Tunable Drug Release from Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) 3D-Printed Tablets Fabricated Using a Novel Extrudable Polymer

Novel development of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-based mucoadhesive buccal film for poorly water-soluble drug delivery via hot-melt extrusion

The first-pass effect and low water solubility are crucial limitations that hinder the drug from being absorbed into the systemic circulation, followed by oral administration. The mucoadhesive buccal delivery system offers direct drug absorption through the mucosa, reaching systemic circulation and bypassing the hepatic first-pass metabolism. This approach ensures high bioavailability and overcomes the swallowing difficulties associated with traditional oral delivery systems. Here, we developed mucoadhesive buccal films for oral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs using hot-melt extrusion (HME). Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEtOx), a potential pharmaceutical excipient with high biocompatibility and versatility, was used as the primary matrix for solubility enhancement. Fenofibrate (FB), a typical Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class II drug with virtually insolubility in water, was used as the model drug. Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and polyethylene oxide (PEO) were combined with PEtOx to adjust the mucoadhesive property. The prepared films were in vitro characterized to delineate the impact of key formulation factors on the mechanical properties, bioadhesion, and solubility enhancement effect. We demonstrated that the complexation of PEtOx with 20% PEO (F8) resulted in over 95% drug release within 2 h, representing an over 5-fold enhancement in solubility compared to the free drug. This F8 formulation exhibited significant bioadhesion among the other formulations, with a 2.2- to 2.7-fold increase in Peak Force (PAF) and work of adhesion (WAD) relative to the control group. This study investigates HME as a continuous fabrication process for developing PEtOx-based buccal film, demonstrating a potential bioadhesive drug delivery system with a solubility improvement effect.

The Future of Medicine: How 3D Printing Is Transforming Pharmaceuticals

Three-dimensional printing technology is transforming pharmaceutical manufacturing by shifting from conventional mass production to additive manufacturing, with a strong emphasis on personalized medicine. The integration of bioinks and AI-driven optimization is further enhancing this innovation, enabling drug production with precise dosages, tailored drug-release profiles, and unique multi-drug combinations that respond to individual patient needs. This advancement is significantly impacting healthcare by accelerating drug development, encouraging innovative pharmaceutical designs, and enhancing treatment efficacy. Traditional pharmaceutical manufacturing follows a one-size-fits-all approach, which often fails to meet the specific requirements of patients with unique medical conditions. In contrast, 3D printing, coupled with bioink formulations, allows for on-demand drug production, reducing dependency on large-scale manufacturing and storage. AI-powered design and process optimization further refine dosage forms, printability, and drug release mechanisms, ensuring precision and efficiency in drug manufacturing. These advancements have the potential to lower overall healthcare costs while improving patient adherence to medication regimens. This review explores the potential, challenges, and environmental benefits of 3D pharmaceutical printing, positioning it as a key driver of next-generation personalized medicine.

Pharmaceutical 3D Printing Technology Integrating Nanomaterials and Nanodevices for Precision Neurological Therapies

Pharmaceutical 3D printing, combined with nanomaterials and nanodevices, presents a transformative approach to precision medicine for treating neurological diseases. This technology enables the creation of tailored dosage forms with controlled release profiles, enhancing drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The integration of nanoparticles, such as poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), chitosan, and metallic nanomaterials, into 3D-printed scaffolds improves treatment efficacy by providing targeted and prolonged drug release. Recent advances have demonstrated the potential of these systems in treating conditions like Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and brain tumors. Moreover, 3D printing allows for multi-drug combinations and personalized formulations that adapt to individual patient needs. Novel drug delivery approaches, including stimuli-responsive systems, on-demand dosing, and theragnostics, provide new possibilities for the real-time monitoring and treatment of neurological disorders. Despite these innovations, challenges remain in terms of scalability, regulatory approval, and long-term safety. The future perspectives of this technology suggest its potential to revolutionize neurological treatments by offering patient-specific therapies, improved drug penetration, and enhanced treatment outcomes. This review discusses the current state, applications, and transformative potential of 3D printing and nanotechnology in neurological treatment, highlighting the need for further research to overcome the existing challenges.

Leveraging solid solubility and miscibility of etoricoxib in Soluplus® towards manufacturing of 3D printed etoricoxib tablets by additive manufacturing

This research focuses on exploring the solid solubility and miscibility of Etoricoxib, a poorly water-soluble anti-inflammatory drug, within Soluplus®, a polymer used as a matrix for 3D-printed tablets. By utilizing hot-melt extrusion (HME), the drug was dispersed within Soluplus® to enhance its solubility. The extrudates were then employed in 3D printing to create customized solid oral dosage form. This study's novelty lies in combining HME and 3D printing, aiming to improve drug incorporation, stability, and effectiveness in the final formulation. Comprehensive characterization techniques, including hot stage microscopy (HSM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT), florescence microscopy, optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), solubility studies, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and aqueous solubility study were utilized to elucidate the physicochemical properties, thermal stability, and structural integrity for the extruded filaments (the printing ink), and 3D printed tablets made thereof. Furthermore, the in vitro drug release profile of the 3D printed tablet was systematically evaluated, revealing a controlled drug release pattern from the finished dosage form. The systematic investigation reported herein, starting from theoretical miscibility to the printing ink development through HME, detailed characterization of the extruded filaments, and further solid oral formulation development by additive manufacturing can be utilized as a platform technology or a pathway for the development of personalized medicine with drugs having similar physicochemical properties.

Albumin and Polysorbate-80 Coated Sterile Nanosuspensions of Mebendazole for Glioblastoma Therapy

The scarcity of existing and novel therapies for brain cancer has significantly affected the survival rate of glioblastoma patients. Mebendazole (MBZ), an antiparasitic agent demonstrated promising activity against brain cancer. However, poor solubility, multiple polymorphs, and insufficient permeability through blood-brain barrier (BBB) restricts its therapeutic efficacy through parenteral administration. The current study aimed to develop, optimize, and characterize sterile, injectable nanosuspension of mebendazole using parenterally acceptable stabilizers. Albumin and polysorbate 80 (PS-80) coated MBZ Nanosuspension (NS) was prepared using wet media milling technique. Design of experiment (DoE) approach was used to understand effect of drug loading versus stabilizer concentration. The optimized MBZ NS showed hydrodynamic diameter of 208.36 ± 0.24 nm with a poly dispersibility index (PDI) of 0.210 ± 0.03 and zeta potential of -20.41 ± 0.36 mV. The IC50 value of MBZ NS in U-87 MG and LN-229 cell lines were found to be 0.49 ± 0.02 μM and 0.48 ± 0.05 μM, respectively. Additionally, MBZ NS demonstrated a 2.65-fold decrease in colony-forming efficiency and a 1.16-fold reduction in migration of the bridging area compared to MBZ. In 3D spheroids of the U-87 MG glioma cell line, MBZ NS exhibited a 50% reduction in tumor growth and increased cell apoptosis compared to the control. MBZ NS formulations were sterilized by gamma irradiation and tested as per the USP sterility test. Albumin-PS 80 coated NS is rendered to be useful parenteral delivery of mebendazole for the treatment of brain cancer.

Application of 3D printing on the design and development of pharmaceutical oral dosage forms

3D printing technologies confer an unparalleled degree of control over the material distribution on the structures they produce, which has led them to become an extremely attractive research topic in pharmaceutical dosage form development, especially for the design of personalized treatments. With fine tuning in material selection and careful design, these technologies allow to tailor not only the amount of drug administered but the biopharmaceutical behaviour of the dosage forms as well. While fused deposition modelling (FDM) is still the most studied 3D printing technology in this area, others are gaining more relevance, which has led to many new and exciting dosage forms developed during 2022 and 2023. Considering that these technologies, in time, will join the current manufacturing methods and with the ever-increasing knowledge on this topic, our review aims to explore the advantages and limitations of 3D printing technologies employed in the design and development of pharmaceutical oral dosage forms, giving special focus to the most important aspects governing the resulting drug release profiles.

Ex vivo propofol permeation across nasal mucosa: A proof-of-concept study for outpatient light sedation via nasal route

Background and Purpose

Aiming to achieve light sedation via intranasal administration, this study showed that propofol (PPF) did not permeate across the rabbit nasal mucosa ex vivo from its marketed emulsion for injection.

Experimental approach

Dilution of the emulsion with methyl-β-cyclodextrin in saline solution increased propofol solubility in water and diffusion across the nasal epithelium.

Key results and conclusion

Despite these positive effects of the cyclodextrin, the amount of PPF permeated was minimal in 3 h, exceeding the formulation residence time in the nose. These results highlight the key role of formulation and the need for innovation in solubility and transmucosal transport enhancement techniques to optimize drug delivery and therapeutic efficacy.

Toward high-resolution 3D-printing of pharmaceutical implants - A holistic analysis of relevant material properties and process parameters

In this work, filament-based 3D-printing, the most widely used sub-category of material extrusion additive manufacturing (MEAM), is presented as a promising manufacturing platform for the production of subcutaneous implants. Print nozzle diameters as small as 100 µm were utilized demonstrating MEAM of advanced porous internal structures at the given cylindrical implant geometry of 2 mm × 40 mm. The bottlenecks related to high-resolution MEAM of subcutaneous implants are systematically analyzed and the print process is optimized accordingly. Custom synthesized biodegradable phase-separated poly(ether ester) multiblock copolymers exhibiting appropriate melt viscosity at comparatively low printing temperatures of 135 °C and 165 °C were utilized as 3D-printing feedstock. The print process was optimized to minimize thermomechanical polymer degradation by employing print speeds of 30 mm∙s-1 in combination with a nozzle diameter of 150 µm at layer heights of 110 µm. These results portray the basis for further development of subcutaneous implantable drug delivery systems where drug release profiles can be tailored through the adaption of the internal implant structure, which cannot be achieved using existing manufacturing techniques.

Application of 3D printing technology for the development of dose adjustable geriatric and pediatric formulation of celecoxib

Developing safe and effective formulations for the geriatric and pediatric population is a challenging task due to issues of swallowability and palatability. The lack of standardized procedures for pediatric formulations further complicates the process. Manipulating adult formulations for children can lead to suboptimal efficacy and safety concerns. To overcome these challenges, minitablets or spinklets are preferred for the geriatric and pediatric population due to their smaller size and flexible dose adjustment. The aim of this study is the development of a 3D printed spinklets formulation of celecoxib, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, using hot melt extrusion to address the limitations of traditional manufacturing methods. Three different formulations of celecoxib were prepared using Poly-2-ethyl-tetra-oxazoline (Aquazol) with and without surfactant. Subsequently, the mechanical properties and solubility of the drug-loaded filaments were evaluated. Solid state characterization confirmed the drug conversion into an amorphous form during the extrusion process, Computer-aided design software facilitate sprinklets design for fused deposition modeling and scanning electron microscopy assess the surface morphology. Sophorolipids plasticize better than TPGS, resulting in lowering processing temperatures during melt extrusion. In vitro drug release showed successful enhancements in the dissolution of oral medications for pediatric patients, considering their distinctive physiological characteristics. Overall, this study demonstrates the successful development of PEtOx-based 3D printed celecoxib sprinklets by coupling hot-melt extrusion and 3D printing technology. Future exploration holds the potential to revolutionize pharmaceutical production and advance personalized medication formulations.

Exploring Environmental Settings to Improve the Printability of Paroxetine-Loaded Filaments by Fused Deposition Modelling

The successful integration of hot-melt extrusion (HME) and fused deposition modelling (FDM) depends on a better understanding of the impact of environmental conditions on the printability of formulations, since they significantly affect the properties of the raw materials, whose control is crucial to enable three-dimensional printing (3DP). Hence, the objective of this work was to investigate the correlation between the environmental settings and the properties of paroxetine (PRX)-loaded filaments, previously produced by HME, which affect printability by FDM. The influence of different drying methods of the physical mixtures (PMs) and HME-filaments (FILs) on the quality and printability of these products was also assessed. The printability of FILs was evaluated in terms of the water content, and the mechanical and thermal properties of the products. Stability studies and physicochemical, thermal, and in vitro dissolution tests were carried out on the 3D-printed tablets. Stability studies demonstrated the high ductility of the PRX loaded FILs, especially under high humidity conditions. Under low humidity storage conditions (11% RH), the FILs became stiffer and were successfully used to feed the FDM printer. Water removal was slow when carried out passively in a controlled atmosphere (desiccator) or accelerated by using active drying methods (heat or microwave). Pre-drying of the PRX/excipients and/or PMs did not show any positive effect on the printability of the FIL. On the contrary, dry heat and, preferably, microwave mediated drying processes were shown to reduce the holding time required for successful FDM printing, enabling on-demand production at the point of care.

A Bibliometric Analysis of 3D Printing in Personalized Medicine Research from 2012 to 2022

In recent years, the 3D printing of personalized drug formulations has attracted the attention of medical practitioners and academics. However, there is a lack of data-based analyses on the hotspots and trends of research in this field. Therefore, in this study, we performed a bibliometric analysis to summarize the 3D printing research in the field of personalized drug formulation from 2012 to 2022. This study was based on the Web of Science Core Collection Database, and a total of 442 eligible publications were screened. Using VOSviewer and online websites for bibliometric analysis and scientific mapping, it was observed that annual publications have shown a significant growth trend over the last decade. The United Kingdom and the United States, which account for 45.5% of the total number of publications, are the main drivers of this field. The International Journal of Pharmaceutics and University College London are the most prolific and cited journals and institutions. The researchers with the most contributions are Basit, Abdul W. and Goyanes Alvaro. The keyword analysis concluded that the current research hotspots are "drug release" and "drug dosage forms". In conclusion, 3D printing has broad application prospects in the field of personalized drugs, which will bring the pharmaceutical industry into a new era of innovation.

A comparison of droplet deposition modelling, fused filament fabrication, and injection moulding for the production of oral dosage forms containing hydrochlorothiazide

Additive manufacturing (AM) possesses a transformative potential to revolutionize personalized medicine fabrication. Fused filament fabrication (FFF), an advanced AM technique, enables the development of tailored medicines with customizable dosages and controlled release properties. Nevertheless, filament prerequisites impose material limitations and present considerable challenges, necessitating a comprehensive evaluation of mechanical, rheological, and thermal characteristics to circumvent complications during the FFF process. Droplet deposition modeling (DDM), an innovative AM approach derived from injection molding (IM) technology, processes granulate feedstock to facilitate the production of personalized medicines. This study delves into the effects of FFF, DDM, and IM techniques on the release profiles of Hydrochlorothiazide, a widely employed drug for hypertension and edema treatment. By varying infill density, the investigation assesses the manufactured tablets using DDM and FFF methods. Our findings show that tablets made with FFF and DDM with identical infill densities had distinct microstructures, resulting in variable drug release profiles. Decreasing the infill densities resulted in higher sample porosity, leading to an accelerated drug release rate. A comparative analysis of drug release profiles from DDM and IM fabricated tablets demonstrated notable differences, despite DDM's origins in injection molding technology. This comprehensive study underscores the significance of not only infill densities but also the choice of manufacturing technique, as both factors can profoundly influence drug release profiles. By shedding light on these considerations, the research contributes to the ongoing advancement of personalized medicine through additive manufacturing technologies.

Mechanically promoted lipid-based filaments via composition tuning for extrusion-based 3D-printing

Lipid excipients are favorable materials in pharmaceutical formulations owing to their natural, biodegradable, low-toxic and solubility/permeability enhancing properties. The application of these materials with advanced manufacturing platforms, particularly filament-based 3D-printing, is attractive for personalized manufacturing of thermolabile drugs. However, the filament's weak mechanical properties limit their full potential. In this study, highly flexible filaments were extruded using PG6-C16P, a lipid-based excipient belonging to the group of polyglycerol esters of fatty acids (PGFAs), based on tuning the ratio between its major and minor composition fractions. Increasing the percentage of the minor fractions in the system was found to enhance the relevant mechanical filament properties by 50-fold, guaranteeing a flawless 3D-printability. Applying a novel liquid feeding approach further improved the mechanical filament properties at lower percentage of minor fractions, whilst circumventing the issues associated with the standard extrusion approach such as low throughput. Upon drug incorporation, the filaments retained high mechanical properties with a controlled drug release pattern. This work demonstrates PG6-C16 P as an advanced lipid-based material and a competitive printing excipient that can empower filament-based 3D-printing.

A Review on Physicochemical Properties of Polymers Used as Filaments in 3D-Printed Tablets

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has presently been explored widely in the field of pharmaceutical research to produce various conventional as well as novel dosage forms such as tablets, capsules, oral films, pellets, subcutaneous implants, scaffolds, and vaginal rings. The use of this innovative method is a good choice for its advanced technologies and the ability to make tailored medicine specifically for individual patient. There are many 3D printing systems that are used to print tablets, implants, and vaginal rings. Among the available systems, the fused deposition modeling (FDM) is widely utilized. The FDM has been regarded as the best choice of printer as it shows high potential in the production of tablets as a unit dose in 3D printing medicine manufacturing. In order to design a 3D-printed tablet or other dosage forms, the physicochemical properties of polymers play a vital role. One should have proper knowledge about the polymer's properties so that one can select appropriate polymers in order to design 3D-printed dosage form. This review highlighted the various physicochemical properties of polymers that are currently used as filaments in 3D printing. In this manuscript, the authors also discussed various systems that are currently adopted in the 3D printing.

Challenges, current status and emerging strategies in the development of rapidly dissolving FDM 3D-printed tablets: An overview and commentary

Since the approval of a 3D-printed tablet by the FDA in 2015 for marketing, there has been a great interest in 3D printing in the pharmaceutical field for the development of personalized and on-demand medications. Among various 3D printing methods explored for the development of oral solid dosage form like tablet, the fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D-printing, where the drug-polymer mixtures are first converted into filaments by hot melt extrusion (HME) and then the filaments are printed into tablets using 3D printers by applying computer-aided design principles, has emerged as the most attractive option. However, no FDM 3D-printed tablets have yet been marketed as the technology faces many challenges, such as limited availability of pharmaceutical-grade polymers that can be printed into tablets, low drug-polymer miscibility, the need for high temperature for HME and 3D-printing, and slow drug release rates from tablets. These challenges are discussed in this article with a special focus on drug release rates since FDM 3D-printing usually leads to the preparation of slow-release tablets while the rapid release from dosage forms is often desired for optimal therapeutic outcomes of new drug candidates. Pros and cons of various strategies for the development of rapidly dissolving FDM 3D-printed tablets reported in the literature are reviewed. Finally, two case studies on emerging strategies for the development of rapidly dissolving FDM 3D-printed tablets are presented, where one outlines a systematic approach for formulating rapidly dissolving tablets, and the other describes a novel strategy to increase dissolution rates of drugs from FDM 3D-printed tablets, which at the same time can also increase drug-polymer miscibility and printability of tablets and lower processing temperatures. Thus, this overview and commentary discusses various issues involving the formulation of rapidly dissolving FDM 3D-printed tablets and provides guidance for the development of commercially viable products.