Amphibian (Xenopus laevis) Tadpoles and Adult Frogs Differ in Their Use of Expanded Repertoires of Type I and Type III Interferon Cytokines

Molecular diversity and functional implication of amphibian interferon complex: Remarking immune adaptation in vertebrate evolution

Cross-species comparison of vertebrate genomes has unraveled previously unknown complexities of interferon (IFN) systems in amphibian species. Recent genomic curation revealed that amphibian species have evolved expanded repertoires of four types of intron-containing IFN genes akin to those seen in jawed fish, intronless type I IFNs and intron-containing type III IFNs akin to those seen in amniotes, as well as uniquely intronless type III IFNs. This appears to be the case with at least ten analyzed amphibian species; with distinct species encoding diverse repertoires of these respective IFN gene subsets. Amphibians represent a key stage in vertebrate evolution, and in this context offer a unique perspective into the divergent and converged pathways leading to the emergence of distinct IFN families and groups. Recent studies have begun to unravel the roles of amphibian IFNs during these animals' immune responses in general and during their antiviral responses, in particular. However, the pleiotropic potentials of these highly expanded amphibian IFN repertoires warrant further studies. Based on recent reports and our omics analyses using Xenopus models, we posit that amphibian IFN complex may have evolved novel functions, as indicated by their extensive molecular diversity. Here, we provide an overview and an update of the present understanding of the amphibian IFN complex in the context of the evolution of vertebrate immune systems. A greater understanding of the amphibian IFN complex will grant new perspectives on the evolution of vertebrate immunity and may yield new measures by which to counteract the global amphibian declines.

Do immune system changes at metamorphosis predict vulnerability to chytridiomycosis? An update

Amphibians are among the vertebrate groups suffering great losses of biodiversity due to a variety of causes including diseases, such as chytridiomycosis (caused by the fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans). The amphibian metamorphic period has been identified as being particularly vulnerable to chytridiomycosis, with dramatic physiological and immunological reorganisation likely contributing to this vulnerability. Here, we overview the processes behind these changes at metamorphosis and then perform a systematic literature review to capture the breadth of empirical research performed over the last two decades on the metamorphic immune response. We found that few studies focused specifically on the immune response during the peri-metamorphic stages of amphibian development and fewer still on the implications of their findings with respect to chytridiomycosis. We recommend future studies consider components of the immune system that are currently under-represented in the literature on amphibian metamorphosis, particularly pathogen recognition pathways. Although logistically challenging, we suggest varying the timing of exposure to Bd across metamorphosis to examine the relative importance of pathogen evasion, suppression or dysregulation of the immune system. We also suggest elucidating the underlying mechanisms of the increased susceptibility to chytridiomycosis at metamorphosis and the associated implications for population persistence. For species that overlap a distribution where Bd/Bsal are now endemic, we recommend a greater focus on management strategies that consider the important peri-metamorphic period.

Gene synteny, evolution and antiviral activity of type I IFNs in a reptile species, the Chinese soft-shelled turtle Pelodiscus sinensis

Type I interferons (IFNs) are critical cytokines for the establishment of antiviral status in fish, amphibian, avian and mammal, but the knowledge on type I IFNs is rather limited in reptile. In this study, seven type I IFN genes, designed as IFN1 to IFN7, were identified from a reptile species, the Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis). These identified type I IFNs have relatively low protein identity, when compared with those in human and chicken; but they possess conserved cysteines, predicted multi-helix structure and N-terminal signal peptide. The Chinese soft-shelled turtle IFN1 to IFN5 have two exons and one intron, but IFN6 and IFN7 are the single-exon genes. Chinese soft-shelled turtle type I IFNs are located respectively on the two conserved reptile-bird loci, named as Locus a and Locus c, and are clustered into the four of the five reptile-bird groups (named as Groups I-V) based on phylogenetic evidence, due to the lack of IFNK in the turtle. Moreover, the Chinese soft-shelled turtle type I IFNs can be induced by soft-shelled turtle iridovirus (STIV) infection and show antiviral activity in soft-shelled turtle artery (STA) cells, except IFN6. In addition, due to the difference in genome organizations, such as the number of exons and introns of type I IFN genes from fish to mammal, the definition and evolution of 'intronless' type I IFN genes were discussed in lineages of vertebrates. Thus, the finding of type I IFNs on two different loci in P. sinensis sheds light on the evolution of type I IFN genes in vertebrates.

Endogenous Retroviruses Augment Amphibian (Xenopus laevis) Tadpole Antiviral Protection

The global amphibian declines are compounded by infections with members of the Ranavirus genus such as Frog Virus 3 (FV3). Premetamorphic anuran amphibians are believed to be significantly more susceptible to FV3 while this pathogen targets the kidneys of both pre- and postmetamorphic animals. Paradoxically, FV3-challenged Xenopus laevis tadpoles exhibit lower kidney viral loads than adult frogs. Presently, we demonstrate that X. laevis tadpoles are intrinsically more resistant to FV3 kidney infections than cohort-matched metamorphic and postmetamorphic froglets and that this resistance appears to be epigenetically conferred by endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). Using a X. laevis kidney-derived cell line, we show that enhancing ERV gene expression activates cellular double-stranded RNA-sensing pathways, resulting in elevated mRNA levels of antiviral interferon (IFN) cytokines and thus greater anti-FV3 protection. Finally, our results indicate that large esterase-positive myeloid-lineage cells, rather than renal cells, are responsible for the elevated ERV/IFN axis seen in the tadpole kidneys. This conclusion is supported by our observation that CRISPR-Cas9 ablation of colony-stimulating factor-3 results in abolished homing of these myeloid cells to tadpole kidneys, concurrent with significantly abolished tadpole kidney expression of both ERVs and IFNs. We believe that the manuscript marks an important step forward in understanding the mechanisms controlling amphibian antiviral defenses and thus susceptibility and resistance to pathogens like FV3. IMPORTANCE Global amphibian biodiversity is being challenged by pathogens like the Frog Virus 3 (FV3) ranavirus, underlining the need to gain a greater understanding of amphibian antiviral defenses. While it was previously believed that anuran (frog/toad) amphibian tadpoles are more susceptible to FV3, we demonstrated that tadpoles are in fact more resistant to this virus than metamorphic and postmetamorphic froglets. We showed that this resistance is conferred by large myeloid cells within the tadpole kidneys (central FV3 target), which possess an elevated expression of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). In turn, these ERVs activate cellular double-stranded RNA-sensing pathways, resulting in a greater expression of antiviral interferon cytokines, thereby offering the observed anti-FV3 protection.

Interferon-beta, interferon-gamma and their fusion interferon of Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in China are involved in positive-feedback regulation of interferon production

As a group of cytokines, interferons are the first line of defense in the antiviral immunity. In this study, Siberian tiger IFN-β (PtIFN-β) and IFN-γ (PtIFN-γ) were successfully amplified, and the two were fused (PtIFN-γ) by overlap extension polymerase chain reaction (SOE-PCR). Bioinformatics analysis disclosed that PtIFN-β and PtIFN-γ have species-specificity and conservation in the course of evolution. After being expressed in prokaryotes, the antiviral activities and physicochemical properties of PtIFN-β, PtIFN-γ and PtIFNβ-γ were analyzed. In Feline kidney cells (F81), PtIFNβ-γ showed more active antiviral activity than PtIFN-β and PtIFN-γ, which has more stable physicochemical properties (acid and alkali resistance, high temperature resistance). In addition, PtIFN-β, PtIFN-γ and PtIFN-γ activated the JAK-STAT pathway and induced the transcription and expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Janus kinase (JAK) 1 inhibitor inhibited ISGs expression induced by PtIFN-β, PtIFN-γ and PtIFN-γ. Overall, this research clarified that PtIFN-β, PtIFN-γ and PtIFNβ-γ have the ability to inhibit viral replication and send signals through the JAK-STAT pathway. These findings may facilitate further study on the role of PtIFN in the antiviral immune response, and help to develop approaches for the prophylactic and therapeutic of viral diseases based on fusion interferon.

Prior induction of cellular antiviral pathways limits frog virus 3 replication in two permissive Xenopus laevis skin epithelial-like cell lines

Frog virus 3 (FV3) causes mortality in a range of amphibian species. Despite the importance of the skin epithelium as a first line of defence against FV3, the interaction between amphibian skin epithelial cells and FV3 remains largely uncharacterized. Here, we used newly established Xenopus laevis skin epithelial-like cell lines, Xela DS2 and Xela VS2, to study the susceptibility and permissiveness of frog skin epithelial cells to FV3, and the innate immune antiviral and proinflammatory gene regulatory responses of these cells to FV3. Both cell lines are susceptible and permissive to FV3, yet do not exhibit appreciable transcript levels of scavenger receptors thought to be used by FV3 for cellular entry. Xela DS2 and Xela VS2 upregulate antiviral and proinflammatory cytokine transcripts in response to poly(I:C) but not to FV3 or UV-inactivated FV3. Poly(I:C) pretreatment limits FV3 replication and FV3-induced cytopathic effects in both cell lines. Thus, Xela DS2 and Xela VS2 can support FV3 replication, represent in vitro systems to investigate antiviral responses of frog skin epithelial cells, and can serve as novel tools for screening compounds that initiate effective antiviral programs to limit FV3 replication.

The Immune System and the Antiviral Responses in Chinese Giant Salamander, Andrias davidianus

The Chinese giant salamander, belonging to an ancient amphibian lineage, is the largest amphibian existing in the world, and is also an important animal for artificial cultivation in China. However, some aspects of the innate and adaptive immune system of the Chinese giant salamander are still unknown. The Chinese giant salamander iridovirus (GSIV), a member of the Ranavirus genus (family Iridoviridae), is a prominent pathogen causing high mortality and severe economic losses in Chinese giant salamander aquaculture. As a serious threat to amphibians worldwide, the etiology of ranaviruses has been mainly studied in model organisms, such as the Ambystoma tigrinum and Xenopus. Nevertheless, the immunity to ranavirus in Chinese giant salamander is distinct from other amphibians and less known. We review the unique immune system and antiviral responses of the Chinese giant salamander, in order to establish effective management of virus disease in Chinese giant salamander artificial cultivation.

Amphibian (Xenopus laevis) Tadpoles and Adult Frogs Differ in Their Antiviral Responses to Intestinal Frog Virus 3 Infections

The global amphibian declines are compounded by ranavirus infections such as Frog Virus 3 (FV3), and amphibian tadpoles more frequently succumb to these pathogens than adult animals. Amphibian gastrointestinal tracts represent a major route of ranavirus entry, and viral pathogenesis often leads to hemorrhaging and necrosis within this tissue. Alas, the differences between tadpole and adult amphibian immune responses to intestinal ranavirus infections remain poorly defined. As interferon (IFN) cytokine responses represent a cornerstone of vertebrate antiviral immunity, it is pertinent that the tadpoles and adults of the anuran Xenopus laevis frog mount disparate IFN responses to FV3 infections. Presently, we compared the tadpole and adult X. laevis responses to intestinal FV3 infections. Our results indicate that FV3-challenged tadpoles mount more robust intestinal type I and III IFN responses than adult frogs. These tadpole antiviral responses appear to be mediated by myeloid cells, which are recruited into tadpole intestines in response to FV3 infections. Conversely, myeloid cells bearing similar cytology already reside within the intestines of healthy (uninfected) adult frogs, possibly accounting for some of the anti-FV3 resistance of these animals. Further insight into the differences between tadpole and adult frog responses to ranaviral infections is critical to understanding the facets of susceptibility and resistance to these pathogens.

Post-transcriptional regulation of frog innate immunity: discovery of frog microRNAs associated with antiviral responses and ranavirus infection using a Xenopus laevis skin epithelial-like cell line

Post-transcriptional regulators such as microRNAs are emerging as conserved regulators of innate antiviral immunity in vertebrates, yet their roles in amphibian antiviral responses remain uncharacterized. We profiled changes in microRNA expressions in the Xenopus laevis skin epithelial-like cell line Xela DS2 in response to poly(I:C)—an analogue of viral double-stranded RNA and inducer of type I interferons—or frog virus 3 (FV3), an immunoevasive virus associated with amphibian mortality events. Small RNA libraries generated from untreated, poly(I:C)-treated, and FV3-infected cells were sequenced. We detected 136 known X. laevis microRNAs and discovered 133 novel X. laevis microRNAs. Sixty-five microRNAs were differentially expressed in response to poly(I:C), many of which were predicted to target regulators of antiviral pathways such as cGAS-STING, RIG-I/MDA-5, TLR signaling, and type I interferon signaling, as well as products of these pathways (NF-ĸB-induced and interferon-stimulated genes). In contrast, only 49 microRNAs were altered by FV3 infection, fewer of which were predicted to interact with antiviral pathways. Interestingly, poly(I:C) treatment or FV3 infection downregulated transcripts encoding factors of the host microRNA biogenesis pathway. Our study is the first to suggest that host microRNAs regulate innate antiviral immunity in frogs and sheds light on microRNA-mediated mechanisms of immunoevasion by FV3.

Molecular and functional characterization of interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1) in amphibian Xenopus tropicalis

Interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1) is an important regulator in controlling the transcription of type I interferon genes, and its functions have been well-characterized in mammals, birds and fish. However, little information is available regarding the function of amphibian IRF1. In this study, an IRF1 gene homolog named as Xt-IRF1 was identified in the Western clawed frog (Xenopus tropicalis), an amphibian model specie widely used for comparative immunology research. Xt-IRF1 and IRF1 in other vertebrates possess similar genomic structure and flanking genes, and were grouped together to form a separate clade in phylogenetic tree. In addition, Xt-IRF1 gene was constitutively expressed in all tissues examined, with the highest expression level observed in spleen, and was inducible after poly(I:C) stimulation. Importantly, the expression of Xt-IRF1 was markedly induced by recombinant type I interferon, and Xt-IRF1 induced a strong activation of both IFNβ and ISRE promoters. The present study opens the door to investigate the roles of IRF1 in amphibians, and thus contributes to a better understanding of the functional evolution of IRFs in lower tetrapods.

Xela DS2 and Xela VS2: Two novel skin epithelial-like cell lines from adult African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) and their response to an extracellular viral dsRNA analogue

The skin epithelial layer acts as an important immunological barrier against pathogens and is capable of recognizing and responding to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in human and mouse models. Although presumed, it is unknown whether amphibian skin epithelial cells exhibit the ability to respond to PAMPs such as viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). To address this, two cell lines from the dorsal skin (Xela DS2) and ventral skin (Xela VS2) of the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) were established. Xela DS2 and Xela VS2 cells have an epithelial-like morphology, express genes associated with epithelial cells, and lack senescence-associated beta-galactosidase activity. Cells grow optimally in 70% Leibovitz's L-15 medium supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum at 26 °C. Upon treatment with poly(I:C), a synthetic analogue of viral dsRNA and known type I interferon inducer, Xela DS2 and Xela VS2 exhibit marked upregulation of key antiviral and pro-inflammatory transcripts suggesting frog epithelial cells participate in the recognition of extracellular viral dsRNA and production of local inflammatory signals; similar to human and mouse models. Currently, these are the only known Xenopus laevis skin epithelial-like cell lines and will be important for future research in amphibian epithelial cell biology, initial host-pathogen interactions, and rapid screening of the effects of environmental stressors, including contaminants, on frog skin epithelial cells.

Harmful Algal Bloom Toxicity in Lithobates catesbeiana Tadpoles

Harmful algal blooms (HAB) have become a major health concern worldwide, not just to humans that consume and recreate on contaminated waters, but also to the fauna that inhabit the environments surrounding affected areas. HABs contain heterotrophic bacteria, cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharide, and cyanobacterial toxins such as microcystins, that can cause severe toxicity in many aquatic species as well as bioaccumulation within various organs. Thus, the possibility of trophic transference of this toxin through the food chain has potentially important health implications for other organisms in the related food web. While some species have developed adaptions to attenuate the toxic effects of HAB toxins, there are still numerous species that remain vulnerable, including Lithobates catesbeiana (American bullfrog) tadpoles. In the current study we demonstrate that acute, short-term exposure of tadpoles to HAB toxins containing 1 µg/L (1 nmol/L) of total microcystins for only 7 days results in significant liver and intestinal toxicity within tadpoles. Exposed tadpoles had increased intestinal diameter, decreased intestinal fold heights, and a constant number of intestinal folds, indicating pathological intestinal distension, similar to what is seen in various disease processes, such as toxic megacolon. HAB-toxin-exposed tadpoles also demonstrated hepatocyte hypertrophy with increased hepatocyte binucleation consistent with carcinogenic and oxidative processes within the liver. Both livers and intestines of HAB-toxin-exposed tadpoles demonstrated significant increases in protein carbonylation consistent with oxidative stress and damage. These findings demonstrate that short-term exposure to HAB toxins, including microcystins, can have significant adverse effects in amphibian populations. This acute, short-term toxicity highlights the need to evaluate the influence HAB toxins may have on other vulnerable species within the food web and how those may ultimately also impact human health.

Expression Changes of MHC and Other Immune Genes in Frog Skin during Ontogeny

Simple Summary

Tadpoles undergo many changes in physiology and immunology until metamorphosis into adult frogs. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules are an important part of vertebrate adaptive immunity, and our study measured the expression of two MHC genes (MHC class I and II) in skin during six tadpole stages of the Montane Brown frog (Rana ornativentris). First, using a qPCR method, we found that both MHC class I and II expression significantly increased between stage 24/25 (‘early’) and stage 28 (‘mid’) tadpole skin. Then, we conducted next-generation sequencing for ‘early’, ‘mid’ and ‘late’ stage tadpole skin mRNA of both R. ornativentris and a model species, Xenopus tropicalis, and confirmed that MHC expression increased from the ‘mid’ stage. We also performed further analyses of transcriptome data and found that several immune-related gene ontology terms were upregulated from the ‘mid’ tadpole stage. Our findings probably support that both MHC class I and II have a functional role during tadpole development.

Abstract

Anuran amphibians undergo major physiological and immunological changes following metamorphosis. Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) code for receptors important for vertebrate adaptive immunity. We used qPCR to measure skin MHC expression in six different ontological stages of Rana ornativentris (n = 10 per stage); normalized MHC class I and II expression at the mRNA level was significantly higher in stage 28 (mid-larval) compared to stages 24/25 (early-larval) tadpoles. Subsequent transcriptomic analyses of three tadpole (early-, mid-, and late-larval) stages of R. ornativentris and model species Xenopus tropicalis focused on mRNA expression of immune-related genes in the skin. Normalized expression of most MHC class I and II transcripts in both species were significantly higher in mid- and late-larval stages compared to early-larval stage. In addition, gene ontology (GO) analyses of differentially expressed transcripts revealed several immune-related GO terms that were significantly upregulated from the mid-larval stage. Our study provides evidence that both MHC class I and II is expressed during development in both R. ornativentris and X. tropicalis.

Discovery of granulocyte-lineage cells in the skin of the amphibianXenopus laevis

The ranavirus Frog Virus 3 (FV3) and the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( Bd) are significant contributors to the global amphibian declines and both pathogens target the amphibian skin. We previously showed that tadpoles and adults of the anuran amphibian Xenopus laevis express notable levels of granulocyte chemokine genes ( cxcl8a and cxcl8b) within their skin and likely possess skin-resident granulocytes. Presently, we show that tadpole and adult X. laevis indeed possess granulocyte-lineage cells within their epidermises that are distinct from their skin mast cells, which are found predominantly in lower dermal layers. These esterase-positive cells responded to (r)CXCL8a and rCXCL8b in a concentration- and CXCR1/CXCR2-dependent manner, possessed polymorphonuclear granulocyte morphology, granulocyte marker surface staining, and exhibited distinct immune gene expression from conventional granulocytes. Our past work indicates that CXCL8b recruits immunosuppressive granulocytes, and here we demonstrated that enriching esterase-positive skin granulocytes with rCXCL8b (but not rCXCL8a) may increase tadpole susceptibility to FV3 and adult frog susceptibility to Bd. Furthermore, pharmacological depletion of skin-resident granulocytes increased tadpole susceptibility to FV3. This manuscript provides new insights into the composition and roles of immune cells within the amphibian skin, which is a critical barrier against pathogenic contributors to the amphibian declines.

Xenopus Interferon Complex: Inscribing the Amphibiotic Adaption and Species-Specific Pathogenic Pressure in Vertebrate Evolution?

Several recent studies have revealed previously unknown complexity of the amphibian interferon (IFN) system. Being unique in vertebrate animals, amphibians not only conserve and multiply the fish-like intron-containing IFN genes, but also rapidly evolve amniote-like intronless IFN genes in each tested species. We postulate that the amphibian IFN system confers an essential model to study vertebrate immune evolution in molecular and functional diversity to cope with unprecedented pathophysiological requirement during terrestrial adaption. Studies so far have ascribed a potential role of these IFNs in immune regulation against intracellular pathogens, particularly viruses; however, many knowledge gaps remain elusive. Based on recent reports about IFN's multifunctional properties in regulation of animal physiological and defense responses, we interpret that amphibian IFNs may evolve novel function pertinent to their superior molecular diversity. Such new function revealed by the emerging studies about antifungal and developmental regulation of amphibian IFNs will certainly promote our understanding of immune evolution in vertebrates to address current pathogenic threats causing amphibian decline.

Discovery of All Three Types in Cartilaginous Fishes Enables Phylogenetic Resolution of the Origins and Evolution of Interferons

Interferons orchestrate host antiviral responses in jawed vertebrates. They are categorized into three classes; IFN1 and IFN3 are the primary antiviral cytokine lineages, while IFN2 responds to a broader variety of pathogens. The evolutionary relationships within and between these three classes have proven difficult to resolve. Here, we reassess interferon evolution, considering key phylogenetic pitfalls including taxon sampling, alignment quality, model adequacy, and outgroup choice. We reveal that cartilaginous fishes, and hence the jawed vertebrate ancestor, possess(ed) orthologs of all three interferon classes. We show that IFN3 groups sister to IFN1, resolve the origins of the human IFN3 lineages, and find that intronless IFN3s emerged at least three times. IFN2 genes are highly conserved, except for IFN-γ-rel, which we confirm resulted from a teleost-specific duplication. Our analyses show that IFN1 phylogeny is highly sensitive to phylogenetic error. By accounting for this, we describe a new backbone IFN1 phylogeny that implies several IFN1 genes existed in the jawed vertebrate ancestor. One of these is represented by the intronless IFN1s of tetrapods, including mammalian-like repertoires of reptile IFN1s and a subset of amphibian IFN1s, in addition to newly-identified intron-containing shark IFN1 genes. IFN-f, previously only found in teleosts, likely represents another ancestral jawed vertebrate IFN1 family member, suggesting the current classification of fish IFN1s into two groups based on the number of cysteines may need revision. The providence of the remaining fish IFN1s and the coelacanth IFN1s proved difficult to resolve, but they may also be ancestral jawed vertebrate IFN1 lineages. Finally, a large group of amphibian-specific IFN1s falls sister to all other IFN1s and was likely also present in the jawed vertebrate ancestor. Our results verify that intronless IFN1s have evolved multiple times in amphibians and indicate that no one-to-one orthology exists between mammal and reptile IFN1s. Our data also imply that diversification of the multiple IFN1s present in the jawed vertebrate ancestor has occurred through a rapid birth-death process, consistent with functional maintenance over a 450-million-year host-pathogen arms race. In summary, this study reveals a new model of interferon evolution important to our understanding of jawed vertebrate antiviral immunity.

Class A scavenger receptors mediate extracellular dsRNA sensing, leading to downstream antiviral gene expression in a novel American toad cell line, BufoTad

Viral double-stranded (ds)RNA is a potent pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), capable of inducing a strong antiviral state within the cell, protecting the cell from virus infection. In mammals and fish, sensing extracellular dsRNA is mediated by cell-surface class A scavenger receptors (SR-As). Currently, very little is known about SR-As in amphibians, including: sequence, expression patterns and function. To this end, SR-A expression and function was studied in a novel American toad (Anaxyrus americanus) tadpole cell line called BufoTad. BufoTad was derived from a whole tadpole. The cell line exhibits a cobblestone morphology and expresses abundant levels of transcripts for cytokeratin 19, vimentin, claudin 3, chemokine receptor CXCR4, and SR-AI, one of the five members of the SR-A family, collectively suggesting that BufoTad could be endothelial-like. BufoTad cells bound acetylated LDL, whereas the Xenopus laevis kidney epithelial A6 cell line did not, suggesting functional SR-A activity in BufoTad cells. Additionally, three SR-A competitive ligands (DxSO₄, fucoidan, poly inosine (pI)) completely blocked AcLDL binding in BufoTad cells, whereas their three corresponding non-competitive ligands (ChSO₄, fetuin, poly cytosine (pC)) did not. A commercial dsRNA, poly IC, induced robust expression of an Mx-like gene transcript, a possible antiviral protein in BufoTad cells. Employing the same SR-A ligand blocking assay used for AcLDL blocked dsRNA-induced ISG expression. This study is the first demonstration that amphibian SR-As have functional ligand binding activities in a live biological cellular model and that sensing extracellular dsRNA in amphibian cells leads to antiviral gene expression that is mediated by class A scavenger receptors.

Frog Skin Innate Immune Defences: Sensing and Surviving Pathogens

Amphibian skin is a mucosal surface in direct and continuous contact with a microbially diverse and laden aquatic and/or terrestrial environment. As such, frog skin is an important innate immune organ and first line of defence against pathogens in the environment. Critical to the innate immune functions of frog skin are the maintenance of physical, chemical, cellular, and microbiological barriers and the complex network of interactions that occur across all the barriers. Despite the global decline in amphibian populations, largely as a result of emerging infectious diseases, we understand little regarding the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie the innate immune function of amphibian skin and defence against pathogens. In this review, we discuss the structure, cell composition and cellular junctions that contribute to the skin physical barrier, the antimicrobial peptide arsenal that, in part, comprises the chemical barrier, the pattern recognition receptors involved in recognizing pathogens and initiating innate immune responses in the skin, and the contribution of commensal microbes on the skin to pathogen defence. We briefly discuss the influence of environmental abiotic factors (natural and anthropogenic) and pathogens on the immunocompetency of frog skin defences. Although some aspects of frog innate immunity, such as antimicrobial peptides are well-studied; other components and how they contribute to the skin innate immune barrier, are lacking. Elucidating the complex network of interactions occurring at the interface of the frog's external and internal environments will yield insight into the crucial role amphibian skin plays in host defence and the environmental factors leading to compromised barrier integrity, disease, and host mortality.