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Schwarz M, Hamburger K. Memory effects of visual and olfactory landmark information in human wayfinding. Cogn Process 2024; 25:37-51. [PMID: 38032500 PMCID: PMC10827900 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-023-01169-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Non-human animals are exceptionally good at using smell to find their way through the environment. However, the use of olfactory cues for human navigation is often underestimated. Although the sense of smell is well-known for its distinct connection to memory and emotion, memory effects in human navigation using olfactory landmarks have not been studied yet. Therefore, this article compares wayfinding and recognition performance for visual and olfactory landmarks learned by 52 participants in a virtual maze. Furthermore, it is one of the first empirical studies investigating differences in memory effects on human navigation by using two separate test situations 1 month apart. The experimental task was to find the way through a maze-like virtual environment with either olfactory or visual cues at the intersections that served as decision points. Our descriptive results show that performance was above chance level for both conditions (visual and olfactory landmarks). Wayfinding performance did not decrease 1 month later when using olfactory landmarks. In contrast, when using visual landmarks wayfinding performance decreased significantly, while visual landmarks overall lead to better recognition than olfactory landmarks at both times of testing. The results demonstrate the unique character of human odor memory and support the conclusion that olfactory cues may be used in human spatial orientation. Furthermore, the present study expands the research field of human wayfinding by providing a study that investigates memory for landmark knowledge and route decisions for the visual and olfactory modality. However, more studies are required to put this important research strand forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Schwarz
- Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science, Department of Psychology and Sport Science, Justus Liebig University, Otto-Behagel-Str. 10F, 35394, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Kai Hamburger
- Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science, Department of Psychology and Sport Science, Justus Liebig University, Otto-Behagel-Str. 10F, 35394, Giessen, Germany
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2
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Investigations and Outcomes for Olfactory Disorders. CURRENT OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY REPORTS 2022; 10:377-384. [PMCID: PMC9707095 DOI: 10.1007/s40136-022-00438-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of Review To provide a detailed overview of the investigations and core outcome measures for olfactory disorders. Recent Findings Olfactory disorders can have a detrimental impact to the quality of life of patients. There are a wide range of causes of olfactory loss including sinonasal conditions, idiopathic, post-head trauma or infection. This review highlights the key investigations and reasoning for their use to clinically assess and research patients with olfactory disorders. In addition, this review outlines the core outcome measures for olfaction that will help inform future research in olfactory disorders. Summary A systematic approach with history taking and examination particularly with nasal endoscopy can determine the cause of the olfactory disorder in most cases. Specific olfactory disorder questionnaires can demonstrate the impact on quality of life, while psychophysical testing can objectively assess and monitor olfaction over time. Olfactory-evoked potentials and functional MRI are reserved for research, whereas CT and MRI imaging are used depending on history and examination. A core outcome set for olfaction has been developed that will help standardise the outcome measures used in olfaction and olfactory disorders research.
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3
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Assessment and Scientific Progresses in the Analysis of Olfactory Evoked Potentials. Bioengineering (Basel) 2022; 9:bioengineering9060252. [PMID: 35735495 PMCID: PMC9219708 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering9060252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The human sense of smell is important for many vital functions, but with the current state of the art, there is a lack of objective and non-invasive methods for smell disorder diagnostics. In recent years, increasing attention is being paid to olfactory event-related potentials (OERPs) of the brain, as a viable tool for the objective assessment of olfactory dysfunctions. The aim of this review is to describe the main features of OERPs signals, the most widely used recording and processing techniques, and the scientific progress and relevance in the use of OERPs in many important application fields. In particular, the innovative role of OERPs is exploited in olfactory disorders that can influence emotions and personality or can be potential indicators of the onset or progression of neurological disorders. For all these reasons, this review presents and analyzes the latest scientific results and future challenges in the use of OERPs signals as an attractive solution for the objective monitoring technique of olfactory disorders.
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4
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You Y, Novak LR, Clancy KJ, Li W. Pattern differentiation and tuning shift in human sensory cortex underlie long-term threat memory. Curr Biol 2022; 32:2067-2075.e4. [PMID: 35325599 PMCID: PMC9090975 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.02.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The amygdala-prefrontal-cortex circuit has long occupied the center of the threat system,1 but new evidence has rapidly amassed to implicate threat processing outside this canonical circuit.2-4 Through nonhuman research, the sensory cortex has emerged as a critical substrate for long-term threat memory,5-9 underpinned by sensory cortical pattern separation/completion10,11 and tuning shift.12,13 In humans, research has begun to associate the human sensory cortex with long-term threat memory,14,15 but the lack of mechanistic insights obscures a direct linkage. Toward that end, we assessed human olfactory threat conditioning and long-term (9 days) threat memory, combining affective appraisal, olfactory psychophysics, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) over a linear odor-morphing continuum (five levels of binary mixtures of the conditioned stimuli/CS+ and CS- odors). Affective ratings and olfactory perceptual discrimination confirmed (explicit) affective and perceptual learning and memory via conditioning. fMRI representational similarity analysis (RSA) and voxel-based tuning analysis further revealed associative plasticity in the human olfactory (piriform) cortex, including immediate and lasting pattern differentiation between CS and neighboring non-CS and a late onset, lasting tuning shift toward the CS. The two plastic processes were especially salient and lasting in anxious individuals, among whom they were further correlated. These findings thus support an evolutionarily conserved sensory cortical system of long-term threat representation, which can underpin threat perception and memory. Importantly, hyperfunctioning of this sensory mnemonic system of threat in anxiety further implicates a hitherto underappreciated sensory mechanism of anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi You
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA.
| | - Lucas R Novak
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Kevin J Clancy
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA.
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5
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Amores J, Dotan M, Maes P. Development and Study of Ezzence: A Modular Scent Wearable to Improve Wellbeing in Home Sleep Environments. Front Psychol 2022; 13:791768. [PMID: 35369196 PMCID: PMC8970317 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.791768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Ezzence is the first smartphone-controlled olfactometer designed for both day and night conditions. We discuss the design and technical implementation of Ezzence and report on a study to evaluate the feasibility of using the device in home-based sleep environments. The study results (N = 40) show that participants were satisfied with the device and found it easy to use. Furthermore, participants reported a significant improvement in sleep quality when using the device with scent in comparison to the control condition (p = 0.003), as well as better mood the following morning (p = 0.038) and shorter time to sleep onset (p = 0.008). The device is integrated with a wearable EEG and real-time sleep staging algorithm to release scent during specific sleep stages (N1, N2, N3, and REM), which is important for certain use cases (e.g., to study the effect of scent on REM dreams, or to improve memory consolidation with a re-exposure of scent during N2 and N3). Ezzence can be used for several applications, including those that require scent triggered day and night. They include targeted memory reactivation, longitudinal health treatments, therapy, and mental or physical exercises. Finally, this article proposes an interaction framework to understand relationships between scents and environments based on proxemic dimensions and passive or active interactions during sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Amores
- MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Judith Amores
| | - Mae Dotan
- MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, MA, United States
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6
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Pizzoli SFM, Monzani D, Mazzocco K, Maggioni E, Pravettoni G. The Power of Odor Persuasion: The Incorporation of Olfactory Cues in Virtual Environments for Personalized Relaxation. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 17:652-661. [PMID: 34752166 PMCID: PMC9069654 DOI: 10.1177/17456916211014196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Olfaction is the most ancient sense and is directly connected with emotional areas in the brain. It gives rise to perception linked to emotion both in everyday life and in memory-recall activities. Despite its emotional primacy in perception and its role in sampling the real physical world, olfaction is rarely used in clinical psychological settings because it relies on stimuli that are difficult to deliver. However, recent developments in virtual-reality tools are creating novel possibilities for the engagement of the sense of smell in this field. In this article, we present the relevant features of olfaction for relaxation purposes and then discuss possible future applications of involving olfaction in virtual-reality interventions for relaxation. We also discuss clinical applications, the potential of new tools, and current obstacles and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Francesca Maria Pizzoli
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan.,Applied Research Division for Cognitive and Psychological Science, European Institute of Oncology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS)
| | - Dario Monzani
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan.,Applied Research Division for Cognitive and Psychological Science, European Institute of Oncology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS)
| | - Ketti Mazzocco
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan.,Applied Research Division for Cognitive and Psychological Science, European Institute of Oncology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS)
| | - Emanuela Maggioni
- Sussex Computer Human Interaction (SCHI) Lab, Creative Technology Research Group, School of Engineering and Informatics, University of Sussex
| | - Gabriella Pravettoni
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan.,Applied Research Division for Cognitive and Psychological Science, European Institute of Oncology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS)
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7
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Kjelvik G, Evensmoen HR, Hummel T, Engedal K, Selbæk G, Saltvedt I, Håberg AK. The Human Brain Representation of Odor Identification in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Dementia of Mild Degree. Front Neurol 2021; 11:607566. [PMID: 33519686 PMCID: PMC7838677 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.607566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Odor identification (OI) ability is a suggested early biomarker of Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we investigated brain activity within the brain's olfactory network associated with OI in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and mild Alzheimer's dementia (mAD) to uncover the neuronal basis of this impairment. Materials and Methods: Patients with aMCI (n = 11) or mAD (n = 6) and 28 healthy older adults underwent OI functional MRI (fMRI) at 3T, OI, odor discrimination, and cognitive tests and apolipoprotein-e4 (APOE4) genotyping. Eleven patients had cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analyzed. Those with aMCI were followed for 2 years to examine conversion to dementia. Results: The aMCI/mAD group performed significantly worse on all OI tests and the odor discrimination test compared to controls. The aMCI/mAD group had reduced activation in the right anterior piriform cortex compared to the controls during OI fMRI [Gaussian random field (GRF) corrected cluster threshold, p < 0.05]. This group difference remained after correcting for age, sex education, and brain parenchymal fraction. This difference in piriform activity was driven primarily by differences in odor discrimination ability and to a lesser extent by OI ability. There was no group by odor discrimination/identification score interaction on brain activity. Across both groups, only odor discrimination score was significantly associated with brain activity located to the right piriform cortex. Brain activity during OI was not associated with Mini Mental Status Examination scores. At the group level, the aMCI/mAD group activated only the anterior insula, while the control group had significant activation within all regions of the olfactory network during OI fMRI. There was no association between brain activity during OI fMRI and total beta-amyloid levels in the CSF in the aMCI/mAD group. Conclusion: The OI impairment in aMCI/mAD patients is associated with significantly reduced activity in the piriform cortex compared to controls. Activation of downstream regions within the olfactory network is also significantly affected in the aMCI/mAD group, except the anterior insula, which is impinged late in the course of Alzheimer's disease. OI tests thus reflect Alzheimer's disease pathology in olfactory brain structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grete Kjelvik
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Ageing and Health (Ageing and Health), Tønsberg, Norway.,Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, St. Olavs Hospital (Norwegian National Advisory Unit for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), University Hospital of Trondheim, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hallvard R Evensmoen
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, St. Olavs Hospital (Norwegian National Advisory Unit for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), University Hospital of Trondheim, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas Hummel
- Smell and Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Knut Engedal
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Ageing and Health (Ageing and Health), Tønsberg, Norway
| | - Geir Selbæk
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Ageing and Health (Ageing and Health), Tønsberg, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingvild Saltvedt
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Geriatrics, Clinic of Medicine, St. Olavs Hospital, University Hospital of Trondheim, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Asta K Håberg
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, St. Olavs Hospital (Norwegian National Advisory Unit for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), University Hospital of Trondheim, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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8
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Odorant-induced brain activation as a function of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease: A preliminary study. Behav Brain Res 2021; 402:113078. [PMID: 33359846 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory dysfunction consistently occurs in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), beyond the mild and gradual decline in olfactory ability found in normal aging. This dysfunction begins early in the disease course, typically before clinical diagnosis, and progresses with disease severity. While odor identification and detection deficits clearly differentiate AD from controls, there remains uncertainty as to whether these are determined by olfactory threshold. The purpose of the current preliminary fMRI study was to examine the neural correlates of olfactory processing in healthy young and old adults and compare them with AD patients. We also explored the interplay between age and disease-related psychophysical olfactory declines and odorant-induced brain activation. Results indicated AD patients had decreased odor detection task-related signal in all regions of the primary olfactory cortex, with activity in the entorhinal cortex best differentiating the groups. Moderated-mediation analyses on neuro-psychophysical relationships found that increased brain activation in the entorhinal cortex moderated the negative effect of disease-related threshold changes on olfactory detection. Therefore, even in the face of higher (worse) olfactory thresholds, older adults and AD patients compensated for this effect with increased brain activation in a primary olfactory brain region. This was the case for odor detection but not odor identification. fMRI activation induced by an olfactory detection task may eventually be useful in improving early discovery of AD and may, eventually, facilitate early treatment interventions in subjects at risk for AD.
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9
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Gorodisky L, Livne E, Weiss T, Weissbrod A, Weissgross R, Mishor E, Furman-Haran E, Sobel N. Odor Canopy: A Method for Comfortable Odorant Delivery in MRI. Chem Senses 2021; 46:6060058. [PMID: 33388762 PMCID: PMC8286093 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjaa085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has become the leading method for measuring the human brain response to sensory stimuli. However, olfaction fMRI lags behind vision and audition fMRI for 2 primary reasons: First, the olfactory brain areas are particularly susceptible to imaging artifacts, and second, the olfactory stimulus is particularly difficult to control in the fMRI environment. A component of the latter is related to the odorant delivery human–machine interface, namely the point where odorants exit the dispensing apparatus to reach at the nose. Previous approaches relied on either nasal cannulas or nasal masks, each associated with particular drawbacks and discomforts. Here, we provide detailed descriptions and instructions for transforming the MRI head-coil into an olfactory microenvironment, or odor canopy, where odorants can be switched on and off in less than 150 ms without cannula or mask. In a proof-of-concept experiment, we demonstrate that odor canopy provides for clearly dissociable odorant presence and absence, with no nonolfactory cues. Moreover, we find that odor canopy is rated more comfortable than nasal mask, and we demonstrate that using odor canopy in the fMRI generates a typical olfactory brain response. We conclude in recommending this approach for minimized discomfort in fMRI of olfaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lior Gorodisky
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ethan Livne
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Tali Weiss
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Aharon Weissbrod
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Reut Weissgross
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Eva Mishor
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Edna Furman-Haran
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Noam Sobel
- The Azrieli National Institute for Human Brain Imaging and Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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10
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Sehrig S, Odenwald M, Rockstroh B. Feedback-Related Brain Potentials Indicate the Influence of Craving on Decision-Making in Patients with Alcohol Use Disorder: An Experimental Study. Eur Addict Res 2021; 27:216-226. [PMID: 33291101 DOI: 10.1159/000511417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alcohol craving is a key symptom of alcohol use disorder (AUD) and a significant cause of poor treatment outcome and frequent relapse. Craving is supposed to impair executive functions by modulating reward salience and decision-making. OBJECTIVE The present study sought to clarify this modulation by scrutinizing reward feedback processing in an experimental decision-making task, which was accomplished by AUD patients in 2 conditions, in the context of induced alcohol craving and in neutral context. METHODS AUD inpatients (N = 40) accomplished the Balloon Analog Risk Task, while their EEG was monitored; counterbalanced across conditions, the tasks were preceded either by craving induction by means of imagery and olfactory alcohol cues, or by neutral cues. Decision choice and variability, and event-related potentials (ERPs) prior to (stimulus-preceding negativity [SPN]) and following (P2a) reward feedback upon decisions, and the outcome-related feedback-related negativity (FRN) were compared between conditions and between patients, who experienced high craving upon alcohol cues (N = 18) and those who did not (N = 22). RESULTS Upon craving induction (vs. neutral condition), high-craving AUD patients showed less adjustment of decision choice to preceding reward experience and more variable decisions than low-craving AUD patients, together with accentuated reward-associated ERP (SPN and P2a), while outcome-related FRN was not modified by craving. CONCLUSIONS Results support orientation to reward in AUD patients, particularly amplified upon experienced craving, which may interfere with (feedback-guided) decision-making even in alcohol-unrelated context. Craving-accentuated ERP indices suggest neuroadaptive changes of cognitive-motivational states upon chronic alcohol abuse. Together with altered reward-related expectancies, this has to be considered in intervention and relapse prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Sehrig
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany,
| | - Michael Odenwald
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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11
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Kleinhans NM, Sweigert J, Blake M, Douglass B, Doane B, Reitz F, Larimer M. FMRI activation to cannabis odor cues is altered in individuals at risk for a cannabis use disorder. Brain Behav 2020; 10:e01764. [PMID: 32862560 PMCID: PMC7559640 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The smell of cannabis is a cue with universal relevance to cannabis users. However, most cue reactivity imaging studies have solely utilized visual images, auditory imagery scripts, or tactile cues in their experiments. This study introduces a multimodal cue reactivity paradigm that includes picture, odor, and bimodal picture + odor cues. METHODS Twenty-eight adults at risk for cannabis use disorder (CUD; defined as at least weekly use and Substance Involvement Score of ≥4 on the Cannabis sub-test of the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test) and 26 cannabis-naive controls were exposed to cannabis and floral cues during event-related fMRI. Between-group differences in fMRI activation and correlations were tested using FMRIB's Local Analyses of Mixed Effects and corrected for multiple comparisons using a voxelwise threshold of z > 2.3 and a corrected cluster threshold of p < .05. RESULTS Both visual and olfactory modalities resulted in significant activation of craving and reward systems, with cannabis odor cues eliciting a significantly greater response in regions mediating anticipation and reward (nucleus accumbens, pallidum, putamen, and anterior insular cortex, supplementary motor area, angular gyrus and superior frontal gyrus) and cannabis picture cues eliciting a significantly greater response in the occipital cortex and amygdala. Furthermore, the CUD group showed significantly increased activation in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the insula, and the pallidum compared to controls. Within the CUD group, activation in the insula, anterior cingulate, and occipital cortex to bimodal cannabis cues was significantly correlated with self-reported craving. CONCLUSION Our multimodal cue reactivity paradigm is sensitive to neural adaptations associated with problematic cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia M Kleinhans
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Integrated Brain Imaging Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Julia Sweigert
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Integrated Brain Imaging Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Matthew Blake
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Integrated Brain Imaging Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Fredrick Reitz
- Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mary Larimer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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12
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Functional Connectome Analyses Reveal the Human Olfactory Network Organization. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0551-19.2020. [PMID: 32471848 PMCID: PMC7418535 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0551-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The olfactory system is uniquely heterogeneous, performing multifaceted functions (beyond basic sensory processing) across diverse, widely distributed neural substrates. While knowledge of human olfaction continues to grow, it remains unclear how the olfactory network is organized to serve this unique set of functions. The olfactory system is uniquely heterogeneous, performing multifaceted functions (beyond basic sensory processing) across diverse, widely distributed neural substrates. While knowledge of human olfaction continues to grow, it remains unclear how the olfactory network is organized to serve this unique set of functions. Leveraging a large and high-quality resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) dataset of nearly 900 participants from the Human Connectome Project (HCP), we identified a human olfactory network encompassing cortical and subcortical regions across the temporal and frontal lobes. Highlighting its reliability and generalizability, the connectivity matrix of this olfactory network mapped closely onto that extracted from an independent rs-fMRI dataset. Graph theoretical analysis further explicated the organizational principles of the network. The olfactory network exhibits a modular composition of three (i.e., the sensory, limbic, and frontal) subnetworks and demonstrates strong small-world properties, high in both global integration and local segregation (i.e., circuit specialization). This network organization thus ensures the segregation of local circuits, which are nonetheless integrated via connecting hubs [i.e., amygdala (AMY) and anterior insula (INSa)], thereby enabling the specialized, yet integrative, functions of olfaction. In particular, the degree of local segregation positively predicted olfactory discrimination performance in the independent sample, which we infer as a functional advantage of the network organization. In sum, an olfactory functional network has been identified through the large HCP dataset, affording a representative template of the human olfactory functional neuroanatomy. Importantly, the topological analysis of the olfactory network provides network-level insights into the remarkable functional specialization and spatial segregation of the olfactory system.
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13
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Hosseini SF, Kamrava SK, Asadi S, Maleki S, Zare-Sadeghi A, Shakeri-Zadeh A. A multimodal MR-compatible olfactometer with real-time controlling capability. J Med Eng Technol 2020; 44:317-323. [PMID: 32700982 DOI: 10.1080/03091902.2020.1791987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Design of an MR-compatible and computer-controlled odour stimuli system is essential in the studies of human olfactory function. Olfactometers are used to deliver odours to the subjects in an objective manner. We present a portable, computer-controlled eight channels olfactometer able to stimulate olfaction by employing liquid odorant stimuli. We used a high-pressure pump to generate medical grade airflow. After passing through solenoid valve-controlled odour reservoirs, odorant stimulus is conveyed to the nasal mask. The odour delivery delay of the device was measured using photo-ionisation detectors. To assess the application of the designed olfactometer, an fMRI experiment was done with 9 healthy subjects. Two odour stimuli (Vanillin and Rose) were presented to each subject in an alternating block design task of odour and non-odour conditions. The response time of each subject was gathered using the response box. Group analysis revealed a significant BOLD signal change in some regions of olfactory and trigeminal networks including the orbitofrontal cortex, insula, inferior frontal gyrus, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus and piriform cortex. The odour delivery delay measured by photo-ionisation detector was 190 ms, and the subjects' response showed 205 ms for the Vanillin and 243 ms for the Rose odour stimuli. Our portable MR-compatible olfactometer as a stimulation device is capable of creating adequate stimulation suitable for olfactory fMRI experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyedeh Fahimeh Hosseini
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Kamran Kamrava
- ENT Research Center, Institute of Five Senses, Hazrat Rasoul Hospital, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Asadi
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Shayan Maleki
- ENT Research Center, Institute of Five Senses, Hazrat Rasoul Hospital, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Arash Zare-Sadeghi
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Shakeri-Zadeh
- Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
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DeGuzman P, Jain A, Tabert MH, Parra LC. Olfaction Modulates Inter-Subject Correlation of Neural Responses. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:702. [PMID: 32754012 PMCID: PMC7366795 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Odors can be powerful stimulants. It is well-established that odors provide strong cues for recall of locations, people and events. The effects of specific scents on other cognitive functions are less well-established. We hypothesized that scents with different odor qualities will have a different effect on attention. To assess attention, we used Inter-Subject Correlation of the EEG because this metric is strongly modulated by attentional engagement with natural audiovisual stimuli. We predicted that scents known to be "energizing" would increase Inter-Subject Correlation during watching of videos as compared to "calming" scents. In a first experiment, we confirmed this for eucalyptol and linalool while participants watched animated autobiographical narratives. The result was replicated in a second experiment, but did not generalize to limonene, also considered an "energizing" odorant. In a third, double-blind experiment, we tested a battery of scents including single molecules, as well as mixtures, as participants watched various short video clips. We found a varying effect of odor on Inter-Subject Correlation across the various scents. This study provides a basis for reliably and reproducibly assessing effects of odors on brain activity. Future research is needed to further explore the effect of scent-based up-modulation in engagement on learning and memory performance. Educators, product developers and fragrance brands might also benefit from such objective neurophysiological measures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anshul Jain
- International Flavors & Fragrances, Inc., R&D, Union Beach, NJ, United States
| | - Matthias H. Tabert
- International Flavors & Fragrances, Inc., R&D, Union Beach, NJ, United States
| | - Lucas C. Parra
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City College of New York, New York, NY, United States
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15
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Assessment of odor perception related to stimulation modes in a mock MRI scanner. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 341:108754. [PMID: 32380225 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Numerous studies investigated the central-nervous processing of olfactory information in humans, often based on functional MRI studies. However, when describing the olfactory perception, the course of olfactory sensations over time has received little attention although this constitutes a fundamental portion of the experimental paradigm. Hence, the aim of this study was to evaluate overall perception and the perception of odors over the time course of repeated odorous stimulation under different conditions of stimulus presentation. NEW METHOD Twenty-eight subjects with a normal sense of smell were asked to lie in a mock MRI scanner during the experiment. Three conditions of odor presentations were Tubing, (odors presented intranasally with separate tubing for each nostril), mask (odors presented to a mask covering the subject's nose) and vacuum (odors presented into the bore of the sham scanner). A pleasant odor (peach) and an unpleasant (fish) odor were presented using a computer-controlled olfactometer. Participants were asked to evaluate intensity and pleasantness of the odors. They also rated the comfortability of each presentation mode. For the vacuum and mask conditions, subjects were tracked with the time course of the odor intensity. RESULTS For all sessions, intensity was influenced by conditions (F = 29.6, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.8, mask > tube > vacuum) and odors (F = 11.8, p = 0.003, ηp² = 0.4, fish > peach). Pleasantness was influenced by odors (F = 26.2, p = 0.001, ηp² = 0.593, peach > fish), comfortability was significantly influenced by conditions (F = 9.3, p = 0.002, ηp² = 0.5, vacuum > mask > tube). For peach odor, pleasantness was positively correlated with intensity (r = 0.3, p = 0.03) and negatively with fish odor intensity (r = -0.4, p < 0.001). Overall, the onset latency of intensity ratings (mean = 3.5 s, SD = 2.6) was significantly longer than the offset latency (mean = 1.6 s, SD = 0.8) (t = 3.5, p = 0.001). For the amplitude, conditions had a significant effect (F = 4.5, p = 0.04, ηp² = 0.2, mask > vacuum). CONCLUSIONS Perceived odor intensity was affected by the odor presentation being strongest in the mask condition, whereas this was not different for odor pleasantness. The vacuum condition was rated as most comfortable. Within the present design, the latency of onset and offset does not seem to be influenced by conditions, odors and blocks. Models of fMRI analyses should be adjusted to account for this shift in odor intensity perception.
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16
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Oberlin BG, Ramer NE, Bates SM, Shen YI, Myslinski JS, Kareken DA, Cyders MA. Quantifying Behavioral Sensation Seeking With the Aroma Choice Task. Assessment 2019; 27:873-886. [PMID: 31353921 DOI: 10.1177/1073191119864659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Our goal was to develop a behavioral measure of sensation seeking (SS). The Aroma Choice Task (ACT) assesses preference for an intense, novel, varied, and risky (exciting) option versus a mild, safe (boring) option using real-time odorant delivery. A total of 147 healthy young adults completed 40 binary choice trials. We examined (1) intensity and pleasantness of odorants, (2) stability of responding, (3) association with SS self-report, and (4) association with self-reported illicit drug use. Participants' preference for the "exciting" option versus the safe option was significantly associated with self-reported SS (p < .001) and illicit drug use (p = .041). Odorant ratings comported with their intended intensity. The ACT showed good internal, convergent, and criterion validity. We propose that the ACT might permit more objective SS assessment for investigating the biological bases of psychiatric conditions marked by high SS, particularly addiction. The ACT measures SS behaviorally, mitigating some self-report challenges and enabling real-time assessment, for example, for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon G Oberlin
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.,Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Nolan E Ramer
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Sage M Bates
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Yitong I Shen
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Jeremy S Myslinski
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - David A Kareken
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Melissa A Cyders
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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17
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18
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Kleinhans NM, Reilly M, Blake M, Greco G, Sweigert J, Davis GE, Velasquez F, Reitz F, Shusterman D, Dager SR. FMRI correlates of olfactory processing in typically-developing school-aged children. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2019; 283:67-76. [PMID: 30554128 PMCID: PMC6455969 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2018.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Human olfactory processing is understudied relative to other sensory modalities, despite its links to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. To address this limitation, we developed a fast, robust fMRI odor paradigm that is appropriate for all ages and levels of cognitive functioning. To test this approach, thirty-four typically developing children aged 7-12 underwent fMRI during brief, repeated exposure to phenylethyl alcohol, a flower-scented odor. Prior to fMRI scanning, olfactory testing (odor detection and identification) was conducted. During fMRI stimulus presentation, odorant release was synchronized to each participant's inspiratory phase to ensure participants were inhaling during the odorant exposure. Between group differences and correlations between activation and odor detection threshold scores were tested using the FMRIB Software Library. Results demonstrated that our 2-min paradigm significantly activated primary and secondary olfactory regions. In addition, a significant relationship between odor detection threshold and higher activation in the right amygdala and lower activation in the left frontal, insular, occipital, and cerebellar regions was observed, suggesting that this approach is sensitive to individual differences in olfactory processing. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of studying olfactory function in children using brain imaging techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia M Kleinhans
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Integrated Brain Imaging Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States.
| | - Melissa Reilly
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Matthew Blake
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Gabriella Greco
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Julia Sweigert
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Greg E Davis
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Francisco Velasquez
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Fredrick Reitz
- Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Dennis Shusterman
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Stephen R Dager
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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20
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Abstract
Choosing food is not a trivial decision that people need to make daily, which is often subject to social influences. Here, we studied a human homolog of social transmission of food preference (STFP) as observed in rodents and other animals via chemosignals of body secretions. Human social chemosignals (sweat) produced during a disgust or neutral state among a group of donors were presented to participants undergoing a 2-alternative-forced-choice food healthiness judgment task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Response speed and two key signal detection indices—d’ (discrimination sensitivity) and β (response bias)—converged to indicate that social chemosignals of disgust facilitated food healthiness decisions, in contrast to primary disgust elicitors (disgust odors) that impaired the judgment. fMRI analyses (disgust vs. neutral sweat) revealed that the fusiform face area (FFA), amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) were engaged in processing social chemosignals of disgust during food judgment. Importantly, a double contrast of social signaling across modalities (olfactory vs. visual—facial expressions) indicated that the FFA and OFC exhibited preferential response to social chemosignals of disgust. Together, our findings provide initial evidence for human STFP, where social chemosignals are incorporated into food decisions by engaging social and emotional areas of the brain.
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21
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Electrophysiology of Olfactory and Optic Nerve in Outpatient and Intraoperative Settings. J Clin Neurophysiol 2018; 35:3-10. [PMID: 29300714 DOI: 10.1097/wnp.0000000000000416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Evoked potentials are time-locked electrophysiologic potentials recorded in response to standardized stimuli using scalp electrodes. These responses provide good temporal resolution and have been used in various clinical and intraoperative settings. Olfactory evoked potentials (OEPs) may be used as an adjunct tool in identifying patients of Parkinson disease and Alzheimer dementia. In clinical practice, visual evoked potentials (VEPs) are particularly useful in identifying subclinical cases of optic neuritis and in treatment surveillance. In recent times, pattern electroretinograms and photopic negative response have been gaining attention in identifying glaucoma suspects. During surgical manipulation, there is a risk of damage to optic or olfactory nerve. Intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring can provide information regarding the integrity of olfactory or visual pathway. OEPs and VEPs, however, show high degree of variability and are not reliable tools because the responses are extremely susceptible to volatile anesthetic agents. Newer techniques that could possibly circumvent these drawbacks have been developed but are not used extensively. In this article, we briefly review the available techniques to obtain OEPs and VEPs, diagnostic applications, the utility of intraoperative monitoring, the limitations of the current techniques, and the future directions for research.
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22
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Herten N, Pomrehn D, Wolf OT. Memory for objects and startle responsivity in the immediate aftermath of exposure to the Trier Social Stress Test. Behav Brain Res 2017; 326:272-280. [PMID: 28315373 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we observed enhanced long-term memory for objects used (central objects) by committee members in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) on the next day. In addition, startle responsivity was increased. However, response specificity to an odour involved in the stressful episode was lacking and recognition memory for the odour was poor. In the current experiments, immediate effects of the stressor on memory and startle responsivity were investigated. We hypothesised memory for central objects of the stressful episode and startle response specificity to an odour ambient during the TSST to be enhanced shortly after it, in contrast to the control condition (friendly TSST). Further, memory for this odour was also assumed to be increased in the stress group. We tested 70 male (35) and female participants using the TSST involving objects and an ambient odour. After stress induction, a startle paradigm including olfactory and visual stimuli was conducted. Indeed, memory for central objects was significantly enhanced in immediate aftermath of the stressor. Startle responsivity increased at a trend level, particularly with regard to the odour involved in the stressful episode. Moreover, the stress group descriptively tended towards a better recognition of the odour involved. The study shows that stress enhances memory for central aspects of a stressful situation before consolidation processes come into play. In addition, results preliminarily suggest that the impact of stress on startle responsivity increases in strength but decreases in specificity during the first 24h after stress exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Herten
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany; International Graduate School of Neuroscience (IGSN), Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Dennis Pomrehn
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany; International Graduate School of Neuroscience (IGSN), Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
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23
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Lowen SB, Farmer SL, Lukas SE. Improved low-cost, MR-compatible olfactometer to deliver tobacco smoke odor. Behav Res Methods 2017; 49:74-82. [PMID: 26896241 PMCID: PMC4991953 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-016-0709-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
We describe a low-cost, MRI-compatible olfactometer that delivers fresh cigarette smoke odor, a challenging odorant to present, as well as other odorants. This new olfactometer retains all of the advantages of an earlier design that was capable of only delivering volatile odors (Lowen & Lukas, Behavior Research Methods, 38, 307-313, 2006). The new system incorporates a novel switching mechanism that allows it to deliver fresh smoke generated from a burning cigarette during a stimulus presentation paradigm that might be employed in a cue-reactivity experiment. An evaluation study established that the olfactometer reliably delivered smoke to the participants and that tobacco smoke was discriminated from other odorants; there were no adverse reactions to the device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven B Lowen
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.
| | - Stacey L Farmer
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Scott E Lukas
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
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24
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An extension of olfactometry methods: An expandable, fully automated, mobile, MRI-compatible olfactometer. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 261:85-96. [PMID: 26738656 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND fMRI experiments on olfaction offer new insights into the complex, but in contrast to other sensory systems, less studied cognition of odors. To perform these experiments is still a challenge. NEW METHOD To address the challenge posed by MR settings, an olfactometer design is presented including specific improvements to the limited number of already existing olfactometers. Innovative features such as pneumatically controlled pinch valves, useable in the scanner and providing exact stimulus timing as well as a 3D-printed nasal mask inlet for common sleep laboratory masks that can be used for lateral divided stimulus presentation are introduced. To ensure a fully automated and mobile system, the use of a flexible and easily-adapted Matlab-Code and a portable adaptable container system are presented. RESULTS The functional efficiency of these features are proven by results of an fMRI study as well as testing temporal resolution and concentration stability with a mass spectrometer. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS The 24-channel olfactometer design presented here provides an inexpensive alternative to the currently available olfactometers including the achievement of fast onset times, lateral divided stimulus presentation and high flexibility and adaptability to different scientific questions. CONCLUSION The olfactometer design presented in this paper can be seen as a realistic and feasible solution to overcome the challenges of presenting olfactory stimuli within the MR setting.
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25
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Andrieu P, Billot PÉ, Millot JL, Gharbi T. Pulse Width Modulation Applied to Olfactory Stimulation for Intensity Tuning. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145373. [PMID: 26710120 PMCID: PMC4699834 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
For most olfactometers described in the literature, adjusting olfactory stimulation intensity involves modifying the dilution of the odorant in a neutral solution (water, mineral, oil, etc.), the dilution of the odorant air in neutral airflow, or the surface of the odorant in contact with airflow. But, for most of these above-mentioned devices, manual intervention is necessary for adjusting concentration. We present in this article a method of controlling odorant concentration via a computer which can be implemented on even the most dynamic olfactometers. We used Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), a technique commonly used in electronic or electrical engineering, and we have applied it to odor delivery. PWM, when applied to odor delivery, comprises an alternative presentation of odorant air and clean air at a high frequency. The cycle period (odor presentation and rest) is 200 ms. In order to modify odorant concentration, the ratio between the odorant period and clean air presentation during a cycle is modified. This ratio is named duty cycle. Gas chromatography measurements show that this method offers a range of mixing factors from 33% to 100% (continuous presentation of odor). Proof of principle is provided via a psychophysical experiment. Three odors (isoamyl acetate, butanol and pyridine) were presented to twenty subjects. Each odor was delivered three times with five values of duty cycles. After each stimulation, the subjects were asked to estimate the intensity of the stimulus on a 10 point scale, ranging from 0 (undetectable) to 9 (very strong). Results show a main effect of the duty cycles on the intensity ratings for all tested odors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrice Andrieu
- EA 481: Laboratory of Integrative and Clinical Neuroscience, University of Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Pierre-Édouard Billot
- EA 481: Laboratory of Integrative and Clinical Neuroscience, University of Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Jean-Louis Millot
- EA 481: Laboratory of Integrative and Clinical Neuroscience, University of Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Tijani Gharbi
- EA 4662: Nanomedicine Imagery and Therapeutics Laboratory, University of Franche-Comté, Besançon, France
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26
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Jin J, Zelano C, Gottfried JA, Mohanty A. Human Amygdala Represents the Complete Spectrum of Subjective Valence. J Neurosci 2015; 35:15145-56. [PMID: 26558785 PMCID: PMC4642243 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2450-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the amygdala is a major locus for hedonic processing, how it encodes valence information is poorly understood. Given the hedonic potency of odor stimuli and the amygdala's anatomical proximity to the peripheral olfactory system, we combined high-resolution fMRI with pattern-based multivariate techniques to examine how valence information is encoded in the amygdala. Ten human subjects underwent fMRI scanning while smelling 9 odorants that systematically varied in perceived valence. Representational similarity analyses showed that amygdala codes the entire dimension of valence, ranging from pleasantness to unpleasantness. This unidimensional representation significantly correlated with self-reported valence ratings but not with intensity ratings. Furthermore, within-trial valence representations evolved over time, prioritizing earlier differentiation of unpleasant stimuli. Together, these findings underscore the idea that both spatial and temporal features uniquely encode pleasant and unpleasant odor valence in the amygdala. The availability of a unidimensional valence code in the amygdala, distributed in both space and time, would create greater flexibility in determining the pleasantness or unpleasantness of stimuli, providing a mechanism by which expectation, context, attention, and learning could influence affective boundaries for guiding behavior. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Our findings elucidate the mechanisms of affective processing in the amygdala by demonstrating that this brain region represents the entire valence dimension from pleasant to unpleasant. An important implication of this unidimensional valence code is that pleasant and unpleasant valence cannot coexist in the amygdale because overlap of fMRI ensemble patterns for these two valence extremes obscures their unique content. This functional architecture, whereby subjective valence maps onto a pattern continuum between pleasant and unpleasant poles, offers a robust mechanism by which context, expectation, and experience could alter the set-point for valence-based behavior. Finally, identification of spatial and temporal differentiation of valence in amygdala may shed new insights into individual differences in emotional responding, with potential relevance for affective disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Jin
- Stony Brook University, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook, New York 11794-2500, and
| | - Christina Zelano
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Jay A Gottfried
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Aprajita Mohanty
- Stony Brook University, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook, New York 11794-2500, and
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27
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Kastner AK, Flohr ELR, Pauli P, Wieser MJ. A Scent of Anxiety: Olfactory Context Conditioning and its Influence on Social Cues. Chem Senses 2015; 41:143-53. [DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjv067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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28
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Novak LR, Gitelman DR, Schuyler B, Li W. Olfactory-visual integration facilitates perception of subthreshold negative emotion. Neuropsychologia 2015; 77:288-97. [PMID: 26359718 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Revised: 08/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A fast growing literature of multisensory emotion integration notwithstanding, the chemical senses, intimately associated with emotion, have been largely overlooked. Moreover, an ecologically highly relevant principle of "inverse effectiveness", rendering maximal integration efficacy with impoverished sensory input, remains to be assessed in emotion integration. Presenting minute, subthreshold negative (vs. neutral) cues in faces and odors, we demonstrated olfactory-visual emotion integration in improved emotion detection (especially among individuals with weaker perception of unimodal negative cues) and response enhancement in the amygdala. Moreover, while perceptual gain for visual negative emotion involved the posterior superior temporal sulcus/pSTS, perceptual gain for olfactory negative emotion engaged both the associative olfactory (orbitofrontal) cortex and amygdala. Dynamic causal modeling (DCM) analysis of fMRI timeseries further revealed connectivity strengthening among these areas during crossmodal emotion integration. That multisensory (but not low-level unisensory) areas exhibited both enhanced response and region-to-region coupling favors a top-down (vs. bottom-up) account for olfactory-visual emotion integration. Current findings thus confirm the involvement of multisensory convergence areas, while highlighting unique characteristics of olfaction-related integration. Furthermore, successful crossmodal binding of subthreshold aversive cues not only supports the principle of "inverse effectiveness" in emotion integration but also accentuates the automatic, unconscious quality of crossmodal emotion synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas R Novak
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA.
| | - Darren R Gitelman
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, USA
| | - Brianna Schuyler
- Waisman Center for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA.
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29
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Iannilli E, Beger M, Fürer R, Hummel T. A gustatory stimulator. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 255:12-6. [PMID: 26226653 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In order to elicit gustatory event related potentials (gERPs) a special taste delivery system is needed which allows precise control of stimulus onset and duration. NEW METHOD Aim of this investigation was to describe the characteristics, namely onset rise-time step and onset delay time of a recently new taste delivery system based on stepper-motor, computer-driven glass syringes, able to spray pulses of liquid solutions into the mouth. RESULTS The measurement showed that the pulse rise time is less than 100 ms and increases with the pulse duration; the delay of the stimulus on a 12 m hose is between 55 ms and 71 ms. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS The gustometer in examination produce a stream of pulses, constituted by a certain number of taste stimuli interleaved among a number of tasteless pulses, moreover the solution is thermos-regulated at internal body temperature. This make the technique appealing for event related procedure in neuroscience investigation related to gustatory tasks. CONCLUSION These results of the time rise measurements confirm the suitability of this gustometer to elicit ERPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Iannilli
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Marcel Beger
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Raffaela Fürer
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas Hummel
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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30
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Ischer M, Baron N, Mermoud C, Cayeux I, Porcherot C, Sander D, Delplanque S. How incorporation of scents could enhance immersive virtual experiences. Front Psychol 2014; 5:736. [PMID: 25101017 PMCID: PMC4101573 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Under normal everyday conditions, senses all work together to create experiences that fill a typical person's life. Unfortunately for behavioral and cognitive researchers who investigate such experiences, standard laboratory tests are usually conducted in a nondescript room in front of a computer screen. They are very far from replicating the complexity of real world experiences. Recently, immersive virtual reality (IVR) environments became promising methods to immerse people into an almost real environment that involves more senses. IVR environments provide many similarities to the complexity of the real world and at the same time allow experimenters to constrain experimental parameters to obtain empirical data. This can eventually lead to better treatment options and/or new mechanistic hypotheses. The idea that increasing sensory modalities improve the realism of IVR environments has been empirically supported, but the senses used did not usually include olfaction. In this technology report, we will present an odor delivery system applied to a state-of-the-art IVR technology. The platform provides a three-dimensional, immersive, and fully interactive visualization environment called “Brain and Behavioral Laboratory—Immersive System” (BBL-IS). The solution we propose can reliably deliver various complex scents during different virtual scenarios, at a precise time and space and without contamination of the environment. The main features of this platform are: (i) the limited cross-contamination between odorant streams with a fast odor delivery (< 500 ms), (ii) the ease of use and control, and (iii) the possibility to synchronize the delivery of the odorant with pictures, videos or sounds. How this unique technology could be used to investigate typical research questions in olfaction (e.g., emotional elicitation, memory encoding or attentional capture by scents) will also be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthieu Ischer
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Department of Psychology, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Naëm Baron
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Department of Psychology, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - David Sander
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Department of Psychology, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sylvain Delplanque
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Department of Psychology, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland
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31
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Qiu Q, Scott A, Scheerer H, Sapkota N, Lee DK, Ma L, Yu CR. Automated analyses of innate olfactory behaviors in rodents. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93468. [PMID: 24699673 PMCID: PMC3974772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Olfaction based behavioral experiments are important for the investigation of sensory coding, perception, decision making and memory formation. The predominant experimental paradigms employ forced choice operant assays, which require associative learning and reinforced training. Animal performance in these assays not only reflects odor perception but also the confidence in decision making and memory. In this study, we describe a versatile and automated setup, "Poking-Registered Olfactory Behavior Evaluation System" (PROBES), which can be adapted to perform multiple olfactory assays. In addition to forced choice assays, we employ this system to examine animal's innate ability for odor detection, discrimination and preference without elaborate training procedures. These assays provide quantitative measurements of odor discrimination and robust readouts of odor preference. Using PROBES, we find odor detection thresholds are at lower concentrations in naïve animals than those determined by forced choice assays. PROBES-based automated assays provide an efficient way of analyzing innate odor-triggered behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Qiu
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Aaron Scott
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Hayley Scheerer
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Nirjal Sapkota
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Daniel K. Lee
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Limei Ma
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - C. Ron Yu
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, United States of America
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Jia H, Pustovyy OM, Waggoner P, Beyers RJ, Schumacher J, Wildey C, Barrett J, Morrison E, Salibi N, Denney TS, Vodyanoy VJ, Deshpande G. Functional MRI of the olfactory system in conscious dogs. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86362. [PMID: 24466054 PMCID: PMC3900535 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We depend upon the olfactory abilities of dogs for critical tasks such as detecting bombs, landmines, other hazardous chemicals and illicit substances. Hence, a mechanistic understanding of the olfactory system in dogs is of great scientific interest. Previous studies explored this aspect at the cellular and behavior levels; however, the cognitive-level neural substrates linking them have never been explored. This is critical given the fact that behavior is driven by filtered sensory representations in higher order cognitive areas rather than the raw odor maps of the olfactory bulb. Since sedated dogs cannot sniff, we investigated this using functional magnetic resonance imaging of conscious dogs. We addressed the technical challenges of head motion using a two pronged strategy of behavioral training to keep dogs' head as still as possible and a single camera optical head motion tracking system to account for residual jerky movements. We built a custom computer-controlled odorant delivery system which was synchronized with image acquisition, allowing the investigation of brain regions activated by odors. The olfactory bulb and piriform lobes were commonly activated in both awake and anesthetized dogs, while the frontal cortex was activated mainly in conscious dogs. Comparison of responses to low and high odor intensity showed differences in either the strength or spatial extent of activation in the olfactory bulb, piriform lobes, cerebellum, and frontal cortex. Our results demonstrate the viability of the proposed method for functional imaging of the olfactory system in conscious dogs. This could potentially open up a new field of research in detector dog technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Jia
- MRI Research Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Oleg M. Pustovyy
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Pharmacology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Paul Waggoner
- Canine Detection Research Institute, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Ronald J. Beyers
- MRI Research Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - John Schumacher
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | | | - Jay Barrett
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Edward Morrison
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Pharmacology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Nouha Salibi
- MR R&D, Siemens Healthcare, Malvern, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Thomas S. Denney
- MRI Research Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Vitaly J. Vodyanoy
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Pharmacology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Gopikrishna Deshpande
- MRI Research Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
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Green AJ, Cervantez M, Graves LV, Morgan CD, Murphy C. Age and apolipoprotein E ε4 effects on neural correlates of odor memory. Behav Neurosci 2013; 127:339-49. [PMID: 23731072 DOI: 10.1037/a0031891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects 5.4 million Americans. Evidence suggests that individuals who are positive for the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) ε4 allele are at higher risk for developing the disease. Studies have also shown that the ε4 allele is linked to olfactory decline. Olfactory functioning may be investigated using olfactory event-related potentials (OERPs). The high temporal resolution of OERPs enables an understanding of the neural correlates of olfactory processing and functioning. This study investigated the effects of age, ApoE ε4 status, response type, and electrode site on OERP latency and amplitude during encoding and retrieval in an odor recognition memory task. The 60 participants were equally divided into 3 age groups matched on ε4 status: younger, middle, and older. Odors were presented using a computer-controlled olfactometer. Participants were notified during encoding that this was a task of odor memory. Results indicated differences in OERP activity as a function of age, ApoE ε4 status, response type, and electrode site. These findings highlight the potential of OERPs to distinguish ε4- and ε4+ individuals and to contribute to an earlier diagnosis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J Green
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92120-4913, USA
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34
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Bartolo M, Serrao M, Gamgebeli Z, Alpaidze M, Perrotta A, Padua L, Pierelli F, Nappi G, Sandrini G. Modulation of the human nociceptive flexion reflex by pleasant and unpleasant odors. Pain 2013; 154:2054-2059. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2013.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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35
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Abstract
Olfactometers have been gaining popularity as research tools, but they have yet to replace established testing procedures in a variety of laboratory and clinical settings, including absolute threshold tests. In this research, we designed and operated a simple olfactometer with which to assess threshold. To do this, we used a method-of-adjustment test that was compared to the three-alternative forced choice ascending sniff bottle staircase method, which is currently a standard threshold test procedure. We found that the olfactometer threshold test correlated highly with the staircase method, and that it possessed suitable test-retest reliability. The advantages of the olfactometer threshold test include faster test time and reduced cleaning and reassembly demands. Future use of the olfactometer in olfactory identification and/or detection thresholds amongst odors is also outlined.
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36
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Arichi T, Gordon-Williams R, Allievi A, Groves AM, Burdet E, Edwards AD. Computer-controlled stimulation for functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of the neonatal olfactory system. Acta Paediatr 2013; 102:868-75. [PMID: 23789919 PMCID: PMC3795441 DOI: 10.1111/apa.12327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Aim Olfactory sensation is highly functional early in human neonatal life, with studies suggesting that odours can influence behaviour and infant–mother bonding. Due to its good spatial properties, blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) contrast functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has the potential to rapidly advance our understanding of the neural activity which underlies the development of olfactory perception in this key period. We aimed to design an ‘olfactometer’ specifically for use with neonatal subjects for fMRI studies of odour perception. Methods We describe a fully automated and programmable, fMRI compatible system capable of presenting odorant liquids. To prevent contamination of the system and minimize between-subject infective risk, the majority of the olfactometer is constructed from single-use, readily available clinical equipment. The system was used to present the odour of infant formula milk in a validation group of seven neonatal subjects at term equivalent postmenstrual age (median age 40 weeks). Results A safe, reliable and reproducible pattern of stimulation was delivered leading to well-localized positive BOLD functional responses in the piriform cortex, amygdala, thalamus, insular cortex and cerebellum. Conclusions The described system is therefore suitable for detailed studies of the ontology of olfactory sensation and perception during early human brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Arichi
- Centre for the Developing Brain; Division of Imaging Sciences & Biomedical Engineering; Kings College London, St. Thomas' Hospital; London UK
- MRC Clinical Sciences Centre; Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital; London UK
- Department of Bioengineering; Imperial College London; London UK
| | - R Gordon-Williams
- MRC Clinical Sciences Centre; Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital; London UK
| | - A Allievi
- Department of Bioengineering; Imperial College London; London UK
| | - AM Groves
- Centre for the Developing Brain; Division of Imaging Sciences & Biomedical Engineering; Kings College London, St. Thomas' Hospital; London UK
| | - E Burdet
- Department of Bioengineering; Imperial College London; London UK
| | - AD Edwards
- Centre for the Developing Brain; Division of Imaging Sciences & Biomedical Engineering; Kings College London, St. Thomas' Hospital; London UK
- Department of Bioengineering; Imperial College London; London UK
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37
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A portable experimental apparatus for human olfactory fMRI experiments. J Neurosci Methods 2013; 218:29-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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38
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A modular, computer-controlled system for olfactory stimulation in the MRI environment. Behav Res Methods 2013; 46:178-84. [DOI: 10.3758/s13428-013-0362-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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39
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Adolph D, Meister L, Pause BM. Context counts! social anxiety modulates the processing of fearful faces in the context of chemosensory anxiety signals. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:283. [PMID: 23801951 PMCID: PMC3685720 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
During emotion perception, context is an important source of information. Whether contextual cues from modalities other than vision or audition influence the perception of social emotional information has not been investigated. Thus, the present study aimed at testing emotion perception and regulation in response to fearful facial expressions presented in the context of chemosensory stimuli derived from sweat of anxious individuals. In groups of high (HSA) and low socially anxious (LSA) participants we recorded the startle reflex (Experiment I), and analysed event-related potentials (ERPs; Experiment II) while they viewed anxious facial expressions in the context of chemosensory anxiety signals and chemosensory control stimuli. Results revealed that N1/P1 and N170 amplitudes were larger while late positive potential (LPP) activity was smaller for facial expressions presented in the context of the anxiety and the chemosensory control stimulus as compared to facial expressions without a chemosensory context. Furthermore, HSA participants were highly sensitive to the contextual anxiety signals. They showed enhanced motivated attention allocation (LPP, Study II), as well as larger startle responses toward faces in the context of chemosensory anxiety signals than did LSA participants (Study I). Chemosensory context had no effect on emotion regulation, and both LSA and HSA participants showed effective emotion regulation (Study I and II). In conclusion, both anxiety and chemosensory sport context stimuli enhanced early attention allocation and structural encoding, but diminished motivated attention allocation to the facial expressions. The current results show that visual and chemosensory information is integrated on virtually all levels of stimulus processing and that socially anxious individuals might be especially sensitive to chemosensory contextual social information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Adolph
- Department of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
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40
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Different time course of emotion regulation towards odors and pictures: Are odors more potent than pictures? Biol Psychol 2012; 91:65-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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41
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Morgan CD, Murphy C. Individuals at risk for Alzheimer's disease show differential patterns of ERP brain activation during odor identification. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS : BBF 2012; 8:37. [PMID: 22849610 PMCID: PMC3542023 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-8-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies suggest that older adults at risk of developing Alzheimer's disease may show olfactory processing deficits before other signs of dementia appear. METHODS We studied 60 healthy non-demented individuals, half of whom were positive for the genetic risk factor the Apolipoprotein E ε4 allele, in three different age groups. Event-related potentials to visual and olfactory identification tasks were recorded and analyzed for latency and amplitude differences, and plotted via topographical maps. RESULTS Varying patterns of brain activation were observed over the post-stimulus epoch for ε4- versus ε4+ individuals on topographical maps. Individuals with the ε4 allele demonstrated different ERP peak latencies during identification of olfactory but not visual stimuli. High correct ApoE classification rates were obtained utilizing the olfactory ERP. CONCLUSIONS Olfactory ERPs demonstrate functional decline in individuals at risk for Alzheimer's disease at much earlier ages than previously observed, suggesting the potential for pre-clinical detection of AD at very early stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlie D Morgan
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
| | - Claire Murphy
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
- University of California San Diego Medical Center, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
- SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program, 6363 Alvarado Ct., Suite 101, San Diego, CA, 92120-4913, USA
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42
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A mobile olfactometer for fMRI-studies. J Neurosci Methods 2012; 209:189-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 05/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Zamora R, Bartholow J, Green E, Morgan CD, Murphy C. Adiposity measures predict olfactory processing speed in older adult carriers of the apolipoprotein E ε4 allele. Clin Neurophysiol 2012; 123:918-24. [PMID: 22055839 PMCID: PMC3691270 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Revised: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The current study investigated the relationship between adiposity and P3 latency. METHODS Fifty-one adults in two age groups (18-25 and 65+) participated. Odor stimuli were delivered via olfactometer as participants focused on a computer screen. Each stimulus was followed by presentation on the screen of four odor identification choices. Participants attempted identification by button press. Olfactory event-related potentials (OERPs) were recorded. BMI and waist circumference were measured as indicators of adiposity. RESULTS In bivariate analyses with all participants included, positive correlations for P3 latency with both BMI and waist circumference were observed, indicating that as adiposity increased latencies also increased. When each age group was separately examined, correlations between adiposity measures and latency remained statistically significant for older adults. Furthermore, ApoE ε4 allele status was examined. Latencies remained positively correlated with adiposity in older adult ε4 carriers; but not in non-carriers. CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that adiposity predicts olfactory processing speed in older adults, specifically in ε4 carriers. SIGNIFICANCE The results suggest that olfactory processing speed may be a useful measure for detecting and following the effects of adiposity on brain integrity and cognitive function in those at genetic risk for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Zamora
- San Diego State University, Department of Psychology, USA
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Corby K, Morgan CD, Murphy C. Abnormal event-related potentials in young and middle-aged adults with the ApoE ε4 allele. Int J Psychophysiol 2012; 83:276-81. [PMID: 22100309 PMCID: PMC4343300 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2011] [Revised: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The largest genetic susceptibility factor for Alzheimer's disease is the Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) ε4 allele. Cognitive decline and olfactory impairment are greater in those positive for the ε4 allele. This study sought to determine if the olfactory event-related potential (OERP), compared to the visual ERP, would be sensitive to these subtle declines. Participants included 40 individuals from two age groups, half of each group were ε4 allele positive and half were ε4 negative. Visual ERPs did not demonstrate significant differences between ApoE groups. OERPs demonstrated robust age by ApoE interactions. P3 latencies were significantly longer in ε4 young and middle age participants. These findings suggest that very early olfactory and cognitive changes related to ApoE status are detectible via the OERP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystin Corby
- San Diego State University, Department of Psychology, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
| | - Charlie D. Morgan
- San Diego State University, Department of Psychology, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
| | - Claire Murphy
- San Diego State University, Department of Psychology, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
- University of California Medical Center, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA
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45
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Zhou W, Hou P, Zhou Y, Chen D. Reduced recruitment of orbitofrontal cortex to human social chemosensory cues in social anxiety. Neuroimage 2010; 55:1401-6. [PMID: 21195189 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.12.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2010] [Revised: 11/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Social anxiety refers to the prevalent and debilitating experience of fear and anxiety of being scrutinized in social situations. It originates from both learned (e.g. adverse social conditioning) and innate (e.g. shyness) factors. Research on social anxiety has traditionally focused on negative emotions induced by visual and auditory social cues in socially anxious clinical populations, and posits a dysfunctional orbitofrontal-amygdala circuit as a primary etiological mechanism. Yet as a trait, social anxiety is independent of one's specific emotional state. Here we probe the neural substrate of intrinsic social anxiety by employing a unique type of social stimuli, airborne human social chemosensory cues that are inherently social, ubiquitously present, and yet operating below verbal awareness. We show that the adopted social chemosensory cues were not perceived to be human-related, did not differentially bias self-report of anxiety or autonomic nervous system responses, yet individuals with elevated social anxiety demonstrated a reduced recruitment of the orbitofrontal cortex to social chemosensory cues. No reciprocal activity in the amygdala was observed. Our findings point to an intrinsic neural substrate underlying social anxiety that is not associated with prior adverse social conditioning, thereby providing the first neural evidence for the inherent social aspect of this enigmatic phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 4A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China
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46
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Development of a fully automated system for delivering odors in an MRI environment. Behav Res Methods 2010; 42:1072-8. [DOI: 10.3758/brm.42.4.1072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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47
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Livneh U, Paz R. An implicit measure of olfactory performance for non-human primates reveals aversive and pleasant odor conditioning. J Neurosci Methods 2010; 192:90-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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48
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Wang J, Eslinger PJ, Doty RL, Zimmerman EK, Grunfeld R, Sun X, Meadowcroft MD, Connor JR, Price JL, Smith MB, Yang QX. Olfactory deficit detected by fMRI in early Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 2010; 1357:184-94. [PMID: 20709038 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2009] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is accompanied by smell dysfunction, as measured by psychophysical tests. Currently, it is unknown whether AD-related alterations in central olfactory system neural activity, as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), are detectable beyond those observed in healthy elderly. Moreover, it is not known whether such changes are correlated with indices of odor perception and dementia. To investigate these issues, 12 early stage AD patients and 13 nondemented controls underwent fMRI while being exposed to each of three concentrations of lavender oil odorant. All participants were administered the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale-2 (DRS-2), and the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale (CDR). The blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal at primary olfactory cortex (POC) was weaker in AD than in HC subjects. At the lowest odorant concentration, the BOLD signals within POC, hippocampus, and insula were significantly correlated with UPSIT, MMSE, DRS-2, and CDR scores. The BOLD signal intensity and activation volume within the POC increased significantly as a function of odorant concentration in the AD group, but not in the control group. These findings demonstrate that olfactory fMRI is sensitive to the AD-related olfactory and cognitive functional decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianli Wang
- Department of Radiology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Center for NMR Research, PA, USA
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Lundström JN, Gordon AR, Alden EC, Boesveldt S, Albrecht J. Methods for building an inexpensive computer-controlled olfactometer for temporally-precise experiments. Int J Psychophysiol 2010; 78:179-89. [PMID: 20688109 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2009] [Revised: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Many human olfactory experiments call for fast and stable stimulus-rise times as well as exact and stable stimulus-onset times. Due to these temporal demands, an olfactometer is often needed. However, an olfactometer is a piece of equipment that either comes with a high price tag or requires a high degree of technical expertise to build and/or to run. Here, we detail the construction of an olfactometer that is constructed almost exclusively with "off-the-shelf" parts, requires little technical knowledge to build, has relatively low price tags, and is controlled by E-Prime, a turnkey-ready and easily-programmable software commonly used in psychological experiments. The olfactometer can present either solid or liquid odor sources, and it exhibits a fast stimulus-rise time and a fast and stable stimulus-onset time. We provide a detailed description of the olfactometer construction, a list of its individual parts and prices, as well as potential modifications to the design. In addition, we present odor onset and concentration curves as measured with a photo-ionization detector, together with corresponding GC/MS analyses of signal-intensity drop (5.9%) over a longer period of use. Finally, we present data from behavioral and psychophysiological recordings demonstrating that the olfactometer is suitable for use during event-related EEG experiments.
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Lundström JN, Olsson MJ. Functional neuronal processing of human body odors. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2010; 83:1-23. [PMID: 20831940 DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(10)83001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Body odors carry informational cues of great importance for individuals across a wide range of species, and signals hidden within the body odor cocktail are known to regulate several key behaviors in animals. For a long time, the notion that humans may be among these species has been dismissed. We now know, however, that each human has a unique odor signature that carries information related to his or her genetic makeup, as well as information about personal environmental variables, such as diet and hygiene. Although a substantial number of studies have investigated the behavioral effects of body odors, only a handful have studied central processing. Recent studies have, however, demonstrated that the human brain responds to fear signals hidden within the body odor cocktail, is able to extract kin specific signals, and processes body odors differently than other perceptually similar odors. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the current knowledge of how the human brain processes body odors and the potential importance these signals have for us in everyday life.
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