MHC class II epitope nesting modulates dendritic cell function and improves generation of antigen-specific CD4 helper T cells

Chimeric Newcastle Disease Virus-like Particles Containing DC-Binding Peptide-Fused Haemagglutinin Protect Chickens from Virulent Newcastle Disease Virus and H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus Challenge

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and H9N2 subtype Avian influenza virus (AIV) are two notorious avian respiratory pathogens that cause great losses in the poultry industry. Current inactivated commercial vaccines against NDV and AIV have the disadvantages of inadequate mucosal responses, while an attenuated live vaccine bears the risk of mutation. Dendritic cell (DC) targeting strategies are attractive for their potent mucosal and adaptive immune-stimulating ability against respiratory pathogens. In this study, DC-binding peptide (DCpep)-decorated chimeric virus-like particles (cVLPs), containing NDV haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) and AIV haemagglutinin (HA), were developed as a DC-targeting mucosal vaccine candidate. DCpep-decorated cVLPs activated DCs in vitro, and induced potent immune stimulation in chickens, with enhanced secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) secretion and splenic T cell differentiation. 40 μg cVLPs can provide full protection against the challenge with homologous, heterologous NDV strains, and AIV H9N2. In addition, DCpep-decorated cVLPs could induce a better immune response when administered intranasally than intramuscularly, as indicated by robust sIgA secretion and a reduced virus shedding period. Taken together, this chimeric VLPs are a promising vaccine candidate to control NDV and AIV H9N2 and a useful platform bearing multivalent antigens.

Application of Fmoc-SPPS, Thiol-Maleimide Conjugation, and Copper(I)-Catalyzed Alkyne-Azide Cycloaddition "Click" Reaction in the Synthesis of a Complex Peptide-Based Vaccine Candidate Against Group A Streptococcus

Fmoc solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) is the most common approach used to synthesize natural and unnatural peptides. However, the synthesis of sequences longer than 30-60 amino acids is associated with a drastic reduction in peptide quality. Thus, large and complex peptides are normally synthesized as fragments, which are then conjugated together. Here, we describe the synthesis of a large, branched peptide, a multi-epitope vaccine candidate against Group A Streptococcus, with the help of microwave-assisted Fmoc-SPPS, thiol-maleimide conjugation, and copper(I)-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) "click" reaction.

Ebola Vaccine: How Far are we?

Ebola viruses have been identified as an emerging threat as it causes severe haemorrhagic fever in human with mortality rates ranging from 50 to 90%. In addition to being a global health concern, the virus also is considered a potential biological threat agent. As for now, no licensed vaccine is available for pre or post exposure treatment. Recent epidemic of this disease in South Africa has led to concern towards development of an effective vaccine on a priority basis. This review is an attempt to look upon current progress in the development of Ebola virus vaccines and highlights strategies that have the greatest potential for commercial development.

Recombinant house dust mite allergens

House dust mites (HDM) are a globally important source of allergen responsible for the sensitization of more than 50% of allergic patients. Specific immunotherapy with HDM extracts is effective but allergen extracts cannot be fully standardized and severe side-effects can occur during the protracted course of treatment. The introduction of molecular biological techniques into allergy research allowed the indentification of more than 20 groups of HDM allergens. Recombinant HDM allergens can be produced in defined concentrations and consistent quality and allow the development of vaccines for HDM allergy with reduced allergenic activity and retained immunogenicity. The immunotherapy trials in pollen allergic patients with recombinant pollen allergens/hypoallergenic allergen derivatives have shown that this treatment is effective and indicated that recombinant HDM vaccines might improve immunotherapy of HDM allergic patients. Here we report the steps for the development of vaccines for HDM allergy. After selection of the most prevalent HDM species, the panel of allergens to be included into a therapeutic vaccine for HDM allergy needs to be determined. HDM allergens with high IgE-binding frequency and clinical relevance will be modified into hypoallergenic variants and evaluated for their allergenic activity and immunogenicity. Derivatives with reduced allergenic activity but with retained immunogenicity would be good candidates for a HDM vaccine for safe and efficient immunotherapy.

Invariant chain-peptide fusion vaccine using HER-2/neu

A novel method for amplifying the activity of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II helper epitopes entails linking a 4-amino-acid moiety (LRMK) from the invariant chain (Ii) of MHC (referred to as Ii-Key) to the N-terminal end of the epitope peptide either directly or using a simple polymethylene spacer (-ava-). Ii-Key catalyzes binding of the linked epitope to the MHC class II molecule, thereby enhancing the overall potency of presentation. HER-2(776-790) (or AE36), which is derived from the intracellular domain of HER-2/neu, has been intensively used as an Ii-key/HER-2(776-790) (or AE37) fusion (hybrid) vaccine in clinical trials. This chapter describes procedures for the synthesis, reconstitution, sterility testing, and storage of both AE36 and AE37 for their use in clinical trials. Also provided is a detailed information about their in vivo administration and analysis of in-depth protocols for monitoring of immune activation upon vaccination with AE37.

New generation of oral mucosal vaccines targeting dendritic cells

As most infectious organisms gain entry at mucosal surfaces, there is a great deal of interest in developing vaccines that elicit effective mucosal immune responses against pathogen challenge. Targeted vaccination is one of the most effective methods available to prevent and control infectious diseases. Mucosal vaccines can offer lower costs, better accessibility, needle free delivery, and a higher capacity for mass immunizations during pandemics. Both local mucosal immunity and robust systemic responses can be achieved through mucosal vaccination. Recent progress in understanding the molecular and cellular components of the mucosal immune system have allowed for the development of a novel mucosal vaccine platform utilizing specific dendritic cell-targeting peptides and orally administered lactobacilli to elicit efficient antigen specific immune responses against infections, including Bacillus anthracis in experimental models of disease.

An efficient, chemically-defined semisynthetic lipid-adjuvanted nanoparticulate vaccine development system

A novel vaccine development platform that enables the site-specific conjugation of synthetic lipid adjuvants to recombinant proteins was produced. This technology facilitates the simple and efficient production of homogeneous, chemically-defined, semisynthetic lipoprotein vaccines. Using a polytope 'string-of-beads' approach, a synthetic gene incorporating seven Streptococcus pyogenes M protein strain-specific antigens, and a conserved M protein antigen (J14) was produced, expressed, and attached to a lipoamino acid based adjuvant (lipid core peptide; LCP). Nanoparticles (40 nm diameter) of an optimal size for stimulating antibody-mediated immunity were formed upon the addition of these lipoproteins to aqueous buffer (PBS). Systemic antigen-specific IgG antibodies were raised against all eight antigens in C57BL/6J mice, without the need to formulate with additional adjuvant. These antibodies bound cell surface M proteins of S. pyogenes strains represented within the polytope sequence, with higher antibody levels observed where a dendritic cell targeting peptide (DCpep) was incorporated within the LCP adjuvant.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

In this study, a novel vaccine development system is presented, combining adjuvants with recombinant protein antigens, and presenting the antigen in a nanoparticle system optimized for antibody production. They demonstrate efficient vaccination in a murine model system without the need for additional adjuvants.

Colonic immune stimulation by targeted oral vaccine

Background

Currently, sufficient data exist to support the use of lactobacilli as candidates for the development of new oral targeted vaccines. To this end, we have previously shown that Lactobacillus gasseri expressing the protective antigen (PA) component of anthrax toxin genetically fused to a dendritic cell (DC)-binding peptide (DCpep) induced efficacious humoral and T cell-mediated immune responses against Bacillus anthracis Sterne challenge.

Methodology/Principal Finding

In the present study, we investigated the effects of a dose dependent treatment of mice with L. gasseri expressing the PA-DCpep fusion protein on intestinal and systemic immune responses and confirmed its safety. Treatment of mice with different doses of L. gasseri expressing PA-DCpep stimulated colonic immune responses, resulting in the activation of innate immune cells, including dendritic cells, which induced robust Th1, Th17, CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ and CD8⁺Foxp3⁺ T cell immune responses. Notably, high doses of L. gasseri expressing PA-DCpep (10¹² CFU) were not toxic to the mice. Treatment of mice with L. gasseri expressing PA-DCpep triggered phenotypic maturation and the release of proinflammatory cytokines by dendritic cells and macrophages. Moreover, treatment of mice with L. gasseri expressing PA-DCpep enhanced antibody immune responses, including IgA, IgG₁, IgG_2b, IgG_2c and IgG₃. L. gasseri expressing PA-DCpep also increased the gene expression of numerous pattern recognition receptors, including Toll-like receptors, C-type lectin receptors and NOD-like receptors.

Conclusion/Significance

These findings suggest that L. gasseri expressing PA-DCpep has substantial immunopotentiating properties, as it can induce humoral and T cell-mediated immune responses upon oral administration and may be used as a safe oral vaccine against anthrax challenge.

Modern subunit vaccines: development, components, and research opportunities

Traditional vaccines, based on the administration of killed or attenuated microorganisms, have proven to be among the most effective methods for disease prevention. Safety issues related to administering these complex mixtures, however, prevent their universal application. Through identification of the microbial components responsible for protective immunity, vaccine formulations can be simplified, enabling molecular-level vaccine characterization, improved safety profiles, prospects to develop new high-priority vaccines (e.g. for HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria), and the opportunity for extensive vaccine component optimization. This subunit approach, however, comes at the expense of decreased immunity, requiring the addition of immunostimulatory agents (adjuvants). As few adjuvants are currently used in licensed vaccines, adjuvant development represents an exciting area for medicinal chemists to play a role in the future of vaccine development. In addition, immune responses can be further customized though optimization of delivery systems, tuning the size of particulate vaccines, targeting specific cells of the immune system (e.g. dendritic cells), and adding components to aid vaccine efficacy in whole immunized populations (e.g. promiscuous T-helper epitopes). Herein we review the current state of the art and future direction in subunit vaccine development, with a focus on the described components and their potential to steer the immune response toward a desired response.