The Role of Lactoferrin in Intestinal Health

Dried distillers' grains with solubles as a key feed ingredient in dairy cow diets: Implications for colostrum quality and calf immunity

The study evaluated the effect of incorporating dried distillers' grains with solubles (DDGS) into the cow's diet during the dry period on colostrum quality, concentrations of protein, and immunoglobulin G (IgG) in the serum of cows and calves. Three weeks prior to the expected calving date, cows were selected and assigned to four groups, each comprising 15 animals. The standard group (Group I) was fed a standard total mixed ration (TMR). Groups II, III, and IV received TMR supplemented with DDGS at rates of 1 kg, 2 kg, and 3 kg per head per day, respectively. Colostrum and blood samples were collected from all cows. Blood samples were also obtained from calves on the 3rd and 30th days of life. Analyses of colostrum: basic composition, amino acid profile, IgG, IgA, IgM, protein fraction distribution, and concentrations of Ca, P, Mg, K, and Na. In blood samples, total protein content and IgG levels were determined. Colostrum from cows in groups I and IV had decreased lactoferrin level compared to group II. In group III, an increase in IgG and total protein levels was observed. Regardless of the DDGS supplementation levels in maternal feed rations, an increase in total protein and IgG levels was noted in the serum of calves on both the 3rd and 30th days of age. These findings suggest that the use of DDGS in cow's diets during the pre-calving period appears to enhance colostrum quality, and would seem to increase immunoglobulin levels and improve passive immunity in calves.

Treatment of lactoferrin and antimicrobial peptide N6 on bacterial enteritis caused by Escherichia coli in mice

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of diarrhea in humans and animals. The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of bovine lactoferrin (bLf) as an adjuvant combined with AMP (N6) in the treatment of E. coli-induced bacterial enteritis. Firstly, 40 female ICR mice were randomly divided into four groups. The ETEC-A, ETEC-B, and ETEC-C groups were gavaged with 0.2 mL of ETEC K88 at 5 × 109, 5 × 108, and 5 × 107 CFU/mL for three consecutive days, respectively, the CK control group was given PBS. Based on the clinical symptoms and intestinal changes, the optimal model dose of ETEC K88 was determined to be 5 × 108 CFU/mL. Sixty female ICR mice were randomly divided into six groups: CK group (uninfected), NC group (infected and untreated), N6 treatment group (20 mg/kg), bLf treatment group (100 mg/kg), bLf + N6-A treatment group (10 mg/kg N6+100 mg/kg bLf), and bLf + N6-B group (20 mg/kg N6+100 mg/kg bLf). The clinical symptoms, intestinal morphology, inflammatory response and serum metabolites were monitored. The results showed that compared with the NC group, the bLf-N6-A and bLf-N6-B treatment groups had significant reductions in TNF-α and IL-6, significant increases in IL-10, and significant reductions in endotoxin and DAO in plasma (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the bLf-N6-A and bLf-N6-B treatment groups significantly increased the expression of ZO-1, claudin-1 and occludin, increased the height of small intestinal mucosal villi and VH/CD after ETEC K88-induced intestinal injury (p < 0.05). The combination of bLf and N6 relieved enteritis by balancing intestinal mucosal immunity, improving intestinal morphology and barrier function. BLf combined with N6 can be used as an effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of bacterial enteritis.

Lactoferrin modulates oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines in a murine model of dysbiosis induced by clindamycin

Antibiotics, specifically clindamycin (Clin), cause intestinal dysbiosis, reducing the microbiota with anti-inflammatory properties. Furthermore, Clin can induce alterations in the immune responses and oxidative stress. Lactoferrin, among other activities, participates in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis and reduces dysbiosis induced by antibiotic treatment. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of native and iron-saturated bovine LF in a murine model of dysbiosis induced by Clin. Six groups of male C57BL/6 mice were treated with saline (control), Clin, native lactoferrin (nLF), iron-saturated lactoferrin (sLF), nLF/Clin, or sLF/Clin. Oxidation caused in the intestinal cells of the ileum of animals subjected to different treatments was analyzed, focusing on lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl content. The expression of inflammatory mediators was determined by qRT-PCR. Treatment with Clin did not modify lipid peroxidation, but significantly increased protein carbonyl levels up to almost 5-fold respect to the control, an effect that was reversed by orally administering sLF to mice. Furthermore, Clin increased the expression of interleukin-6 and TNF-α by 1- and 2-fold change, respectively. This effect was reversed by treatment with nLF and sLF, decreasing the expression to basal levels. In conclusion, this study indicates that lactoferrin can prevent some of the effects of Clin on intestinal cells and their associated immune system.

Lactoferrin as a Versatile Agent in Nanoparticle Applications: From Therapeutics to Agriculture

Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as a potent choice for various applications, from drug delivery to agricultural studies, serving as an alternative and promising methodology for future advancements. They have been widely explored in delivery systems, demonstrating immense promise and high efficiency for the delivery of numerous biomolecules such as proteins and anticancer agents, either solely or modified with other compounds to enhance their capabilities. In addition, the utilization of NPs extends to antimicrobial studies, where they are used to develop novel antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral formulations with advanced characteristics. Lactoferrin (Lf) is a glycoprotein recognized for its significant multifunctional properties, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and neuroprotective effects. Its activity has a broad distribution in the human body, with Lf receptors present in multiple regions. Current research shows that Lf is utilized in NP technology as a surface material, encapsulated biomolecule, and even as an NP itself. Due to the abundance of Lf receptors in various regions, Lf can be employed as a surface material in NPs for targeted delivery strategies, particularly in crossing the BBB and targeting specific cancers. Furthermore, Lf can be synthesized in an NP structure, positioning it as a strong candidate in future NP-related applications. In this article, we explore the highlighted and underexplored areas of Lf applications in NPs research.

Looking Inside of the Intestinal Permeability Regulation by Protein-Derivatives from Bovine Milk

The prime function of the epithelium is to regulate the intestinal permeability; the latter is a quantitative parameter that refers to the measurement of the rate of passage of solutes through the epithelial monolayer. Function of epithelial monolayer depends on the expression of protein complexes known as tight junction proteins; whose function and expression can be disrupted under conditions of inflammation including irritable bowel disease (IBD), intestinal infections, and high-fat diets, among others. This manuscript is focused to outline the effects of bovine milk protein derivatives on the intestinal permeability addressed mostly in animal models in which the intestinal barrier is disrupted. At present, the properties of bovine milk protein derivatives on intestinal permeability have been scarcely documented in humans, but evidence raised from clinical trials provides promising findings of potential application of colostrum to control of the intestinal permeability in critically ill patients, users of non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, like athletes and militia members.

Effect of In Vitro Digestion on Bioactive Peptides Related to Immune and Gut Health in Intact Cow's Milk and Hydrolyzed Protein-Based Infant Formulas

Background/Objectives: Human milk is the optimal source of nutrition and protection against infection for infants. If breastfeeding is not possible, standard and hydrolyzed infant formulas (IF) are an alternative. Extensively hydrolyzed IFs (eHFs) contain bioactive peptides, but their activities have rarely been evaluated. The aim of this study was to characterize and compare the bioactive peptide profiles of different eHFs and standard IFs before and after in vitro digestion. Methods: Two forms, liquid and powder, of intact protein formula (iPF) and eHF were subjected to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, mimicking a young infant's gut (age 0-4 months) and an older infant's gut (>6 months). Bioactive peptides of in vitro digested and undigested formulas were analysed with Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS). Results: In all samples, a variety of peptides with potential bioactive properties were found. Immuno-regulatory peptides, followed by antimicrobial and antioxidative peptides were most frequent, as were peptides promoting wound healing, increasing mucin secretion, regulating cholesterol metabolism, and preventing bacterial infection. Peptides typically found in yoghurt and colostrum were identified in some formula samples. Conclusions: The high amounts of bioactive peptides with various properties in eHFs and iPFs indicate a possible contribution to infection protection, healthy gut microbiomes, and immunological development of infants. eHFs showed similar compositions of bioactive peptides to iPFs, with intermittently increased peptide variety and quantity.

Lactoferrin Supplementation in Preventing and Protecting from SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Is There Any Role in General and Special Populations? An Updated Review of Literature

At the beginning of the pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 infection represented a great medical burden worldwide, as targeted and effective therapeutic options were lacking. This resulted in the revival of existing molecules and the increasing popularity of over-the-counter nutritional supplements. Among the latter, lactoferrin has been investigated as an adjuvant in COVID-19 therapy with conflicting results, mainly depending on different study designs. Considering that lactoferrin is one of the main components of human breast milk with anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activity, it is conceivable that such bioactive molecule could be effective in supporting anti-SARS-CoV-2 infection therapy, especially in infants and pregnant women, two subpopulations that have been poorly evaluated in the existing clinical trials. This narrative review is intended to offer insight into the existing literature on lactoferrin's biological functions and protective effects against COVID-19, with a special focus on pregnant women and their infants.

Lactoferrin Supplementation during Pregnancy and Lactation Protects Adult Male Rat Offspring from Hypertension Induced by Maternal Adenine Diet

Lactoferrin, a glycoprotein derived from breastmilk, is recognized for its health benefits in infants and children; however, its protective effects when administered during gestation and lactation against offspring hypertension remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate whether maternal lactoferrin supplementation could prevent hypertension in offspring born to mothers with chronic kidney disease (CKD), with a focus on nitric oxide (NO), renin-angiotensin system (RAS) regulation, and alterations in gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Prior to pregnancy, female rats were subjected to a 0.5% adenine diet for 3 weeks to induce CKD. During pregnancy and lactation, pregnant rats received one of four diets: normal chow, 0.5% adenine diet, 10% lactoferrin diet, or adenine diet supplemented with lactoferrin. Male offspring were euthanized at 12 weeks of age (n = 8 per group). Supplementation with lactoferrin during gestation and lactation prevented hypertension in adult offspring induced by a maternal adenine diet. The maternal adenine diet caused a decrease in the index of NO availability, which was restored by 67% with maternal LF supplementation. Additionally, LF was related to the regulation of the RAS, as evidenced by a reduced renal expression of renin and the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Combined maternal adenine and LF diets altered beta diversity, shifted the offspring's gut microbiota, decreased propionate levels, and reduced the renal expression of SCFA receptors. The beneficial effects of lactoferrin are likely mediated through enhanced NO availability, rebalancing the RAS, and alterations in gut microbiota composition and SCFAs. Our findings suggest that maternal lactoferrin supplementation improves hypertension in offspring in a model of adenine-induced CKD, bringing us closer to potentially translating lactoferrin supplementation clinically for children born to mothers with CKD.

Impact of Ultrafiltration on the Physicochemical Properties of Bovine Lactoferrin: Insights into Molecular Mass, Surface Morphology, and Elemental Composition

The large-scale isolation of bovine lactoferrin (bLF) typically involves using large amounts of concentrated eluents, which might introduce impurities to the final product. Sometimes, protein pre-concentration is required for the greater accuracy of experimental results. In this research, the supplied bLF sample was subjected to additional ultrafiltration (UF) to eliminate possible small impurities, such as salts and peptides of bLF. Beforehand, the basic characterization of native bLF, including surface-charge properties and the structural sensitivity to the various pH conditions, was performed. The study aimed to evaluate the difference in molecular mass, primary structure, surface morphology, and elemental composition of the protein before and after UF. The research was provided by application of spectroscopic, spectrometric, electrophoretic, and microscopic techniques. The evident changes in the surface morphology of bLF were observed after UF, while the molecular masses of both proteins were comparable. According to MALDI-TOF/MS results, UF had a positive impact on the bLF sample representation, improving the identification parameters, such as sequence coverage and intensity coverage.

Exploring the Role of Lactoferrin in Managing Allergic Airway Diseases among Children: Unrevealing a Potential Breakthrough

The prevalence of allergic diseases has dramatically increased among children in recent decades. These conditions significantly impact the quality of life of allergic children and their families. Lactoferrin, a multifunctional glycoprotein found in various biological fluids, is emerging as a promising immunomodulatory agent that can potentially alleviate allergic diseases in children. Lactoferrin's multifaceted properties make it a compelling candidate for managing these conditions. Firstly, lactoferrin exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which can mitigate the chronic inflammation characteristic of allergic diseases. Secondly, its iron-binding capabilities may help regulate the iron balance in allergic children, potentially influencing the severity of their symptoms. Lactoferrin also demonstrates antimicrobial properties, making it beneficial in preventing secondary infections often associated with respiratory allergies. Furthermore, its ability to modulate the immune response and regulate inflammatory pathways suggests its potential as an immune-balancing agent. This review of the current literature emphasises the need for further research to elucidate the precise roles of lactoferrin in allergic diseases. Harnessing the immunomodulatory potential of lactoferrin could provide a novel add-on approach to managing allergic diseases in children, offering hope for improved outcomes and an enhanced quality of life for paediatric patients and their families. As lactoferrin continues to capture the attention of researchers, its properties and diverse applications make it an intriguing subject of study with a rich history and a promising future.

Research Note: Bovine lactoferrin in chickens: an investigation into its viability as an antibiotic alternative

Finding effective antibiotic alternatives is crucial to managing the re-emerging health risk of Clostridium perfringens (CP) type A/G-induced avian necrotic enteritis (NE), a disease that has regained prominence in the wake of governmental restrictions on antibiotic use in poultry. Known for its antimicrobial and immunomodulatory effects, the use of bovine lactoferrin (bLF) in chickens is yet to be fully explored. In this study, we hypothesized that bLF can accumulate in the small intestines of healthy chickens through gavage and intramuscular supplementation and serves as a potential antibiotic alternative. Immunohistochemistry located bLF in various layers of the small intestines and ELISA testing confirmed its accumulation. Surprisingly, sham-treated chickens also showed the presence of bLF, prompting a western blotting analysis that dismissed the notion of cross-reactivity between bLF and the avian protein ovotransferrin. Although the significance of the route of administration remains inconclusive, this study supports the hypothesis that bLF is a promising and safe antibiotic alternative with demonstrated resistance to the degradative environment of the chicken intestines. Further studies are needed to determine its beneficial pharmacological effects in CP-infected chickens.

Interaction between Dietary Lactoferrin and Gut Microbiota in Host Health

The gut microbiota are known to play an important role in host health and disease. Alterations in the gut microbiota composition can disrupt the stability of the gut ecosystem, which may result in noncommunicable chronic diseases (NCCDs). Remodeling the gut microbiota through personalized nutrition is a novel therapeutic avenue for both disease control and prevention. However, whether there are commonly used gut microbiota-targeted diets and how gut microbiota-diet interactions combat NCCDs and improve health remain questions to be addressed. Lactoferrin (LF), which is broadly used in dietary supplements, acts not only as an antimicrobial in the defense against enteropathogenic bacteria but also as a prebiotic to propagate certain probiotics. Thus, LF-induced gut microbiota alterations can be harnessed to induce changes in host physiology, and the underpinnings of their relationships and mechanisms are beginning to unravel in studies involving humans and animal models.

Unlocking the power of Lactoferrin: Exploring its role in early life and its preventive potential for adult chronic diseases

Nutrition during the early postnatal period exerts a profound impact on both infant development and later-life health. Breast milk, which contains lactoferrin, a dynamic protein, plays a crucial role in the growth of various biological systems and in preventing numerous chronic diseases. Based on the relationship between early infant development and chronic diseases later in life, this paper presents a review of the effects of lactoferrin in early life on neonates intestinal tract, immune system, nervous system, adipocyte development, and early intestinal microflora establishment, as well as the preventive and potential mechanisms of early postnatal lactoferrin against adult allergy, inflammatory bowel disease, depression, cancer, and obesity. Furthermore, we summarized the application status of lactoferrin in the early postnatal period and suggested directions for future research.

From the Friend to the Foe-Enterococcus faecalis Diverse Impact on the Human Immune System

Enterococcus faecalis is a bacterium which accompanies us from the first days of our life. As a commensal it produces vitamins, metabolizes nutrients, and maintains intestinal pH. All of that happens in exchange for a niche to inhabit. It is not surprising then, that the bacterium was and is used as an element of many probiotics and its positive impact on the human immune system and the body in general is hard to ignore. This bacterium has also a dark side though. The plasticity and relative ease with which one acquires virulence traits, and the ability to hide from or even deceive and use the immune system to spread throughout the body make E. faecalis a more and more dangerous opponent. The statistics clearly show its increasing role, especially in the case of nosocomial infections. Here we present the summarization of current knowledge about E. faecalis, especially in the context of its relations with the human immune system.

To Boost or to Reset: The Role of Lactoferrin in Energy Metabolism

Many pathological conditions, including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and cancer, are associated with abnormal metabolic states. The progressive loss of metabolic control is commonly characterized by insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, inflammation, central obesity, and hypertension, a cluster of metabolic dysregulations usually referred to as the "metabolic syndrome". Recently, nutraceuticals have gained attention for the generalized perception that natural substances may be synonymous with health and balance, thus becoming favorable candidates for the adjuvant treatment of metabolic dysregulations. Among nutraceutical proteins, lactoferrin (Lf), an iron-binding glycoprotein of the innate immune system, has been widely recognized for its multifaceted activities and high tolerance. As this review shows, Lf can exert a dual role in human metabolism, either boosting or resetting it under physiological and pathological conditions, respectively. Lf consumption is safe and is associated with several benefits for human health, including the promotion of oral and gastrointestinal homeostasis, control of glucose and lipid metabolism, reduction of systemic inflammation, and regulation of iron absorption and balance. Overall, Lf can be recommended as a promising natural, completely non-toxic adjuvant for application as a long-term prophylaxis in the therapy for metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance/type II diabetes and the metabolic syndrome.

Enhanced Cellular Uptake and Transport of Bovine Lactoferrin Using Pectin- and Chitosan-Modified Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

AIM

The aim of this project is to use pectin- and chitosan-modified solid lipid nanoparticles for bovine lactoferrin to enhance its cellular uptake and transport.

METHODS

Solid lipid particles containing bovine lactoferrin (bLf) were formulated through the solvent evaporation technique, incorporating stearic acid along with either chitosan or pectin modification. bLf cellular uptake and transport were evaluated in vitro using the human adenocarcinoma cell line Caco-2 cell model.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The bLf-loaded SLPs showed no significant effect on cytotoxicity and did not induce apoptosis within the eight-hour investigation. The use of confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed that bLf follows the receptor-mediated endocytosis, whereas the primary mechanism for the cellular uptake of SLPs was endocytosis. The bLf-loaded SLPs had significantly more cellular uptake compared to bLf alone, and it was observed that this impact varied based on the time, temperature, and concentration. Verapamil and EDTA were determined to raise the apparent permeability coefficients (App) of bLf and bLf-loaded SLPs.

CONCLUSION

This occurred because they hindered efflux by interacting with P-glycoproteins and had a penetration-enhancing influence. These findings propose the possibility of an additional absorption mechanism for SLPs, potentially involving active transportation facilitated by the P-glycoprotein transporter in Caco-2 cells. These results suggest that SLPs have the potential to be applied as effective carriers to improve the oral bioavailability of proteins and peptides.