1
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Godthi A, Min S, Das S, Cruz-Corchado J, Deonarine A, Misel-Wuchter K, Issuree PD, Prahlad V. Neuronal IL-17 controls Caenorhabditis elegans developmental diapause through CEP-1/p53. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2315248121. [PMID: 38483995 PMCID: PMC10963014 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2315248121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
During metazoan development, how cell division and metabolic programs are coordinated with nutrient availability remains unclear. Here, we show that nutrient availability signaled by the neuronal cytokine, ILC-17.1, switches Caenorhabditis elegans development between reproductive growth and dormancy by controlling the activity of the tumor suppressor p53 ortholog, CEP-1. Specifically, upon food availability, ILC-17.1 signaling by amphid neurons promotes glucose utilization and suppresses CEP-1/p53 to allow growth. In the absence of ILC-17.1, CEP-1/p53 is activated, up-regulates cell-cycle inhibitors, decreases phosphofructokinase and cytochrome C expression, and causes larvae to arrest as stress-resistant, quiescent dauers. We propose a model whereby ILC-17.1 signaling links nutrient availability and energy metabolism to cell cycle progression through CEP-1/p53. These studies describe ancestral functions of IL-17 s and the p53 family of proteins and are relevant to our understanding of neuroimmune mechanisms in cancer. They also reveal a DNA damage-independent function of CEP-1/p53 in invertebrate development and support the existence of a previously undescribed C. elegans dauer pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishiktha Godthi
- Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY14263
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242-1324
| | - Sehee Min
- Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY14263
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242-1324
| | - Srijit Das
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242-1324
| | - Johnny Cruz-Corchado
- Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY14263
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242-1324
| | - Andrew Deonarine
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242-1324
| | - Kara Misel-Wuchter
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Priya D. Issuree
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Veena Prahlad
- Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY14263
- Department of Biology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA52242-1324
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2
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Mello SS, Flowers BM, Mazur PK, Lee JJ, Müller F, Denny SK, Ferreira S, Hanson K, Kim SK, Greenleaf WJ, Wood LD, Attardi LD. Multifaceted role for p53 in pancreatic cancer suppression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2211937120. [PMID: 36848578 PMCID: PMC10013849 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2211937120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The vast majority of human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (PDACs) harbor TP53 mutations, underscoring p53's critical role in PDAC suppression. PDAC can arise when pancreatic acinar cells undergo acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM), giving rise to premalignant pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasias (PanINs), which finally progress to PDAC. The occurrence of TP53 mutations in late-stage PanINs has led to the idea that p53 acts to suppress malignant transformation of PanINs to PDAC. However, the cellular basis for p53 action during PDAC development has not been explored in detail. Here, we leverage a hyperactive p53 variant-p5353,54-which we previously showed is a more robust PDAC suppressor than wild-type p53, to elucidate how p53 acts at the cellular level to dampen PDAC development. Using both inflammation-induced and KRASG12D-driven PDAC models, we find that p5353,54 both limits ADM accumulation and suppresses PanIN cell proliferation and does so more effectively than wild-type p53. Moreover, p5353,54 suppresses KRAS signaling in PanINs and limits effects on the extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. While p5353,54 has highlighted these functions, we find that pancreata in wild-type p53 mice similarly show less ADM, as well as reduced PanIN cell proliferation, KRAS signaling, and ECM remodeling relative to Trp53-null mice. We find further that p53 enhances chromatin accessibility at sites controlled by acinar cell identity transcription factors. These findings reveal that p53 acts at multiple stages to suppress PDAC, both by limiting metaplastic transformation of acini and by dampening KRAS signaling in PanINs, thus providing key new understanding of p53 function in PDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephano S. Mello
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY14642
| | - Brittany M. Flowers
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Pawel K. Mazur
- Department of Experimental Radiation Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX77030
| | - James J. Lee
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
- Calico Life Sciences LLC, South San Francisco, CA94080
| | - Fabian Müller
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
- Integrative Cellular Biology and Bioinformatics, Saarland University, 66123Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sarah K. Denny
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Sofia Ferreira
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Kathryn Hanson
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Seung K. Kim
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - William J. Greenleaf
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Laura D. Wood
- Department of Pathology, The Sol Goldman Pancreatic Cancer Research Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD21287
| | - Laura D. Attardi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
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3
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Tsai YY, Su CH, Tarn WY. p53 Activation in Genetic Disorders: Different Routes to the Same Destination. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9307. [PMID: 34502215 PMCID: PMC8430931 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor suppressor p53 is critical for preventing neoplastic transformation and tumor progression. Inappropriate activation of p53, however, has been observed in a number of human inherited disorders that most often affect development of the brain, craniofacial region, limb skeleton, and hematopoietic system. Genes related to these developmental disorders are essentially involved in transcriptional regulation/chromatin remodeling, rRNA metabolism, DNA damage-repair pathways, telomere maintenance, and centrosome biogenesis. Perturbation of these activities or cellular processes may result in p53 accumulation in cell cultures, animal models, and perhaps humans as well. Mouse models of several p53 activation-associated disorders essentially recapitulate human traits, and inactivation of p53 in these models can alleviate disorder-related phenotypes. In the present review, we focus on how dysfunction of the aforementioned biological processes causes developmental defects via excessive p53 activation. Notably, several disease-related genes exert a pleiotropic effect on those cellular processes, which may modulate the magnitude of p53 activation and establish or disrupt regulatory loops. Finally, we discuss potential therapeutic strategies for genetic disorders associated with p53 misactivation.
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4
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Maor-Nof M, Shipony Z, Lopez-Gonzalez R, Nakayama L, Zhang YJ, Couthouis J, Blum JA, Castruita PA, Linares GR, Ruan K, Ramaswami G, Simon DJ, Nof A, Santana M, Han K, Sinnott-Armstrong N, Bassik MC, Geschwind DH, Tessier-Lavigne M, Attardi LD, Lloyd TE, Ichida JK, Gao FB, Greenleaf WJ, Yokoyama JS, Petrucelli L, Gitler AD. p53 is a central regulator driving neurodegeneration caused by C9orf72 poly(PR). Cell 2021; 184:689-708.e20. [PMID: 33482083 PMCID: PMC7886018 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a GGGGCC repeat expansion in the C9orf72 gene. We developed a platform to interrogate the chromatin accessibility landscape and transcriptional program within neurons during degeneration. We provide evidence that neurons expressing the dipeptide repeat protein poly(proline-arginine), translated from the C9orf72 repeat expansion, activate a highly specific transcriptional program, exemplified by a single transcription factor, p53. Ablating p53 in mice completely rescued neurons from degeneration and markedly increased survival in a C9orf72 mouse model. p53 reduction also rescued axonal degeneration caused by poly(glycine-arginine), increased survival of C9orf72 ALS/FTD-patient-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived motor neurons, and mitigated neurodegeneration in a C9orf72 fly model. We show that p53 activates a downstream transcriptional program, including Puma, which drives neurodegeneration. These data demonstrate a neurodegenerative mechanism dynamically regulated through transcription-factor-binding events and provide a framework to apply chromatin accessibility and transcription program profiles to neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Maor-Nof
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Zohar Shipony
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Lisa Nakayama
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Yong-Jie Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Julien Couthouis
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jacob A Blum
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Patricia A Castruita
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gabriel R Linares
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kai Ruan
- Department of Neurology, Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Gokul Ramaswami
- Department of Neurology, Program in Neurogenetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - David J Simon
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Aviv Nof
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Manuel Santana
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kyuho Han
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Michael C Bassik
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Department of Neurology, Program in Neurogenetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Laura D Attardi
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Thomas E Lloyd
- Department of Neurology, Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Justin K Ichida
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Fen-Biao Gao
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - William J Greenleaf
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer S Yokoyama
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Aaron D Gitler
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
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5
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From cancer to rejuvenation: incomplete regeneration as the missing link (part II: rejuvenation circle). Future Sci OA 2020; 6:FSO610. [PMID: 32983567 PMCID: PMC7491027 DOI: 10.2144/fsoa-2020-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the first part of our study, we substantiated that the embryonic reontogenesis and malignant growth (disintegrating growth) pathways are the same, but occur at different stages of ontogenesis, this mechanism is carried out in opposite directions. Cancer has been shown to be epigenetic-blocked redifferentiation and unfinished somatic embryogenesis. We formulated that only this approach of aging elimination has real prospects for a future that is fraught with cancer, as we will be able to convert this risk into a rejuvenation process through the continuous cycling of cell dedifferentiation-differentiation processes (permanent remorphogenesis). Here, we continue to develop the idea of looped ontogenesis and formulate the concept of the rejuvenation circle.
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6
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Beauchamp MC, Alam SS, Kumar S, Jerome-Majewska LA. Spliceosomopathies and neurocristopathies: Two sides of the same coin? Dev Dyn 2020; 249:924-945. [PMID: 32315467 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in core components of the spliceosome are responsible for a group of syndromes collectively known as spliceosomopathies. Patients exhibit microcephaly, micrognathia, malar hypoplasia, external ear anomalies, eye anomalies, psychomotor delay, intellectual disability, limb, and heart defects. Craniofacial malformations in these patients are predominantly found in neural crest cells-derived structures of the face and head. Mutations in eight genes SNRPB, RNU4ATAC, SF3B4, PUF60, EFTUD2, TXNL4, EIF4A3, and CWC27 are associated with craniofacial spliceosomopathies. In this review, we provide a brief description of the normal development of the head and the face and an overview of mutations identified in genes associated with craniofacial spliceosomopathies. We also describe a model to explain how and when these mutations are most likely to impact neural crest cells. We speculate that mutations in a subset of core splicing factors lead to disrupted splicing in neural crest cells because these cells have increased sensitivity to inefficient splicing. Hence, disruption in splicing likely activates a cellular stress response that includes increased skipping of regulatory exons in genes such as MDM2 and MDM4, key regulators of P53. This would result in P53-associated death of neural crest cells and consequently craniofacial malformations associated with spliceosomopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Claude Beauchamp
- Department of Pediatrics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,McGill University Health Centre at Glen Site, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sabrina Shameen Alam
- McGill University Health Centre at Glen Site, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Shruti Kumar
- McGill University Health Centre at Glen Site, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Loydie Anne Jerome-Majewska
- Department of Pediatrics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,McGill University Health Centre at Glen Site, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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7
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Toufektchan E, Lejour V, Durand R, Giri N, Draskovic I, Bardot B, Laplante P, Jaber S, Alter BP, Londono-Vallejo JA, Savage SA, Toledo F. Germline mutation of MDM4, a major p53 regulator, in a familial syndrome of defective telomere maintenance. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaay3511. [PMID: 32300648 PMCID: PMC7148086 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay3511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Dyskeratosis congenita is a cancer-prone inherited bone marrow failure syndrome caused by telomere dysfunction. A mouse model recently suggested that p53 regulates telomere metabolism, but the clinical relevance of this finding remained uncertain. Here, a germline missense mutation of MDM4, a negative regulator of p53, was found in a family with features suggestive of dyskeratosis congenita, e.g., bone marrow hypocellularity, short telomeres, tongue squamous cell carcinoma, and acute myeloid leukemia. Using a mouse model, we show that this mutation (p.T454M) leads to increased p53 activity, decreased telomere length, and bone marrow failure. Variations in p53 activity markedly altered the phenotype of Mdm4 mutant mice, suggesting an explanation for the variable expressivity of disease symptoms in the family. Our data indicate that a germline activation of the p53 pathway may cause telomere dysfunction and point to polymorphisms affecting this pathway as potential genetic modifiers of telomere biology and bone marrow function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eléonore Toufektchan
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Lejour
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Romane Durand
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Neelam Giri
- Clinical Genetics Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Irena Draskovic
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
- Telomeres and Cancer, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Boris Bardot
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Laplante
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Sara Jaber
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Blanche P. Alter
- Clinical Genetics Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - José-Arturo Londono-Vallejo
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
- Telomeres and Cancer, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Sharon A. Savage
- Clinical Genetics Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Franck Toledo
- Genetics of Tumor Suppression, Institut Curie, Paris, France
- CNRS UMR 3244, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- PSL Research University, Paris, France
- Corresponding author.
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8
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Wang W, Qin JJ, Rajaei M, Li X, Yu X, Hunt C, Zhang R. Targeting MDM2 for novel molecular therapy: Beyond oncology. Med Res Rev 2019; 40:856-880. [PMID: 31587329 DOI: 10.1002/med.21637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The murine double minute 2 (MDM2) oncogene exerts major oncogenic activities in human cancers; it is not only the best-documented negative regulator of the p53 tumor suppressor, but also exerts p53-independent activities. There is an increasing interest in developing MDM2-based targeted therapies. Several classes of MDM2 inhibitors have been evaluated in preclinical models, with a few entering clinical trials, mainly for cancer therapy. However, noncarcinogenic roles for MDM2 have also been identified, demonstrating that MDM2 is involved in many chronic diseases and conditions such as inflammation and autoimmune diseases, dementia and neurodegenerative diseases, heart failure and cardiovascular diseases, nephropathy, diabetes, obesity, and sterility. MDM2 inhibitors have been shown to have promising therapeutic efficacy for treating inflammation and other nonmalignant diseases in preclinical evaluations. Therefore, targeting MDM2 may represent a promising approach for treating and preventing these nonmalignant diseases. In addition, a better understanding of how MDM2 works in nonmalignant diseases may provide new biomarkers for their diagnosis, prognostic prediction, and monitoring of therapeutic outcome. In this review article, we pay special attention to the recent findings related to the roles of MDM2 in the pathogenesis of several nonmalignant diseases, the therapeutic potential of its downregulation or inhibition, and its use as a biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas.,Drug Discovery Institute, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Jiang-Jiang Qin
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Mehrdad Rajaei
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Xiaoyi Yu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Courtney Hunt
- Drug Discovery Institute, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Ruiwen Zhang
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas.,Drug Discovery Institute, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
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9
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Bowen ME, McClendon J, Long HK, Sorayya A, Van Nostrand JL, Wysocka J, Attardi LD. The Spatiotemporal Pattern and Intensity of p53 Activation Dictates Phenotypic Diversity in p53-Driven Developmental Syndromes. Dev Cell 2019; 50:212-228.e6. [PMID: 31178404 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2019.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Inappropriate activation of the p53 transcription factor contributes to numerous developmental syndromes characterized by distinct constellations of phenotypes. How p53 drives exquisitely specific sets of symptoms in diverse syndromes, however, remains enigmatic. Here, we deconvolute the basis of p53-driven developmental syndromes by leveraging an array of mouse strains to modulate the spatial expression pattern, temporal profile, and magnitude of p53 activation during embryogenesis. We demonstrate that inappropriate p53 activation in the neural crest, facial ectoderm, anterior heart field, and endothelium induces distinct spectra of phenotypes. Moreover, altering the timing and degree of p53 hyperactivation substantially affects the phenotypic outcomes. Phenotypes are associated with p53-driven cell-cycle arrest or apoptosis, depending on the cell type, with gene expression programs, rather than extent of mitochondrial priming, largely governing the specific response. Together, our findings provide a critical framework for decoding the role of p53 as a mediator of diverse developmental syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margot E Bowen
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jacob McClendon
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Hannah K Long
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Aryo Sorayya
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jeanine L Van Nostrand
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Joanna Wysocka
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institue, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Laura D Attardi
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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10
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Bowen ME, Attardi LD. The role of p53 in developmental syndromes. J Mol Cell Biol 2019; 11:200-211. [PMID: 30624728 PMCID: PMC6478128 DOI: 10.1093/jmcb/mjy087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
While it is well appreciated that loss of the p53 tumor suppressor protein promotes cancer, growing evidence indicates that increased p53 activity underlies the developmental defects in a wide range of genetic syndromes. The inherited or de novo mutations that cause these syndromes affect diverse cellular processes, such as ribosome biogenesis, DNA repair, and centriole duplication, and analysis of human patient samples and mouse models demonstrates that disrupting these cellular processes can activate the p53 pathway. Importantly, many of the developmental defects in mouse models of these syndromes can be rescued by loss of p53, indicating that inappropriate p53 activation directly contributes to their pathogenesis. A role for p53 in driving developmental defects is further supported by the observation that mouse strains with broad p53 hyperactivation, due to mutations affecting p53 pathway components, display a host of tissue-specific developmental defects, including hematopoietic, neuronal, craniofacial, cardiovascular, and pigmentation defects. Furthermore, germline activating mutations in TP53 were recently identified in two human patients exhibiting bone marrow failure and other developmental defects. Studies in mice suggest that p53 drives developmental defects by inducing apoptosis, restraining proliferation, or modulating other developmental programs in a cell type-dependent manner. Here, we review the growing body of evidence from mouse models that implicates p53 as a driver of tissue-specific developmental defects in diverse genetic syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margot E Bowen
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology in the Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Laura D Attardi
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology in the Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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11
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Neurocristopathies: New insights 150 years after the neural crest discovery. Dev Biol 2018; 444 Suppl 1:S110-S143. [PMID: 29802835 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neural crest (NC) is a transient, multipotent and migratory cell population that generates an astonishingly diverse array of cell types during vertebrate development. These cells, which originate from the ectoderm in a region lateral to the neural plate in the neural fold, give rise to neurons, glia, melanocytes, chondrocytes, smooth muscle cells, odontoblasts and neuroendocrine cells, among others. Neurocristopathies (NCP) are a class of pathologies occurring in vertebrates, especially in humans that result from the abnormal specification, migration, differentiation or death of neural crest cells during embryonic development. Various pigment, skin, thyroid and hearing disorders, craniofacial and heart abnormalities, malfunctions of the digestive tract and tumors can also be considered as neurocristopathies. In this review we revisit the current classification and propose a new way to classify NCP based on the embryonic origin of the affected tissues, on recent findings regarding the molecular mechanisms that drive NC formation, and on the increased complexity of current molecular embryology techniques.
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12
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Melnik BC. Overexpression of p53 explains isotretinoin's teratogenicity. Exp Dermatol 2017; 27:91-93. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.13420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bodo C. Melnik
- Department of Dermatology, Environmental Medicine and Health Theory; University of Osnabrück; Osnabrück Germany
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13
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Mello SS, Valente LJ, Raj N, Seoane JA, Flowers BM, McClendon J, Bieging-Rolett KT, Lee J, Ivanochko D, Kozak MM, Chang DT, Longacre TA, Koong AC, Arrowsmith CH, Kim SK, Vogel H, Wood LD, Hruban RH, Curtis C, Attardi LD. A p53 Super-tumor Suppressor Reveals a Tumor Suppressive p53-Ptpn14-Yap Axis in Pancreatic Cancer. Cancer Cell 2017; 32:460-473.e6. [PMID: 29017057 PMCID: PMC5659188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The p53 transcription factor is a critical barrier to pancreatic cancer progression. To unravel mechanisms of p53-mediated tumor suppression, which have remained elusive, we analyzed pancreatic cancer development in mice expressing p53 transcriptional activation domain (TAD) mutants. Surprisingly, the p5353,54 TAD2 mutant behaves as a "super-tumor suppressor," with an enhanced capacity to both suppress pancreatic cancer and transactivate select p53 target genes, including Ptpn14. Ptpn14 encodes a negative regulator of the Yap oncoprotein and is necessary and sufficient for pancreatic cancer suppression, like p53. We show that p53 deficiency promotes Yap signaling and that PTPN14 and TP53 mutations are mutually exclusive in human cancers. These studies uncover a p53-Ptpn14-Yap pathway that is integral to p53-mediated tumor suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephano S Mello
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Liz J Valente
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Nitin Raj
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jose A Seoane
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Brittany M Flowers
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jacob McClendon
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kathryn T Bieging-Rolett
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jonghyeob Lee
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Danton Ivanochko
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Structural Genomics Consortium and Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Margaret M Kozak
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Daniel T Chang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Teri A Longacre
- Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Albert C Koong
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Cheryl H Arrowsmith
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Structural Genomics Consortium and Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Seung K Kim
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Hannes Vogel
- Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Laura D Wood
- Department of Pathology, The Sol Goldman Pancreatic Cancer Research Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ralph H Hruban
- Department of Pathology, The Sol Goldman Pancreatic Cancer Research Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christina Curtis
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Laura D Attardi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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14
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Chu X, Guo X, Jiang Y, Yu H, Liu L, Shan W, Yang Z. Genotranscriptomic meta-analysis of the CHD family chromatin remodelers in human cancers - initial evidence of an oncogenic role for CHD7. Mol Oncol 2017; 11:1348-1360. [PMID: 28649742 PMCID: PMC5623824 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chromodomain helicase DNA binding proteins (CHDs) are characterized by N-terminal tandem chromodomains and a central adenosine triphosphate-dependent helicase domain. CHDs govern the cellular machinery's access to DNA, thereby playing critical roles in various cellular processes including transcription, proliferation, and DNA damage repair. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that mutation and dysregulation of CHDs are implicated in the pathogenesis of developmental disorders and cancer. However, we know little about genomic and transcriptomic alterations and the clinical significance of most CHDs in human cancer. We used TCGA and METABRIC datasets to perform integrated genomic and transcriptomic analyses of nine CHD genes in more than 10 000 primary cancer specimens from 32 tumor types, focusing on breast cancers. We identified associations among recurrent copy number alteration, gene expression, clinicopathological features, and patient survival. We found that CHD7 was the most commonly gained/amplified and mutated, whereas CHD3 was the most deleted across the majority of tumor types, including breast cancer. Overexpression of CHD7 was more prevalent in aggressive subtypes of breast cancer and was significantly correlated with high tumor grade and poor prognosis. CHD7 is required to maintain open, accessible chromatin, thus providing fine-tuning of transcriptional regulation of certain classes of genes. We found that CHD7 expression was positively correlated with a small subset of classical oncogenes, notably NRAS, in breast cancer. Knockdown of CHD7 inhibits cell proliferation and decreases gene expression of several CHD7 targets, including NRAS, in breast cancer cell lines. Thus, our results demonstrate the oncogenic potential of CHD7 and its association with poor prognostic parameters in human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofang Chu
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
| | - Xuhui Guo
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
- Department of Breast SurgeryAffiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityHenanChina
| | - Yuanyuan Jiang
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
| | - Huimei Yu
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
- College of Basic MedicineJilin UniversityChangchunChina
| | - Lanxin Liu
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
| | - Wenqi Shan
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
| | - Zeng‐Quan Yang
- Department of OncologyWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMIUSA
- Molecular Therapeutics ProgramBarbara Ann Karmanos Cancer InstituteDetroitMIUSA
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15
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Mills AA. The Chromodomain Helicase DNA-Binding Chromatin Remodelers: Family Traits that Protect from and Promote Cancer. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2017; 7:cshperspect.a026450. [PMID: 28096241 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a026450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
A plethora of mutations in chromatin regulators in diverse human cancers is emerging, attesting to the pivotal role of chromatin dynamics in tumorigenesis. A recurrent theme is inactivation of the chromodomain helicase DNA-binding (CHD) family of proteins-ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers that govern the cellular machinery's access to DNA, thereby controlling fundamental processes, including transcription, proliferation, and DNA damage repair. This review highlights what is currently known about how genetic and epigenetic perturbation of CHD proteins and the pathways that they regulate set the stage for cancer, providing new insight for designing more effective anti-cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alea A Mills
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 11724
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16
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Laos M, Sulg M, Herranen A, Anttonen T, Pirvola U. Indispensable role of Mdm2/p53 interaction during the embryonic and postnatal inner ear development. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42216. [PMID: 28181574 PMCID: PMC5299844 DOI: 10.1038/srep42216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
p53 is a key component of a signaling network that protects cells against various stresses. As excess p53 is detrimental to cells, its levels are tightly controlled by several mechanisms. The E3 ubiquitin ligase Mdm2 is a major negative regulator of p53. The significance of balanced p53 levels in normal tissues, at different stages of lifetime, is poorly understood. We have studied in vivo how the disruption of Mdm2/p53 interaction affects the early-embryonic otic progenitor cells and their descendants, the auditory supporting cells and hair cells. We found that p53 accumulation, as a consequence of Mdm2 abrogation, is lethal to both proliferative progenitors and non-proliferating, differentiating cells. The sensitivity of postmitotic supporting cells to excess p53 decreases along maturation, suggesting that maturation-related mechanisms limit p53′s transcriptional activity towards pro-apoptotic factors. We have also investigated in vitro whether p53 restricts supporting cell’s regenerative capacity. Unlike in several other regenerative cellular models, p53 inactivation did not alter supporting cell’s proliferative quiescence nor transdifferentiation capacity. Altogether, the postmitotic status of developing hair cells and supporting cells does not confer protection against the detrimental effects of p53 upregulation. These findings might be linked to auditory disturbances observed in developmental syndromes with inappropriate p53 upregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Laos
- Division of Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - M Sulg
- Division of Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - A Herranen
- Division of Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - T Anttonen
- Division of Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - U Pirvola
- Division of Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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17
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Stracquadanio G, Wang X, Wallace M, Grawenda AM, Zhang P, Hewitt J, Zeron-Medina J, Castro-Giner F, Tomlinson IP, Goding CR, Cygan KJ, Fairbrother WG, Thomas LF, Sætrom P, Gemignani F, Landi S, Schuster-Boeckler B, Bell DA, Bond GL. The importance of p53 pathway genetics in inherited and somatic cancer genomes. Nat Rev Cancer 2016; 16:251-65. [PMID: 27009395 PMCID: PMC6854702 DOI: 10.1038/nrc.2016.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Decades of research have shown that mutations in the p53 stress response pathway affect the incidence of diverse cancers more than mutations in other pathways. However, most evidence is limited to somatic mutations and rare inherited mutations. Using newly abundant genomic data, we demonstrate that commonly inherited genetic variants in the p53 pathway also affect the incidence of a broad range of cancers more than variants in other pathways. The cancer-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the p53 pathway have strikingly similar genetic characteristics to well-studied p53 pathway cancer-causing somatic mutations. Our results enable insights into p53-mediated tumour suppression in humans and into p53 pathway-based cancer surveillance and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Stracquadanio
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Xuting Wang
- Environmental Genomics Group, Genome Integrity and Structural Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Marsha Wallace
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Anna M. Grawenda
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Ping Zhang
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Juliet Hewitt
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Jorge Zeron-Medina
- Vall d’Hebron University Hospital, Oncology Department, Passeig de la Vall D’Hebron 119, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesc Castro-Giner
- Molecular and Population Genetics Laboratory, The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - Ian P. Tomlinson
- Molecular and Population Genetics Laboratory, The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - Colin R. Goding
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Kamil J. Cygan
- Center for Computational Molecular Biology, Brown University, 115 Waterman Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - William G. Fairbrother
- Center for Computational Molecular Biology, Brown University, 115 Waterman Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Laurent F. Thomas
- Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian, University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Pål Sætrom
- Department of Computer and Information Science, Norwegian, University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian, University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Frederica Gemignani
- Genetics- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via Derna, 1, 56126 Pisa - Italy
| | - Stefano Landi
- Genetics- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via Derna, 1, 56126 Pisa - Italy
| | - Benjamin Schuster-Boeckler
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas A. Bell
- Environmental Genomics Group, Genome Integrity and Structural Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
- Corresponding authors: . The Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, The Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, The University of Oxford, Oxford, The United Kingdom. . Environmental Genomics Group, Genomic Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, MD C3-03, NIEHS, PO Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, The United States of America
| | - Gareth L. Bond
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
- Corresponding authors: . The Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, The Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, The University of Oxford, Oxford, The United Kingdom. . Environmental Genomics Group, Genomic Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, MD C3-03, NIEHS, PO Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, The United States of America
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