-generation technology in the development of novel ideas from biological principles, structures, and interactions for neurological and neuroinfectious diseases. Despite their potential, more studies are needed to ensure the safety and efficacy of NP-based drug delivery systems focusing on critical aspects such as toxicity, immunogenicity, and pharmacokinetics. Therefore, this review addresses current treatment strategies and innovative nanoparticle approaches, and it discusses future directions for efficient and targeted meningitis therapies.

Preparation and optimisation of solid lipid nanoparticles of rivaroxaban using artificial neural networks and response surface method

AIMS

This study aimed to improve rivaroxaban delivery by optimising solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for minimal mean diameter and maximal entrapment efficiency (EE), enhancing solubility, bioavailability, and the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier.

METHODS

A central composite design was employed to synthesise 32 SLN formulations. Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural networks (ANN) models predicted mean diameter and EE based on five independent variables.

RESULTS

The optimised SLN formulation achieved a mean particle diameter of 159.8 ± 15.2 nm, with a Polydispersity index of 0.46, a zeta potential of -28.8 mV, and an EE of 74.3% ± 5.6%. The ANN model showed superior accuracy for both mean diameter and EE, outperforming the RSM model. Structural integrity and stability were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).

CONCLUSION

The high accuracy of the ANN model highlights its potential in optimising pharmaceutical formulations and improving SLN-based drug delivery systems.

Targeting the lung tumour stroma: harnessing nanoparticles for effective therapeutic interventions

Lung cancer remains an influential global health concern, necessitating the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. The tumour stroma, which is known as tumour microenvironment (TME) has a central impact on tumour expansion and treatment resistance. The stroma of lung tumours consists of numerous cells and molecules that shape an environment for tumour expansion. This environment not only protects tumoral cells against immune system attacks but also enables tumour stroma to attenuate the action of antitumor drugs. This stroma consists of stromal cells like cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), suppressive immune cells, and cytotoxic immune cells. Additionally, the presence of stem cells, endothelial cells and pericytes can facilitate tumour volume expansion. Nanoparticles are hopeful tools for targeted drug delivery because of their extraordinary properties and their capacity to devastate biological obstacles. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary advancements in targeting the lung tumour stroma using nanoparticles. Various nanoparticle-based approaches, including passive and active targeting, and stimuli-responsive systems, highlighting their potential to improve drug delivery efficiency. Additionally, the role of nanotechnology in modulating the tumour stroma by targeting key components such as immune cells, extracellular matrix (ECM), hypoxia, and suppressive elements in the lung tumour stroma.

A Revolutionary Approach for Combating Efflux Transporter-mediated Resistant Epilepsy: Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Epilepsy is a persistent neurological condition that affects 60 million individuals globally, with recurrent spontaneous seizures affecting 80% of patients. Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are the main course of therapy for approximately 65% of epileptic patients, and the remaining 35% develop resistance to medication, which leads to drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). DRE continues to be an important challenge in clinical epileptology. There are several theories that attempt to explain the neurological causes of pharmacoresistance in epilepsy. The theory that has been studied the most is the transporter hypothesis. Therefore, it is believed that upregulation of multidrug efflux transporters at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which extrudes AEDs from their target location, is the major cause, leading to pharmacoresistance in epilepsy. The most effective strategies for managing this DRE are peripheral and central inhibition of P-gp and maintaining an effective concentration of the drug in the brain parenchyma. Presently, no medicinal product that inhibits Pgp is being used in clinical practice. In this review, several innovative and promising treatment methods, including gene therapy, intracranial injections, Pgp inhibitors, nanocarriers, and precision medicine, are discussed. The primary goal of this work is to review the P-gp transporter, its substrates, and the latest novel treatment methods for the management of DRE.

Advancing Alzheimer's Disease Modelling by Developing a Refined Biomimetic Brain Microenvironment for Facilitating High-Throughput Screening of Pharmacological Treatment Strategies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses a significant worldwide health challenge, requiring novel approaches for improved models and treatment development. This comprehensive review emphasises the systematic development and improvement of a biomimetic brain environment to address the shortcomings of existing AD models and enhance the efficiency of screening potential drug treatments. We identify drawbacks in traditional models and emphasise the necessity for more physiologically accurate systems through an in-depth analysis of current literature. This review aims to study the development of an advanced AD model that accurately replicates key AD pathophysiological aspects using cutting-edge biomaterials and microenvironment design. Incorporating biomolecular elements like Tau proteins and beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques improve the accuracy of illustrating disease mechanisms. The expected results involve creating a solid foundation for high-throughput screening with enhanced scalability, translational significance, and the possibility of speeding up drug discovery. Thus, this review fills the gaps in AD modelling and shows potential for creating precise and efficient drug treatments for AD.

Nanoparticle-Based Therapies for Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage, Neurotrauma, and Stroke

Neurotrauma, stroke, and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) are symptomatically diverse and etiologically complex central nervous system pathologies. Despite numerous therapeutic modalities that are available to minimize neurologic damage and secondary injury, the prognosis can still be dismal and unpredictable. Nanoparticle (NP) technology allows for deliberate, modular, and minimally invasive drug delivery. This literature review encompasses pertinent information on the impact and versatility of nanoparticle therapeutics when treating neurotrauma, stroke, and SAH. Currently, notable treatments such as Perfluorooctyl-Bromide (PFOB), PLGA nanoparticles, and ischemic relief-based NPs are promising new techniques for the management of these complex pathologies.

Drug Delivery Across the Blood-Brain Barrier: A New Strategy for the Treatment of Neurological Diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) serves as a highly selective barrier between the blood and the central nervous system (CNS), and its main function is to protect the brain from foreign substances. This physiological property plays a crucial role in maintaining CNS homeostasis, but at the same time greatly limits the delivery of drug molecules to the CNS, thus posing a major challenge for the treatment of neurological diseases. Given that the high incidence and low cure rate of neurological diseases have become a global public health problem, the development of effective BBB penetration technologies is important for enhancing the efficiency of CNS drug delivery, reducing systemic toxicity, and improving the therapeutic outcomes of neurological diseases. This review describes the physiological and pathological properties of the BBB, as well as the current challenges of trans-BBB drug delivery, detailing the structural basis of the BBB and its role in CNS protection. Secondly, this paper reviews the drug delivery strategies for the BBB in recent years, including physical, biological and chemical approaches, as well as nanoparticle-based delivery technologies, and provides a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness, advantages and limitations of these delivery strategies. It is hoped that the review in this paper will provide valuable references and inspiration for future researchers in therapeutic studies of neurological diseases.

Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus: An Innovative Solution to Long-Lasting Challenges in Antidiabetic Drug Delivery

Diabetes is a widespread metabolic illness. Mismanagement of diabetes can lead to severe complications that tremendously impact patients' quality of life. The assimilation of nanotechnology in diabetes care holds the potential to revolutionize treatment paradigms, improve patient outcomes, and reduce the economic burden associated with this pervasive disease. This manuscript explores the multifaceted utilization of nanomaterials in diabetes care, emphasizing the unique features of nano-based medication delivery methods and smart drug delivery mechanisms. Additionally, this paper talks about research on nanocarrier-integrated oral, transdermal, and inhalable insulin delivery; dendrimer- and nanocarrier-coupled antisense oligonucleotide-driven gene therapy; the implementation of gold nanoparticles and quantum dots for glucose surveillance; and nucleic acid therapies. There are certain restrictions when using medication delivery methods that are commonly available to handle diabetes. In order to increase efficacy and safety, the rapidly developing science of nanotechnology is also being explored and employed in medical biology. Nanomaterials like liposomes, dendrimers, niosomes, polymeric and metallic nanocarriers, and solid lipid nanoparticles are among the nanocarriers that have been developed for better delivery of various oral hypoglycemic agents in comparison to conventional therapies. These nanocarriers provide great control over elevated blood glucose levels, making them one of the most intriguing and promising technologies available today. Furthermore, adding additional ligands to nanocarriers allows for more focused distribution while protecting the encapsulated hypoglycemic drugs.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery for Vascular Applications

Nanoparticle (NP)-based drug delivery systems have received widespread attention due to the excellent physicochemical properties of nanomaterials. Different types of NPs such as lipid NPs, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) NPs, inorganic NPs (e.g., iron oxide and Au), carbon NPs (graphene and carbon nanodots), 2D nanomaterials, and biomimetic NPs have found favor as drug delivery vehicles. In this review, we discuss the different types of customized NPs for intravascular drug delivery, nanoparticle behaviors (margination, adhesion, and endothelium uptake) in blood vessels, and nanomaterial compatibility for successful drug delivery. Additionally, cell surface protein targets play an important role in targeted drug delivery, and various vascular drug delivery studies using nanoparticles conjugated to these proteins are reviewed. Finally, limitations, challenges, and potential solutions for translational research regarding NP-based vascular drug delivery are discussed.

Recent progress in nanoparticulate-based intranasal delivery for treating of different central nervous system diseases

Drug administration to the central nervous system (CNS) has become a great obstacle because of several biological barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, therefore, brain targeting insights are a light for scientists to move forward for treating neurogenerative diseases using advanced non-invasive methods. The current demand is to use a potential direct route as the nasal administration to transport drugs into the brain enhancing the BBB permeability and hence, increasing the bioavailability. Interestingly, recent techniques have been implanted in formulating nanocarriers-based therapeutics for targeting and treating ischemic stroke using lipid or polymeric-based materials. Nanoparticulate delivery systems are set as an effective platform for brain targeting as polymeric nanoparticles and polymeric micelles or nanocarriers based on lipids for preventing drug efflux to promote optimal therapeutic medication concentration in the brain-diseased site. In recent years, there has been a notable increase in research publications and ongoing investigations on the utilization of drug-loading nanocarriers for the treatment of diverse CNS diseases. This review comprehensively depicts these dangerous neurological disorders, drug targeting challenges to CNS, and potential contributions as novel intranasal nano-formulations are being used to treat and regulate a variety of neurological diseases.

The Importance of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase in Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation, characterised by the activation of immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS), plays a dual role in both protecting against and contributing to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and multiple sclerosis (MS). This review explores the role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), a key enzyme involved in cellular survival, proliferation, and inflammatory responses, within the context of neuroinflammation. Two PI3K isoforms of interest, PI3Kγ and PI3Kδ, are specific to the regulation of CNS cells, such as microglia, astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes, influencing pathways, such as Akt, mTOR, and NF-κB, that control cytokine production, immune cell activation, and neuroprotection. The dysregulation of PI3K signalling is implicated in chronic neuroinflammation, contributing to the exacerbation of neurodegenerative diseases. Preclinical studies show promise in targeting neuronal disorders using PI3K inhibitors, such as AS605240 (PI3Kγ) and idelalisib (PI3Kδ), which have reduced inflammation, microglial activation, and neuronal death in in vivo models of AD. However, the clinical translation of these inhibitors faces challenges, including blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, isoform specificity, and long-term safety concerns. This review highlights the therapeutic potential of PI3K modulation in neuroinflammatory diseases, identifying key gaps in the current research, particularly in the need for brain-penetrating and isoform-specific inhibitors. These findings underscore the importance of future research to develop targeted therapies that can effectively modulate PI3K activity and provide neuroprotection in chronic neurodegenerative disorders.

Nanomaterials that Aid in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease, Resolving Blood-Brain Barrier Crossing Ability

As a form of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD) suffers from no efficacious cure, yet AD treatment is still imperative, as it ameliorates the symptoms or prevents it from deteriorating or maintains the current status to the longest extent. The human brain is the most sensitive and complex organ in the body, which is protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This yet induces the difficulty in curing AD as the drugs or nanomaterials that are much inhibited from reaching the lesion site. Thus, BBB crossing capability of drug delivery system remains a significant challenge in the development of neurological therapeutics. Fortunately, nano-enabled delivery systems possess promising potential to achieve multifunctional diagnostics/therapeutics against various targets of AD owing to their intriguing advantages of nanocarriers, including easy multifunctionalization on surfaces, high surface-to-volume ratio with large payloads, and potential ability to cross the BBB, making them capable of conquering the limitations of conventional drug candidates. This review, which focuses on the BBB crossing ability of the multifunctional nanomaterials in AD diagnosis and treatment, will provide an insightful vision that is conducive to the development of AD-related nanomaterials.

COVID-19 vaccine adverse events: Evaluating the pathophysiology with an emphasis on sulfur metabolism and endotheliopathy

In this narrative review, we assess the pathophysiology of severe adverse events that presented after vaccination with DNA and mRNA vaccines against COVID-19. The focus is on the perspective of an undersulfated and degraded glycocalyx, considering its impact on immunomodulation, inflammatory responses, coagulation and oxidative stress. The paper explores various factors that lead to glutathione and inorganic sulfate depletion and their subsequent effect on glycocalyx sulfation and other metabolites, including hormones. Components of COVID-19 vaccines, such as DNA and mRNA material, spike protein antigen and lipid nanoparticles, are involved in possible cytotoxic effects. The common thread connecting these adverse events is endotheliopathy or glycocalyx degradation, caused by depleted glutathione and inorganic sulfate levels, shear stress from circulating nanoparticles, aggregation and formation of protein coronas; leading to imbalanced immune responses and chronic release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, ultimately resulting in oxidative stress and systemic inflammatory response syndrome. By understanding the underlying pathophysiology of severe adverse events, better treatment options can be explored.

Brain-on-a-chip: an emerging platform for studying the nanotechnology-biology interface for neurodegenerative disorders

Neurological disorders have for a long time been a global challenge dismissed by drug companies, especially due to the low efficiency of most therapeutic compounds to cross the brain capillary wall, that forms the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and reach the brain. This has boosted an incessant search for novel carriers and methodologies to drive these compounds throughout the BBB. However, it remains a challenge to artificially mimic the physiology and function of the human BBB, allowing a reliable, reproducible and throughput screening of these rapidly growing technologies and nanoformulations (NFs). To surpass these challenges, brain-on-a-chip (BoC) - advanced microphysiological platforms that emulate key features of the brain composition and functionality, with the potential to emulate pathophysiological signatures of neurological disorders, are emerging as a microfluidic tool to screen new brain-targeting drugs, investigate neuropathogenesis and reach personalized medicine. In this review, the advance of BoC as a bioengineered screening tool of new brain-targeting drugs and NFs, enabling to decipher the intricate nanotechnology-biology interface is discussed. Firstly, the main challenges to model the brain are outlined, then, examples of BoC platforms to recapitulate the neurodegenerative diseases and screen NFs are summarized, emphasizing the current most promising nanotechnological-based drug delivery strategies and lastly, the integration of high-throughput screening biosensing systems as possible cutting-edge technologies for an end-use perspective is discussed as future perspective.

Dopamine and Citicoline-Co-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Multifunctional Nanomedicines for Parkinson's Disease Treatment by Intranasal Administration

This work aimed to evaluate the potential of the nanosystems constituted by dopamine (DA) and the antioxidant Citicoline (CIT) co-loaded in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for intranasal administration in the treatment of Parkinson disease (PD). Such nanosystems, denoted as DA-CIT-SLNs, were designed according to the concept of multifunctional nanomedicine where multiple biological roles are combined into a single nanocarrier and prepared by the melt emulsification method employing the self-emulsifying Gelucire® 50/13 as lipid matrix. The resulting DA-CIT-SLNs were characterized regarding particle size, surface charge, encapsulation efficiency, morphology, and physical stability. Differential scanning calorimetry, FT-IR, and X ray diffraction studies were carried out to gain information on solid-state features, and in vitro release tests in simulated nasal fluid (SNF) were performed. Monitoring the particle size at two temperatures (4 °C and 37 °C), the size enlargement observed over the time at 37 °C was lower than that observed at 4 °C, even though at higher temperature, color changes occurred, indicative of possible neurotransmitter decomposition. Solid-state studies indicated a reduction in the crystallinity when DA and CIT are co-encapsulated in DA-CIT-SLNs. Interestingly, in vitro release studies in SNF indicated a sustained release of DA. Furthermore, DA-CIT SLNs displayed high cytocompatibility with both human nasal RPMI 2650 and neuronal SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, OxyBlot assay demonstrated considerable potential to assess the protective effect of antioxidant agents against oxidative cellular damage. Thus, such protective effect was shown by DA-CIT-SLNs, which constitute a promising formulation for PD application.

Advances in microscopy characterization techniques for lipid nanocarriers in drug delivery: a comprehensive review

This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of the significance of lipid nanocarriers in drug delivery and the crucial role of characterization techniques. It explores various types of lipid nanocarriers and their applications, emphasizing the importance of microscopy-based characterization methods such as light microscopy, confocal microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The paper also delves into sample preparation, quantitative analysis, challenges, and future directions in the field. The review concludes by underlining the pivotal role of microscopy-based characterization in advancing lipid nanocarrier research and drug delivery technologies.

Nasal Drug Delivery and Nose-to-Brain Delivery Technology Development Status and Trend Analysis: Based on Questionnaire Survey and Patent Analysis

Nasal administration is a non-invasive method of drug delivery that offers several advantages, including rapid onset of action, ease of use, no first-pass effect, and fewer side effects. On this basis, nose-to-brain delivery technology offers a new method for drug delivery to the brain and central nervous system, which has attracted widespread attention. In this paper, the development status and trends of nasal drug delivery and nose-to-brain delivery technology are deeply analyzed through multiple dimensions: literature research, questionnaire surveys, and patent analysis. First, FDA-approved nasal formulations for nose-to-brain delivery were combed. Second, we collected a large amount of relevant information about nasal drug delivery through a questionnaire survey of 165 pharmaceutical industry practitioners in 28 provinces and 161 different organizations in China. Third, and most importantly, we conducted a patent analysis of approximately 700+ patents related to nose-to-brain delivery, both domestically and internationally. This analysis was conducted in terms of patent application trends, technology life cycle, technology composition, and technology evolution. The LDA topic model was employed to identify technological topics in each time window (1990-2023), and the five key major evolution paths were extracted. The research results in this paper will provide useful references for relevant researchers and enterprises in the pharmaceutical industry, promoting the further development and application of nasal drug delivery and nose-to-brain delivery technology.

Liposomal Nanomaterials: A Rising Star in Glioma Treatment

Glioma is a primary malignant tumor in the central nervous system. In recent years, the treatment of glioma has developed rapidly, but the overall survival of glioma patients has not significantly improved. Due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier and intracranial tumor barrier, many drugs with good effects to cure glioma in vitro cannot be accurately transported to the corresponding lesions. In order to enable anti-tumor drugs to overcome the barriers and target glioma, nanodrug delivery systems have emerged recently. It is gratifying that liposomes, as a multifunctional nanodrug delivery carrier, which can be compatible with hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, easily functionalized by various targeted ligands, biodegradable, and hypoimmunogenic in vivo, has become a quality choice to solve the intractable problem of glioma medication. Therefore, we focused on the liposome nanodrug delivery system, and summarized its current research progress in glioma. Hopefully, this review may provide new ideas for the research and development of liposome-based nanomaterials for the clinical treatment of glioma.

Solid lipid nanoparticle: A potent vehicle of the kaempferol for brain delivery through the blood-brain barrier in the focal cerebral ischemic rat

Kaempferol is major flavonoid present in Convolvulus pluricaulis. This phytochemical protects the brain against oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation, neurotoxicity, neurodegeneration and cerebral ischemia induced neuronal destruction. Kaempferol is poorly water soluble. Our study proved that solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were efficient carrier of kaempferol through blood-brain barrier (BBB). Kaempferol was incorporated into SLNs prepared from stearic acid with polysorbate 80 by the process of ultrasonication. Mean particle size and zeta potential of kaempferol loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (K-SLNs) were 451.2 nm and -15.0 mV. Atomic force microscopy showed that K-SLNs were spherical in shape. Fourier transformed infrared microscopy (FTIR) showed that both stearic acid and kaempferol were present in K-SLNs. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that the matrices of K-SLNs were in untidy crystalline state. Entraptment efficiency of K-SLNs was 84.92%. In-vitro drug release percentage was 93.24%. Kaempferol loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (K-SLNs) showed controlled release profile. In-vitro uptake study showed significant efficiency of K-SLNs to cross blood-brain barrier (BBB). After oral administration into the focal cerebral ischemic rat, accumulation of fluorescent labeled K-SLNs was observed in the brain cortex which confirmed its penetrability into the brain. It significantly decreased the neurological deficit, infarct volume and level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased the level of pro-inflammatory mediators like NF-κB and p-STAT3. Damaged neurons and brain texture were improved. This study indicated increased bioavailability of kaempferol into the brain tissue through SLNs formulation.

An Overview on the Physiopathology of the Blood-Brain Barrier and the Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Central Nervous System Delivery

The state of well-being and health of our body is regulated by the fine osmotic and biochemical balance established between the cells of the different tissues, organs, and systems. Specific districts of the human body are defined, kept in the correct state of functioning, and, therefore, protected from exogenous or endogenous insults of both mechanical, physical, and biological nature by the presence of different barrier systems. In addition to the placental barrier, which even acts as a linker between two different organisms, the mother and the fetus, all human body barriers, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB), blood-retinal barrier, blood-nerve barrier, blood-lymph barrier, and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, operate to maintain the physiological homeostasis within tissues and organs. From a pharmaceutical point of view, the most challenging is undoubtedly the BBB, since its presence notably complicates the treatment of brain disorders. BBB action can impair the delivery of chemical drugs and biopharmaceuticals into the brain, reducing their therapeutic efficacy and/or increasing their unwanted bioaccumulation in the surrounding healthy tissues. Recent nanotechnological innovation provides advanced biomaterials and ad hoc customized engineering and functionalization methods able to assist in brain-targeted drug delivery. In this context, lipid nanocarriers, including both synthetic (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, nanostructured lipid carriers, niosomes, proniosomes, and cubosomes) and cell-derived ones (extracellular vesicles and cell membrane-derived nanocarriers), are considered one of the most successful brain delivery systems due to their reasonable biocompatibility and ability to cross the BBB. This review aims to provide a complete and up-to-date point of view on the efficacy of the most varied lipid carriers, whether FDA-approved, involved in clinical trials, or used in in vitro or in vivo studies, for the treatment of inflammatory, cancerous, or infectious brain diseases.

Exploring Curcumin-Loaded Lipid-Based Nanomedicine as Efficient Targeted Therapy for Alzheimer's Diseases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological condition currently with 47 million people suffering from it globally. AD might have many reasons such as genetic issues, environmental factors, and Aβ accumulation, which is the biomarker of the disease. Since the primary reason is unknown, there is no targeted treatment at the moment, but ongoing research aims to slow its progression by managing amyloid-beta peptide production rather than symptomatic improvement. Since phytochemicals have been demonstrated to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties, they may target multiple pathological factors and can reduce the risk of the disease. Curcumin, as a phytochemical found in turmeric known for its antioxidant, free radical scavenging properties, and as an antiamyloid in treating AD, has come under investigation. Although its low bioavailability limits its efficacy, a prominent drug delivery system (DDS) is desired to overcome it. Hence, the potency of lipid-based nanoparticles encapsulating curcumin (LNPs-CUR) is considered in this study as a promising DDS. In vivo studies in animal models indicate LNPs-CUR effectively slow amyloid plaque formation, leading to cognitive enhancement and reduced toxicity compared to free CUR. However, a deeper understanding of CUR's pharmacokinetics and safety profile is crucial before LNPs-CUR can be considered as a medicine. Future investigations may explore the combination of NPs with other therapeutic agents to increase their efficacy in AD cases. This review provides the current position of CUR in the AD therapy paradigm, the DDS suggestions for CUR, and the previous research from the point of analytical view focused on the advantages and challenges.

De novo design of a nanoregulator for the dynamic restoration of ovarian tissue in cryopreservation and transplantation

The cryopreservation and transplantation of ovarian tissue underscore its paramount importance in safeguarding reproductive capacity and ameliorating reproductive disorders. However, challenges persist in ovarian tissue cryopreservation and transplantation (OTC-T), including the risk of tissue damage and dysfunction. Consequently, there has been a compelling exploration into the realm of nanoregulators to refine and enhance these procedures. This review embarks on a meticulous examination of the intricate anatomical structure of the ovary and its microenvironment, thereby establishing a robust groundwork for the development of nanomodulators. It systematically categorizes nanoregulators and delves deeply into their functions and mechanisms, meticulously tailored for optimizing ovarian tissue cryopreservation and transplantation. Furthermore, the review imparts valuable insights into the practical applications and obstacles encountered in clinical settings associated with OTC-T. Moreover, the review advocates for the utilization of microbially derived nanomodulators as a potent therapeutic intervention in ovarian tissue cryopreservation. The progression of these approaches holds the promise of seamlessly integrating nanoregulators into OTC-T practices, thereby heralding a new era of expansive applications and auspicious prospects in this pivotal domain.

Ischemic Brain Injury: Involvement of Lipids in the Pathophysiology of Stroke and Therapeutic Strategies

Stroke is a devastating neurological disorder that is characterized by the sudden disruption of blood flow to the brain. Lipids are essential components of brain structure and function and play pivotal roles in stroke pathophysiology. Dysregulation of lipid signaling pathways modulates key cellular processes such as apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress, exacerbating ischemic brain injury. In the present review, we summarize the roles of lipids in stroke pathology in different models (cell cultures, animal, and human studies). Additionally, the potential of lipids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids, to promote neuroprotection and their use as biomarkers in stroke are discussed.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Lipid-based nanoparticles to address the limitations of GBM therapy by overcoming the blood-brain barrier, targeting glioblastoma stem cells, and counteracting the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor, characterized by high heterogeneity, strong invasiveness, poor prognosis, and a low survival rate. A broad range of nanoparticles have been recently developed as drug delivery systems for GBM therapy owing to their inherent size effect and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs), such as liposomes, solid lipid NPs (SLNs), and nano-structured lipid carriers (NLCs), have emerged as the most promising drug delivery system for the treatment of GBM because of their unique size, surface modification possibilities, and proven bio-safety. In this review, the main challenges of the current clinical treatment of GBM and the strategies on how novel LBNPs overcome them were explored. The application and progress of LBNP-based drug delivery systems in GBM chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy in recent years were systematically reviewed, and the prospect of LBNPs for GBM treatment was discussed.

Development of solid lipid nanoparticles-loaded drugs in parasitic diseases

Parasites cause illnesses with broad spectrum of symptoms from mild to severe, and are responsible for a significant number of outbreaks in the world. Current anti-parasitic drugs are toxic and have significant side effects. Nano-carriers are believed to obviate the limitations of conventional drugs via decreasing side effects and increasing target delivery and drug permeability with a controlled prolonged release of a drug. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which have frequently been practiced. Suitable release rate, stability, and target delivery make SLNs a good alternative for colloidal carriers. SLNs are supposed to have great potential to deliver natural products with anti-parasitic properties. Nanoparticles have employed to improve stability and capacity loading of SLNs, during recent years. This review describes development of SLNs, the methods of preparation, characterization, and loaded drugs into SLNs in parasitic diseases. In addition, we summarize recent development in anti-parasitic SLNs-loaded drugs.

Quality by Design Assisted Development of Luliconazole Transethosomes in Gel for the Management of Candida albicans Infection

The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a novel vesicular formulation of luliconazole (LUL) for the management of Candida albicans infection through a topical route. LUL-loaded transethosomes (LUL-TE) were prepared by the film hydration method and various independent and dependent variables were optimized using the Box-Behnken design. Selected critical material attributes were the content of phospholipids (X1), concentration of ethanol (X2), and amount of sodium cholate (X3). Formulated LUL-TE were characterized for percent entrapment efficiency, percent drug loading, vesicle size, and polydispersity index (PDI) and were incorporated into the carbomer gel base and further evaluated for gel characterizations. The prepared transethosomal gel (LUL-TE-CHG) was evaluated for pH, spreadability, viscosity, antifungal activity, and in vitro study. From the observed results, it was evident that the prepared LUL-TE-CHG was in the desired pH (6.2 ± 0.45), spreadability [8.3 ± 0.42 g/(cm·s)], viscosity (236.1-19.2.26 mPa·s), nanovesicle size (252 ± 9.82), entrapment efficiency (85% ± 5.24%), zeta potential (-34.05 ± 3.52 mV), and PDI (0.233 ± 0.002). The zone of inhibition results suggested that the LUL-TE-CHG formulation has the highest antifungal activity, that is, 5.83 ± 0.15 mm3. The in vitro results showed that drug release within 2 h was 18.1% ± 2.0% and after that sustained release action, 83.2% ± 1.7% within 8 h. Finally, to confirm the therapeutic efficacy of the developed formulation, fungal infection was induced by using C. albicans in Wistar rats. In vivo, skin irritation study and histopathology studies were performed in the disease-induced model. Animal experiments revealed that LUL-TE-CHG has significantly improved the diseased condition in Wistar rats. The results observed from the skin permeation and skin deposition profile ensure that the prepared novel LUL-loaded TE system had a higher permeation rate and increased retention time compared with LUL-CHG. The hydrogel incorporated with LUL could be a novel approach with safe and effective fungal treatment.

An Update on Parkinson's Disease and its Neurodegenerative Counterparts

INTRODUCTION

Neurodegenerative disorders are a group of diseases that cause nerve cell degeneration in the brain, resulting in a variety of symptoms and are not treatable with drugs. Parkinson's disease (PD), prion disease, motor neuron disease (MND), Huntington's disease (HD), spinal cerebral dyskinesia (SCA), spinal muscle atrophy (SMA), multiple system atrophy, Alzheimer's disease (AD), spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) (ALS), pantothenate kinase-related neurodegeneration, and TDP-43 protein disorder are examples of neurodegenerative diseases. Dementia is caused by the loss of brain and spinal cord nerve cells in neurodegenerative diseases.

BACKGROUND

Even though environmental and genetic predispositions have also been involved in the process, redox metal abuse plays a crucial role in neurodegeneration since the preponderance of symptoms originates from abnormal metal metabolism.

METHOD

Hence, this review investigates several neurodegenerative diseases that may occur symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease to understand the differences and similarities between Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders based on reviewing previously published papers.

RESULTS

Based on the findings, the aggregation of alpha-synuclein occurs in Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and dementia with Lewy bodies. Other neurodegenerative diseases occur with different protein aggregation or mutations.

CONCLUSION

We can conclude that Parkinson's disease, Multiple system atrophy, and Dementia with Lewy bodies are closely related. Therefore, researchers must distinguish among the three diseases to avoid misdiagnosis of Multiple System Atrophy and Dementia with Lewy bodies with Parkinson's disease symptoms.

Drug delivery for neurodegenerative diseases is a problem, but lipid nanocarriers could provide the answer

Neurodegenerative disorders encompass diseases that involve the degeneration of neurons, particularly those within the central nervous system. These are the most commonly observed disorders among the geriatric population. The treatment or management of this condition presents additional challenges due to therapeutics that may not be as effective as desired. The primary obstacle that often hinders the efficacy of therapy is the existence of a blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB serves as a vital safeguard for the brain, effectively obstructing the passage of drugs into the brain cells. Hence, the management of damaging neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Cerebrovascular diseases (CVDs), Huntington's disease (HD), and Multiple sclerosis (MS) is currently the primary area of research interest. The innovative utilization of nanoparticles as drug carriers provides renewed optimism in addressing many complicated medical conditions. In this article, I have aimed to gather published information regarding various lipid nanoparticles that can efficiently transport medication to the brain to address neurodegenerative disorders. According to the published literature, liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured nanoparticles, microemulsions, and nanoemulsions are potential nanocarriers that can treat neurodegenerative disorders.

Nanocarrier Mediated Intranasal Drug Delivery Systems for the Management of Parkinsonism: A Review

The transport of drugs to the brain becomes a key concern when treating disorders of the central nervous system. Parkinsonism is one of the major concerns across the world populations, which causes difficulty in coordination and balance. However, the blood-brain barrier is a significant barrier to achieving optimal brain concentration through oral, transdermal, and intravenous routes of administration. The intranasal route with nanocarrier-based formulations has shown potential for managing Parkinsonism disorder (PD). Direct delivery to the brain through the intranasal route is possible via the olfactory and trigeminal pathways using drug-loaded nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. The critical analysis of reported works demonstrates dose reduction, brain targeting, safety, effectiveness, and stability for drug-loaded nanocarriers. The important aspects of intranasal drug delivery, PD details, and nanocarrier-based intranasal formulations in PD management with a discussion of physicochemical characteristics, cell line studies, and animal studies are the major topics in this review. Patent reports and clinical investigations are summarized in the last sections.

A Path of Novelty from Nanoparticles to Nanobots: Theragnostic Approach for Targeting Cancer Therapy

Pharmaceutical development of cancer therapeutics is a dynamic area of research. Even after decades of intensive work, cancer continues to be a dreadful disease with an ever-increasing global incidence. The progress of nanotechnology in cancer research has overcome inherent limitations in conventional cancer chemotherapy and fulfilled the need for target-specific drug carriers. Nanotechnology uses the altered patho-physiological microenvironment of malignant cells and offers various advantages like improved solubility, reduced toxicity, prolonged drug circulation with controlled release, circumventing multidrug resistance, and enhanced biodistribution. Early cancer detection has a crucial role in selecting the best drug regime, thus, diagnosis and therapeutics go hand in hand. Furthermore, nanobots are an amazing possibility and promising innovation with numerous significant applications, particularly in fighting cancer and cleaning out blood vessels. Nanobots are tiny robots, ranging in size from 1 to 100 nm. Moreover, the nanobots would work similarly to white blood cells, watching the bloodstream and searching for indications of distress. This review articulates the evolution of various organic and inorganic nanoparticles and nanobots used as therapeutics, along with their pros and cons. It also highlights the shift in diagnostics from conventional methods to more advanced techniques. This rapidly growing domain is providing more space for engineering desired nanoparticles that can show miraculous results in therapeutic and diagnostic trials.

Intranasal Drug Delivery by Nanotechnology: Advances in and Challenges for Alzheimer's Disease Management

Alzheimer's disease, a progressive neurodegenerative condition, is characterized by a gradual decline in cognitive functions. Current treatment approaches primarily involve the administration of medications through oral, parenteral, and transdermal routes, aiming to improve cognitive function and alleviate symptoms. However, these treatments face limitations, such as low bioavailability and inadequate permeation. Alternative invasive methods, while explored, often entail discomfort and require specialized assistance. Therefore, the development of a non-invasive and efficient delivery system is crucial. Intranasal delivery has emerged as a potential solution, although it is constrained by the unique conditions of the nasal cavity. An innovative approach involves the use of nano-carriers based on nanotechnology for intranasal delivery. This strategy has the potential to overcome current limitations by providing enhanced bioavailability, improved permeation, effective traversal of the blood-brain barrier, extended retention within the body, and precise targeting of the brain. The comprehensive review focuses on the advancements in designing various types of nano-carriers, including polymeric nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, nanoemulsions, Quantum dots, and dendrimers. These nano-carriers are specifically tailored for the intranasal delivery of therapeutic agents aimed at combatting Alzheimer's disease. In summary, the development and utilization of intranasal delivery systems based on nanotechnology show significant potential in surmounting the constraints of current Alzheimer's disease treatment strategies. Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge regulatory as well as toxicity concerns associated with this route; meticulous consideration is required when engineering a carrier. This comprehensive review underscores the potential to revolutionize Alzheimer's disease management and highlights the importance of addressing regulatory considerations for safe and effective implementations. Embracing this strategy could lead to substantial advancements in the field of Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Lipid Nanoparticles Deliver mRNA to the Brain after an Intracerebral Injection

Neurological disorders are often debilitating conditions with no cure. The majority of current therapies are palliative rather than disease-modifying; therefore, new strategies for treating neurological disorders are greatly needed. mRNA-based therapeutics have great potential for treating such neurological disorders; however, challenges with delivery have limited their clinical potential. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are a promising delivery vector for the brain, given their safer toxicity profile and higher efficacy. Despite this, very little is known about LNP-mediated delivery of mRNA into the brain. Here, we employ MC3-based LNPs and successfully deliver Cre mRNA and Cas9 mRNA/Ai9 sgRNA to the adult Ai9 mouse brain; greater than half of the entire striatum and hippocampus was found to be penetrated along the rostro-caudal axis by direct intracerebral injections of MC3 LNP mRNAs. MC3 LNP Cre mRNA successfully transfected cells in the striatum (∼52% efficiency) and hippocampus (∼49% efficiency). In addition, we demonstrate that MC3 LNP Cas9 mRNA/Ai9 sgRNA edited cells in the striatum (∼7% efficiency) and hippocampus (∼3% efficiency). Further analysis demonstrates that MC3 LNPs mediate mRNA delivery to multiple cell types including neurons, astrocytes, and microglia in the brain. Overall, LNP-based mRNA delivery is effective in brain tissue and shows great promise for treating complex neurological disorders.

Single and Multitarget Systems for Drug Delivery and Detection: Up-to-Date Strategies for Brain Disorders

This review summarizes the recent findings on the development of different types of single and multitarget nanoparticles for disease detection and drug delivery to the brain, focusing on promising active principles encapsulated and nanoparticle surface modification and functionalization. Functionalized nanoparticles have emerged as promising tools for the diagnosis and treatment of brain disorders, offering a novel approach to addressing complex neurological challenges. They can act as drug delivery vehicles, transporting one or multiple therapeutic agents across the blood-brain barrier and precisely releasing them at the site of action. In diagnostics, functionalized nanoparticles can serve as highly sensitive contrast agents for imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography scans. By attaching targeting ligands to the nanoparticles, they can selectively accumulate in the affected areas of the brain, enhancing the accuracy of disease detection. This enables early diagnosis and monitoring of conditions like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases. While the field is still evolving, functionalized nanoparticles represent a promising path for advancing our ability to diagnose and treat brain disorders with greater precision, reduced invasiveness, and improved therapeutic outcomes.

Enhancing Antibody Exposure in the Central Nervous System: Mechanisms of Uptake, Clearance, and Strategies for Improved Brain Delivery

Antibodies (mAbs) are attractive molecules for their application as a diagnostic and therapeutic agent for diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). mAbs can be generated to have high affinity and specificity to target molecules in the CNS. Unfortunately, only a very small number of mAbs have been specifically developed and approved for neurological indications. This is primarily attributed to their low exposure within the CNS, hindering their ability to reach and effectively engage their potential targets in the brain. This review discusses aspects of various barriers such as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier (BCSFB) that regulate the entry and clearance of mAbs into and from the brain. The roles of the glymphatic system on brain exposure and clearance are being described. We also discuss the proposed mechanisms of the uptake of mAbs into the brain and for clearance. Finally, several methods of enhancing the exposure of mAbs in the CNS were discussed, including receptor-mediated transcytosis, osmotic BBB opening, focused ultrasound (FUS), BBB-modulating peptides, and enhancement of mAb brain retention.

RNA Combined with Nanoformulation to Advance Therapeutic Technologies

Nucleic acid-based therapies have the potential to address numerous diseases that pose significant challenges to more traditional methods. RNA-based therapies have emerged as a promising avenue, utilizing nanoformulation treatments to target a range of pathologies. Nanoformulation offers several advantages compared to other treatment modalities, including targeted delivery, low toxicity, and bioactivity suitable for drug loading. At present, various types of nanoformulations are available, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), magnetic NPs, nanoshells, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). RNA-based therapy utilizes intracellular gene nanoparticles with messenger RNA (mRNA) emerging prominently in cancer therapy and immunotechnology against infectious diseases. The approval of mRNA-based technology opens doors for future technological advancements, particularly self-amplifying replicon RNA (repRNA). RepRNA is a novel platform in gene therapy, comprising viral RNA with a unique molecular property that enables the amplification of all encoded genetic information countless times. As a result, repRNA-based therapies have achieved significant levels of gene expression. In this context, the primary objective of this study is to furnish a comprehensive review of repRNA and its applications in nanoformulation treatments, with a specific focus on encapsulated nanoparticles. The overarching goal is to provide an extensive overview of the use of repRNA in conjunction with nanoformulations across a range of treatments and therapies.

Harnessing role of sesamol and its nanoformulations against neurodegenerative diseases

Sesamol is a lignan of sesame seeds and a natural phenolic molecule that has emerged as a useful medical agent. Sesamol is a non-toxic phytoconstituent, which exerts certain valuable effects in the management of cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), etc. Sesamol is known to depict its neuroprotective role by various mechanisms, such as metabolic regulators, action on oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, etc. However, its poor oral bioavailability, rapid excretion (as conjugates), and susceptibility to gastric irritation/toxicity (particularly in rats' forestomach) may restrict its effectiveness. To overcome the associated limitations, novel drug delivery system-based formulations of sesamol are emerging and being researched extensively. These can conjugate with sesamol and enhance the bioavailability and solubility of free sesamol, along with delivery at the target site. In this review, we have summarized various research works highlighting the role of sesamol on various NDs, including Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease. Moreover, the formulation strategies and neuroprotective role of sesamol-based nano-formulations have also been discussed.

Nano-delivery systems as a promising therapeutic potential for epilepsy: Current status and future perspectives

Epilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder caused by aberrant neuronal electrical activity. Antiseizure medications (ASMs) are the first line of treatment for people with epilepsy (PWE). However, their effectiveness may be limited by their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), among many other potential underpinnings for drug resistance in epilepsy. Therefore, there is a need to overcome this issue and, hopefully, improve the effectiveness of ASMs. Recently, synthetic nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have received attention for improving the effectiveness of ASMs due to their ability to cross the BBB. Furthermore, exosomes have emerged as a promising generation of drug delivery systems because of their potential benefits over synthetic nanoparticles. In this narrative review, we focus on various synthetic nanoparticles that have been studied to deliver ASMs. Furthermore, the benefits and limitations of each nano-delivery system have been discussed. Finally, we discuss exosomes as potentially promising delivery tools for treating epilepsy.