Modification of Akt by SUMO conjugation regulates alternative splicing and cell cycle

Immune regulation by the SUMO family

Post-translational protein modifications by the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) family have been shown to regulate immune cells in the context of infection, autoimmunity and, more recently, cancer. Recent clinical trials investigating sumoylation inhibition as a therapeutic approach for cancer have established that sumoylation has important immune modulatory effects. Sumoylation suppresses transcription factors in innate immune cells and in cytotoxic T cells through the direct modification of these factors, which leads to the recruitment of transcriptional repressor complexes containing histone deacetylases. By contrast, in regulatory T cells and T helper 17 cells, sumoylation of transcription factors can enhance transcriptional activity by recruiting transcriptional coactivators. Sumoylation is also involved in the repression of IFNB1 and endogenous retroviruses and is therefore important for regulating interferon expression. A central theme from literature is that the sumoylation of a group of proteins, instead of a single target, collectively contributes to the regulation of various immune processes. In this Review, we consider how these studies provide scientific basis for future exploration of SUMO-mediated immune modulation for the treatment of cancers and autoimmune disorders.

AXL-TBK1 driven AKT3 activation promotes metastasis

The receptor tyrosine kinase AXL promotes tumor progression, metastasis, and therapy resistance through the induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Here, we found that activation of AXL resulted in the phosphorylation of TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and the downstream activation of AKT3 and Snail, a transcription factor critical for EMT. Mechanistically, we showed that TBK1 directly bound to and phosphorylated AKT3 in a manner dependent on the multiprotein complex mTORC1. Upon activation, AKT3 interacted with and promoted the nuclear accumulation of Snail, which led to increased EMT as assessed by marker abundance. In human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma tissue, nuclear AKT3 colocalized with Snail and correlated with worse clinical outcomes. Primary mouse pancreatic cancer cells deficient in AKT3 showed reduced metastatic spread in vivo, suggesting selective AKT3 inhibition as a potential therapeutic avenue for targeting EMT in aggressive cancers.

SUMO: A new perspective to decipher fibrosis

Fibrosis is characterized by excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition resulting from dysregulated wound healing and connective tissue repair mechanisms. Excessive accumulation of ECM leads to fibrous tissue formation, impairing organ function and driving the progression of various fibrotic diseases. Recently, the role of small ubiquitin-like modifiers (SUMO) in fibrotic diseases has attracted significant attention. SUMO-mediated SUMOylation, a highly conserved posttranslational modification, participates in a variety of biological processes, including nuclear-cytosolic transport, cell cycle progression, DNA damage repair, and cellular metabolism. Conversely, SUMO-specific proteases cleave the isopeptide bond of SUMO conjugates, thereby regulating the deSUMOylation process. Mounting evidence indicates that SUMOylation and deSUMOylation regulate the functions of several proteins, such as Smad3, NF-κB, and promyelocytic leukemia protein, which are implicated in fibrotic diseases like liver fibrosis, myocardial fibrosis, and pulmonary fibrosis. This review summarizes the role of SUMO in fibrosis-related pathways and explores its pathological relevance in various fibrotic diseases. All evidence suggest that the SUMO pathway is important targets for the development of treatments for fibrotic diseases.

AKT kinases as therapeutic targets

AKT, or protein kinase B, is a central node of the PI3K signaling pathway that is pivotal for a range of normal cellular physiologies that also underlie several pathological conditions, including inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, overgrowth syndromes, and neoplastic transformation. These pathologies, notably cancer, arise if either the activity of AKT or its positive or negative upstream or downstream regulators or effectors goes unchecked, superimposed on by its intersection with a slew of other pathways. Targeting the PI3K/AKT pathway is, therefore, a prudent countermeasure. AKT inhibitors have been tested in many clinical trials, primarily in combination with other drugs. While some have recently garnered attention for their favorable profile, concern over resistance and off-target effects have continued to hinder their widespread adoption in the clinic, mandating a discussion on alternative modes of targeting. In this review, we discuss isoform-centric targeting that may be more effective and less toxic than traditional pan-AKT inhibitors and its significance for disease prevention and treatment, including immunotherapy. We also touch on the emerging mutant- or allele-selective covalent allosteric AKT inhibitors (CAAIs), as well as indirect, novel AKT-targeting approaches, and end with a briefing on the ongoing quest for more reliable biomarkers predicting sensitivity and response to AKT inhibitors, and their current state of affairs.

SUMOylation of Warts kinase promotes neural stem cell reactivation

A delicate balance between neural stem cell (NSC) quiescence and proliferation is important for adult neurogenesis and homeostasis. Small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO)-dependent post-translational modifications cause rapid and reversible changes in protein functions. However, the role of the SUMO pathway during NSC reactivation and brain development is not established. Here, we show that the key components of the SUMO pathway play an important role in NSC reactivation and brain development in Drosophila. Depletion of SUMO/Smt3 or SUMO conjugating enzyme Ubc9 results in notable defects in NSC reactivation and brain development, while their overexpression leads to premature NSC reactivation. Smt3 protein levels increase with NSC reactivation, which is promoted by the Ser/Thr kinase Akt. Warts/Lats, the core protein kinase of the Hippo pathway, can undergo SUMO- and Ubc9-dependent SUMOylation at Lys766. This modification attenuates Wts phosphorylation by Hippo, leading to the inhibition of the Hippo pathway, and consequently, initiation of NSC reactivation. Moreover, inhibiting Hippo pathway effectively restores the NSC reactivation defects induced by SUMO pathway inhibition. Overall, our study uncovered an important role for the SUMO-Hippo pathway during Drosophila NSC reactivation and brain development.

AKT1 induces Nanog promoter in a SUMOylation-dependent manner in different pluripotent contexts

AKT/PKB is a kinase crucial for pluripotency maintenance in pluripotent stem cells. Multiple post-translational modifications modulate its activity. We have previously demonstrated that AKT1 induces the expression of the pluripotency transcription factor Nanog in a SUMOylation-dependent manner in mouse embryonic stem cells. Here, we studied different cellular contexts and main candidates that could mediate this induction. Our results strongly suggest the pluripotency transcription factors OCT4 and SOX2 are not essential mediators. Additionally, we concluded that this induction takes place in different pluripotent contexts but not in terminally differentiated cells. Finally, the cross-matching analysis of ESCs, iPSCs and MEFs transcriptomes and AKT1 phosphorylation targets provided new clues about possible factors that could be involved in the SUMOylation-dependent Nanog induction by AKT.

Paradoxes of Cellular SUMOylation Regulation: A Role of Biomolecular Condensates?

Protein SUMOylation is a major post-translational modification essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis. SUMOylation has long been associated with stress responses as a diverse array of cellular stress signals are known to trigger rapid alternations in global protein SUMOylation. In addition, while there are large families of ubiquitination enzymes, all small ubiquitin-like modifiers (SUMOs) are conjugated by a set of enzymatic machinery comprising one heterodimeric SUMO-activating enzyme, a single SUMO-conjugating enzyme, and a small number of SUMO protein ligases and SUMO-specific proteases. How a few SUMOylation enzymes specifically modify thousands of functional targets in response to diverse cellular stresses remains an enigma. Here we review recent progress toward understanding the mechanisms of SUMO regulation, particularly the potential roles of liquid-liquid phase separation/biomolecular condensates in regulating cellular SUMOylation during cellular stresses. In addition, we discuss the role of protein SUMOylation in pathogenesis and the development of novel therapeutics targeting SUMOylation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Protein SUMOylation is one of the most prevalent post-translational modifications and plays a vital role in maintaining cellular homeostasis in response to stresses. Protein SUMOylation has been implicated in human pathogenesis, such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegeneration, and infection. After more than a quarter century of extensive research, intriguing enigmas remain regarding the mechanism of cellular SUMOylation regulation and the therapeutic potential of targeting SUMOylation.

SUMOylation and the oncogenic E17K mutation affect AKT1 subcellular distribution and impact on Nanog-binding dynamics to chromatin in embryonic stem cells

AKT/PKB is a kinase involved in the regulation of a plethora of cell processes. Particularly, in embryonic stem cells (ESCs), AKT is crucial for the maintenance of pluripotency. Although the activation of this kinase relies on its recruitment to the cellular membrane and subsequent phosphorylation, multiple other post-translational modifications (PTMs), including SUMOylation, fine-tune its activity and target specificity. Since this PTM can also modify the localization and availability of different proteins, in this work we explored if SUMOylation impacts on the subcellular compartmentalization and distribution of AKT1 in ESCs. We found that this PTM does not affect AKT1 membrane recruitment, but it modifies the AKT1 nucleus/cytoplasm distribution, increasing its nuclear presence. Additionally, within this compartment, we found that AKT1 SUMOylation also impacts on the chromatin-binding dynamics of NANOG, a central pluripotency transcription factor. Remarkably, the oncogenic E17K AKT1 mutant produces major changes in all these parameters increasing the binding of NANOG to its targets, also in a SUMOylation dependent manner. These findings demonstrate that SUMOylation modulates AKT1 subcellular distribution, thus adding an extra layer of regulation of its function, possibly by affecting the specificity and interaction with its downstream targets.

Regulation of SUMOylation on RNA metabolism in cancers

Post-translational modifications of proteins play very important roles in regulating RNA metabolism and affect many biological pathways. Here we mainly summarize the crucial functions of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) modification in RNA metabolism including transcription, splicing, tailing, stability and modification, as well as its impact on the biogenesis and function of microRNA (miRNA) in particular. This review also highlights the current knowledge about SUMOylation regulation in RNA metabolism involved in many cellular processes such as cell proliferation and apoptosis, which is closely related to tumorigenesis and cancer progression.

Overview of the regulation of the class IA PI3K/AKT pathway by SUMO

The phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway is a major regulator of metabolism, migration, survival, proliferation, and antiviral immunity. Both an overactivation and an inhibition of the PI3K/AKT pathway are related to different pathologies. Activation of this signaling pathway is tightly controlled through a multistep process and its deregulation can be associated with aberrant post-translational modifications including SUMOylation. Here, we review the complex modulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway by SUMOylation and we discuss its putative incvolvement in human disease.

Akt: a key transducer in cancer

Growth factor signaling plays a pivotal role in diverse biological functions, such as cell growth, apoptosis, senescence, and migration and its deregulation has been linked to various human diseases. Akt kinase is a central player transmitting extracellular clues to various cellular compartments, in turn executing these biological processes. Since the discovery of Akt three decades ago, the tremendous progress towards identifying its upstream regulators and downstream effectors and its roles in cancer has been made, offering novel paradigms and therapeutic strategies for targeting human diseases and cancers with deregulated Akt activation. Unraveling the molecular mechanisms for Akt signaling networks paves the way for developing selective inhibitors targeting Akt and its signaling regulation for the management of human diseases including cancer.

Tricyclic antidepressants target FKBP51 SUMOylation to restore glucocorticoid receptor activity

FKBP51 is an important inhibitor of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling. High FKBP51 levels are associated to stress-related disorders, which are linked to GR resistance. SUMO conjugation to FKBP51 is necessary for FKBP51's inhibitory action on GR. The GR/FKBP51 pathway is target of antidepressant action. Thus we investigated if these drugs could inhibit FKBP51 SUMOylation and therefore restore GR activity. Screening cells using Ni²⁺ affinity and in vitro SUMOylation assays revealed that tricyclic antidepressants- particularly clomipramine- inhibited FKBP51 SUMOylation. Our data show that clomipramine binds to FKBP51 inhibiting its interaction with PIAS4 and therefore hindering its SUMOylation. The inhibition of FKBP51 SUMOylation decreased its binding to Hsp90 and GR facilitating FKBP52 recruitment, and enhancing GR activity. Reduction of PIAS4 expression in rat primary astrocytes impaired FKBP51 interaction with GR, while clomipramine could no longer exert its inhibitory action. This mechanism was verified in vivo in mice treated with clomipramine. These results describe the action of antidepressants as repressors of FKBP51 SUMOylation as a molecular switch for restoring GR sensitivity, thereby providing new potential routes of antidepressant intervention.

The Role of SUMO E3 Ligases in Signaling Pathway of Cancer Cells

Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)ylation is a reversible post-translational modification that plays a crucial role in numerous aspects of cell physiology, including cell cycle regulation, DNA damage repair, and protein trafficking and turnover, which are of importance for cell homeostasis. Mechanistically, SUMOylation is a sequential multi-enzymatic process where SUMO E3 ligases recruit substrates and accelerate the transfer of SUMO onto targets, modulating their interactions, localization, activity, or stability. Accumulating evidence highlights the critical role of dysregulated SUMO E3 ligases in processes associated with the occurrence and development of cancers. In the present review, we summarize the SUMO E3 ligases, in particular, the novel ones recently identified, and discuss their regulatory roles in cancer pathogenesis.

Regulation of transforming growth factor-β signalling by SUMOylation and its role in fibrosis

Fibrosis is an abnormal healing process that only repairs the structure of an organ after injury and does not address damaged functions. The pathogenesis of fibrosis is multifactorial and highly complex; numerous signalling pathways are involved in this process, with the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signalling pathway playing a central role. TGF-β regulates the generation of myofibroblasts and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition by regulating transcription and translation of downstream genes and precisely regulating fibrogenesis. The TGF-β signalling pathway can be modulated by various post-translational modifications, of which SUMOylation has been shown to play a key role. In this review, we focus on the function of SUMOylation in canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signalling and its role in fibrosis, providing promising therapeutic strategies for fibrosis.

Coordination of RNA Processing Regulation by Signal Transduction Pathways

Signal transduction pathways transmit the information received from external and internal cues and generate a response that allows the cell to adapt to changes in the surrounding environment. Signaling pathways trigger rapid responses by changing the activity or localization of existing molecules, as well as long-term responses that require the activation of gene expression programs. All steps involved in the regulation of gene expression, from transcription to processing and utilization of new transcripts, are modulated by multiple signal transduction pathways. This review provides a broad overview of the post-translational regulation of factors involved in RNA processing events by signal transduction pathways, with particular focus on the regulation of pre-mRNA splicing, cleavage and polyadenylation. The effects of several post-translational modifications (i.e., sumoylation, ubiquitination, methylation, acetylation and phosphorylation) on the expression, subcellular localization, stability and affinity for RNA and protein partners of many RNA-binding proteins are highlighted. Moreover, examples of how some of the most common signal transduction pathways can modulate biological processes through changes in RNA processing regulation are illustrated. Lastly, we discuss challenges and opportunities of therapeutic approaches that correct RNA processing defects and target signaling molecules.

Targeting Akt in cancer for precision therapy

Biomarkers-guided precision therapeutics has revolutionized the clinical development and administration of molecular-targeted anticancer agents. Tailored precision cancer therapy exhibits better response rate compared to unselective treatment. Protein kinases have critical roles in cell signaling, metabolism, proliferation, survival and migration. Aberrant activation of protein kinases is critical for tumor growth and progression. Hence, protein kinases are key targets for molecular targeted cancer therapy. The serine/threonine kinase Akt is frequently activated in various types of cancer. Activation of Akt promotes tumor progression and drug resistance. Since the first Akt inhibitor was reported in 2000, many Akt inhibitors have been developed and evaluated in either early or late stage of clinical trials, which take advantage of liquid biopsy and genomic or molecular profiling to realize personalized cancer therapy. Two inhibitors, capivasertib and ipatasertib, are being tested in phase III clinical trials for cancer therapy. Here, we highlight recent progress of Akt signaling pathway, review the up-to-date data from clinical studies of Akt inhibitors and discuss the potential biomarkers that may help personalized treatment of cancer with Akt inhibitors. In addition, we also discuss how Akt may confer the vulnerability of cancer cells to some kinds of anticancer agents.

SUMO conjugation susceptibility of Akt/protein kinase B affects the expression of the pluripotency transcription factor Nanog in embryonic stem cells

Akt/PKB is a kinase involved in the regulation of a wide variety of cell processes. Its activity is modulated by diverse post-translational modifications (PTMs). Particularly, conjugation of the small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) to this kinase impacts on multiple cellular functions, such as proliferation and splicing. In embryonic stem (ES) cells, this kinase is key for pluripotency maintenance. Among other functions, Akt is known to promote the expression of Nanog, a central pluripotency transcription factor (TF). However, the relevance of this specific PTM of Akt has not been previously analyzed in this context. In this work, we study the effect of Akt1 variants with differential SUMOylation susceptibility on the expression of Nanog. Our results demonstrate that both, the Akt1 capability of being modified by SUMO conjugation and a functional SUMO conjugase activity are required to induce Nanog gene expression. Likewise, we found that the common oncogenic E17K Akt1 mutant affected Nanog expression in ES cells also in a SUMOylatability dependent manner. Interestingly, this outcome takes places in ES cells but not in a non-pluripotent heterologous system, suggesting the presence of a crucial factor for this induction in ES cells. Remarkably, the two major candidate factors to mediate this induction, GSK3-β and Tbx3, are non-essential players of this effect, suggesting a complex mechanism probably involving non-canonical pathways. Furthermore, we found that Akt1 subcellular distribution does not depend on its SUMOylatability, indicating that Akt localization has no influence on the effect on Nanog, and that besides the membrane localization of E17K Akt mutant, SUMOylation is also required for its hyperactivity. Our results highlight the impact of SUMO conjugation in the function of a kinase relevant for a plethora of cellular processes, including the control of a key pluripotency TF.

SUMOylation modulates the stability and function of PI3K-p110β

Class I PI3K are heterodimers composed of a p85 regulatory subunit and a p110 catalytic subunit involved in multiple cellular functions. Recently, the catalytic subunit p110β has emerged as a class I PI3K isoform playing a major role in tumorigenesis. Understanding its regulation is crucial for the control of the PI3K pathway in p110β-driven cancers. Here we sought to evaluate the putative regulation of p110β by SUMO. Our data show that p110β can be modified by SUMO1 and SUMO2 in vitro, in transfected cells and under completely endogenous conditions, supporting the physiological relevance of p110β SUMOylation. We identify lysine residue 952, located at the activation loop of p110β, as essential for SUMOylation. SUMOylation of p110β stabilizes the protein increasing its activation of AKT which promotes cell growth and oncogenic transformation. Finally, we show that the regulatory subunit p85β counteracts the conjugation of SUMO to p110β. In summary, our data reveal that SUMO is a novel p110β interacting partner with a positive effect on the activation of the PI3K pathway.

Computational Analysis Indicates That PARP1 Acts as a Histone Deacetylases Interactor Sharing Common Lysine Residues for Acetylation, Ubiquitination, and SUMOylation in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease

Aim/Hypothesis : Lysine residues are known for the post-translational modifications (PTMs) such as acetylation, ubiquitination, and SUMOylation. In acetylation, histone deacetylase (HDAC) and its interactors cause transcriptional deregulation and cause mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, inflammatory response, and cell-cycle impairment that cause brain homeostasis and neuronal cell death. Other regulatory PTMs involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are ubiquitination and SUMOylation for the degradation of the misfolded proteins. Thus, we aim to investigate the potential acetylation/ubiquitination/SUMOylation crosstalk sites in the HDAC interactors, which cause NDDs. Furthermore, we aim to identify the influence of PTMs on the structural features of proteins and the impact of putative lysine mutation on disease susceptibility. Last, we aim to examine the impact of the putative mutation on acetylated lysine for ubiquitination and SUMOylation. Results : Herein, we integrate 1455 genes, 3094 genes, and 1940 genes related to HDAC interactors, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease (PD), respectively. Furthermore, the protein-protein interaction and PTM integrations from different databases identified 32 proteins that are associated with HDAC, AD, and PD with 1489 potential lysine-modified sites. HDAC interactors poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), nucleophosmin (NPM1), and cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) involved in the progression of NDDs and 64 and 75% of PTM sites in PARP1, NPM1, and CDK1 fall into coiled and ordered regions, respectively. Moreover, 15 putative lysine sites have been found in the crosstalk and K148, K249, K528, K637, K700, and K796 of PARP1 are crosstalk hotspots. Conclusion : The loss of acetylated hotspot sites results in the loss of ubiquitination and SUMOylation function on nearby sites, which is relatively higher when compared to the gain of function.

Akt Is S-Palmitoylated: A New Layer of Regulation for Akt

The protein kinase Akt/PKB participates in a great variety of processes, including translation, cell proliferation and survival, as well as malignant transformation and viral infection. In the last few years, novel Akt posttranslational modifications have been found. However, how these modification patterns affect Akt subcellular localization, target specificity and, in general, function is not thoroughly understood. Here, we postulate and experimentally demonstrate by acyl-biotin exchange (ABE) assay and ³H-palmitate metabolic labeling that Akt is S-palmitoylated, a modification related to protein sorting throughout subcellular membranes. Mutating cysteine 344 into serine blocked Akt S-palmitoylation and diminished its phosphorylation at two key sites, T308 and T450. Particularly, we show that palmitoylation-deficient Akt increases its recruitment to cytoplasmic structures that colocalize with lysosomes, a process stimulated during autophagy. Finally, we found that cysteine 344 in Akt1 is important for proper its function, since Akt1-C344S was unable to support adipocyte cell differentiation in vitro. These results add an unexpected new layer to the already complex Akt molecular code, improving our understanding of cell decision-making mechanisms such as cell survival, differentiation and death.

Inhibition of SUMO2/3 antagonizes isoflurane-induced cancer-promoting effect in hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B cells

Surgery for patients with complicated liver cancer often results in a long exposure to anesthesia with an increase in side effects. Continued long-term exposure to isoflurane may promote liver cancer progression. Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) 2 and 3, also known as SUMO2/3, conjugates to substrate proteins when cells undergo acute stress. However, whether or not SUMO2/3 is involved in isoflurane-mediated liver cancer progression is unknown. In the present study, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells were exposed to 2% isoflurane for 12 h, followed by 36 h of drug withdrawal, and the formation of SUMO2/3 conjugates and cancer behavioral characteristics were studied. The results demonstrated that the formation of SUMO2/3 conjugates was significantly increased following HCC cells being exposed to isoflurane for 0.5 h, and continued to increase for 48 h, even after the drug had been withdrawn. Furthermore, isoflurane-exposed HCC cells exhibited increased proliferation and invasion activity during the subsequent observation period. SUMO specific protease 3 (SENP3), which inhibits the binding of SUMO2/3 to its target proteins, was overexpressed and it was discovered that isoflurane-induced SUMOylation was significantly inhibited, and accordingly, the proliferation and invasion abilities of HCC cells were decreased to a certain extent. These findings indicated that SUMO2/3 is involved in the progression of HCC cells, at least in the Hep3B cell line, induced by the anesthetic isoflurane, and that inhibition of SUMO2/3 may antagonize the response. These results provided a novel target for decreasing the adverse reactions occurring in patients with HCC during anesthesia, particularly those who are exposed to isoflurane for long periods of time.

Inhibitors in AKTion: ATP-competitive vs allosteric

Aberrant activation of the PI3K pathway is one of the commonest oncogenic events in human cancer. AKT is a key mediator of PI3K oncogenic function, and thus has been intensely pursued as a therapeutic target. Multiple AKT inhibitors, broadly classified as either ATP-competitive or allosteric, are currently in various stages of clinical development. Herein, we review the evidence for AKT dependence in human tumours and focus on its therapeutic targeting by the two drug classes. We highlight the future prospects for the development and implementation of more effective context-specific AKT inhibitors aided by our increasing knowledge of both its regulation and some previously unrecognised non-canonical functions.

Akt-targeted therapy as a promising strategy to overcome drug resistance in breast cancer - A comprehensive review from chemotherapy to immunotherapy

Breast cancer is the most frequently occurring cancer in women. Chemotherapy in combination with immunotherapy has been used to treat breast cancer. Atezolizumab targeting the protein programmed cell death-ligand (PD-L1) in combination with paclitaxel was recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC), the most incurable type of breast cancer. However, the use of such drugs is restricted by genotype and is effective only for those TNBC patients expressing PD-L1. In addition, resistance to chemotherapy with drugs such as lapatinib, geftinib, and tamoxifen can develop. In this review, we address chemoresistance in breast cancer and discuss Akt as the master regulator of drug resistance and several oncogenic mechanisms in breast cancer. Akt not only directly interacts with the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathway to affect PD-L1 expression, but also has crosstalk with Notch and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways involved in cell migration and breast cancer stem cell integrity. In this review, we discuss the effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitors on Akt activation as well as the mechanism of Akt signaling in drug resistance. Akt also has a crucial role in mitochondrial metabolism and migrates into mitochondria to remodel breast cancer cell metabolism while also functioning in responses to hypoxic conditions. The Akt inhibitors ipatasertib, capivasertib, uprosertib, and MK-2206 not only suppress cancer cell proliferation and metastasis, but may also inhibit cytokine regulation and PD-L1 expression. Ipatasertib and uprosertib are undergoing clinical investigation to treat TNBC. Inhibition of Akt and its regulators can be used to control breast cancer progression and also immunosuppression, while discovery of additional compounds that target Akt and its modulators could provide solutions to resistance to chemotherapy and immunotherapy.

BCL-2 family isoforms in apoptosis and cancer

The BCl-2 family has long been identified for its role in apoptosis. Following the initial discovery of BCL-2 in the context of B-cell lymphoma in the 1980s, a number of homologous proteins have since been identified. The members of the Bcl-2 family are designated as such due to their BCL-2 homology (BH) domains and involvement in apoptosis regulation. The BH domains facilitate the family members’ interactions with each other and can indicate pro- or anti-apoptotic function. Traditionally, these proteins are categorised into one of the three subfamilies; anti-apoptotic, BH3-only (pro-apoptotic), and pore-forming or ‘executioner’ (pro-apoptotic) proteins. Each of the BH3-only or anti-apoptotic proteins has a distinct pattern of activation, localisation and response to cell death or survival stimuli. All of these can vary across cell or stress types, or developmental stage, and this can cause the delineation of the roles of BCL-2 family members. Added to this complexity is the presence of relatively uncharacterised isoforms of many of the BCL-2 family members. There is a gap in our knowledge regarding the function of BCL-2 family isoforms. BH domain status is not always predictive or indicative of protein function, and several other important sequences, which can contribute to apoptotic activity have been identified. While therapeutic strategies targeting the BCL-2 family are constantly under development, it is imperative that we understand the molecules, which we are attempting to target. This review, discusses our current knowledge of anti-apoptotic BCL-2 family isoforms. With significant improvements in the potential for splicing therapies, it is important that we begin to understand the distinctions of the BCL-2 family, not limited to just the mechanisms of apoptosis control, but in their roles outside of apoptosis.

Smoothened stabilizes and protects TRAF6 from degradation: A novel non-canonical role of smoothened with implications in lymphoma biology

Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), an (K63) E3-ligase, plays a role in many biological processes and its activity is relevant in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) biology. Although molecules that trigger TRAF6 activation have been defined, those that stabilize TRAF6 and/or enhance TRAF6 function remain largely unclear. We found that TRAF6 amplifies pAKT signaling in DLBCL. Moreover, TRAF6 activation and stabilization of its ubiquitination profile are facilitated by smoothened (SMO), signal transducer of canonical Hedgehog signaling. Here, we report that SMO is needed to facilitate and maintain TRAF6-dependent elevated pAKT levels, and that the SMO/TRAF6 axis contributes to doxorubicin resistance in DLBCL. Mechanistically, we found that SMO, through its C-terminal tail, stabilizes and protects TRAF6 from degradation, an effect mediated by ubiquitin-specific protease-8. Moreover, this functional link between SMO and TRAF6 is reflected in DLBCL patients where high expression of both molecules correlates with poor prognosis. In summary, our study reveals a novel cell survival mechanism in which SMO stabilizes and protects TRAF6 from degradation. The axis SMO/TRAF6/AKT is highly relevant in the biology of DLBCL and is involved in doxorubicin resistance.

SUMOylation regulates germinal vesicle breakdown and the Akt/PKB pathway during mouse oocyte maturation

SUMOylation, a process of posttranslational modification of proteins by the small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) family of proteins, is known to be involved in yeast and mammalian somatic cell-cycle regulation. However, the identities of the SUMO-modified oocyte targets are largely unknown and the functional role(s) for SUMOylation during mammalian oocyte maturation remains unclear. On the basis of studies in non-germline cells, protein kinase B/Akt is a potential SUMOylation target in the mouse oocyte, where it plays an essential role in cell-cycle resumption and progression during maturation. This study investigated the temporal patterns and prospective role(s) for interactions between SUMOylation and Akt serine-phosphorylation during oocyte meiotic resumption. Pharmacological inhibition of SUMOylation significantly decreased follicular fluid meiosis-activating sterol-induced cell-cycle resumption in oocytes matured in vitro and negatively affected the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Akt. Similarly, nuclear localization of cyclin D1, a downstream target of Akt activation, was significantly decreased following SUMOylation inhibition. Together these data show that SUMO and the posttranslational process of SUMOylation are involved in cell-cycle resumption during murine oocyte maturation and exert a regulatory influence on the Akt pathway during germinal vesicle breakdown.

Metabolic Reprogramming by the PI3K-Akt-mTOR Pathway in Cancer

In the past decade, there has been a resurgence of interest in elucidating how metabolism is altered in cancer cells and how such dependencies can be targeted for therapeutic gain. At the core of this research is the concept that metabolic pathways are reprogrammed in cancer cells to divert nutrients toward anabolic processes to facilitate enhanced growth and proliferation. Importantly, physiological cellular signaling mechanisms normally tightly regulate the ability of cells to gain access to and utilize nutrients, posing a fundamental barrier to transformation. This barrier is often overcome by aberrations in cellular signaling that drive tumor pathogenesis by enabling cancer cells to make critical cellular decisions in a cell-autonomous manner. One of the most frequently altered pathways in human cancer is the PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway. Here, we describe mechanisms by which this signaling network is responsible for controlling cellular metabolism. Through both the post-translational regulation and the induction of transcriptional programs, the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway coordinates the uptake and utilization of multiple nutrients, including glucose, glutamine, nucleotides, and lipids, in a manner best suited for supporting the enhanced growth and proliferation of cancer cells. These regulatory mechanisms illustrate how metabolic changes in cancer are closely intertwined with oncogenic signaling pathways that drive tumor initiation and progression.

SUMO wrestling with Ras

This review discusses our current understanding of the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) pathway and how it functionally intersects with Ras signaling in cancer. The Ras family of small GTPases are frequently mutated in cancer. The role of the SUMO pathway in cancer and in Ras signaling is currently not well understood. Recent studies have shown that the SUMO pathway can both regulate Ras/MAPK pathway activity directly and support Ras-driven oncogenesis through the regulation of proteins that are not direct Ras effectors. We recently discovered that in Ras mutant cancer cells, the SUMOylation status of a subset of proteins is altered and one such protein, KAP1, is required for Ras-driven transformation. A better understanding of the functional interaction between the SUMO and Ras pathways could lead to new insights into the mechanism of Ras-driven oncogenesis.

Splice factor mutations and alternative splicing as drivers of hematopoietic malignancy

Differential splicing contributes to the vast complexity of mRNA transcripts and protein isoforms that are necessary for cellular homeostasis and response to developmental cues and external signals. The hematopoietic system provides an exquisite example of this. Recently, discovery of mutations in components of the spliceosome in various hematopoietic malignancies (HMs) has led to an explosion in knowledge of the role of splicing and splice factors in HMs and other cancers. A better understanding of the mechanisms by which alternative splicing and aberrant splicing contributes to the leukemogenic process will enable more efficacious targeted approaches to tackle these often difficult to treat diseases. The clinical implications are only just starting to be realized with novel drug targets and therapeutic strategies open to exploitation for patient benefit.

Akt/PKB: one kinase, many modifications

Akt/PKB, a serine/threonine kinase member of the AGC family of proteins, is involved in the regulation of a plethora of cellular processes triggered by a wide diversity of extracellular signals and is thus considered a key signalling molecule in higher eukaryotes. Deregulation of Akt signalling is associated with a variety of human diseases, revealing Akt-dependent pathways as an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Since its discovery in the early 1990s, a large body of work has focused on Akt phosphorylation of two residues, Thr308 and Ser473, and modification of these two sites has been established as being equivalent to Akt activation. More recently, Akt has been identified as a substrate for many different post-translational modifications, including not only phosphorylation of other residues, but also acetylation, glycosylation, oxidation, ubiquitination and SUMOylation. These modifications could provide additional regulatory steps for fine-tuning Akt function, Akt trafficking within the cell and/or for determining the substrate specificity of this signalling molecule. In the present review, we provide an overview of these different post-translational modifications identified for Akt, focusing on their consequences for this kinase activity.

SUMO modification of Akt regulates global SUMOylation and substrate SUMOylation specificity through Akt phosphorylation of Ubc9 and SUMO1

SUMOylation is an important post-translational modification, and Akt SUMOylation was found to regulate cell proliferation, tumorigenesis and cell cycle, but the molecular mechanism of Akt SUMOylation is less well known. Here, we show both endogenous and ectopic Akt SUMOylation and Lys276 is the major SUMO acceptor on Akt. Further, Akt SUMOylation is Akt phosphorylation dependent and Akt SUMOylation increases Akt kinase activity without affecting the phosphorylation level of Akt. Moreover, endogenous Akt SUMOylation is enhanced by insulin treatment and this is Akt activity dependent. Heat-shock stimulus also increases Akt SUMOylation and it is also Akt activity dependent. Endogenous Akt SUMOylation is also found in the rat brain and it is enhanced by insulin-like growth factor-1 stimulation. In addition, Akt directly phosphorylates Ubc9 at Thr35 and phosphorylates SUMO1 at Thr76. Ubc9 phosphorylation at Thr35 promotes Ubc9 thioester bond formation and SUMO1 phosphorylation at Thr76 stabilizes the SUMO1 protein. Through these distinct mechanisms, Akt SUMOylation regulates global SUMOylation, including Akt and Ubc9 SUMOylation, and substrate SUMOylation specificity, including STAT1 and CREB SUMOylation, in different manners. Akt SUMOylation also enhances phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) SUMOylation through Akt phosphorylation of Ubc9 and SUMO1, which serves as an endogenous mechanism to stop the positive feedback loop resulted from Akt activation. Further, Akt SUMOylation increases cyclin D1 expression and cell proliferation, and these effects are also mediated through Ubc9 phosphorylation at Thr35 and SUMO1 phosphorylation at Thr76. Here, we have identified a novel mechanism for SUMOylation regulation. Because of the important role Akt plays in tumorigenesis, this mechanism may also be involved in Akt-regulated tumorigenesis.

Posttranslational regulation of Akt in human cancer

Akt regulates critical cellular processes including cell survival and proliferation, glucose metabolism, cell migration, cancer progression and metastasis through phosphorylation of a variety of downstream targets. The Akt pathway is one of the most prevalently hyperactivated signaling pathways in human cancer, thus, research deciphering molecular mechanisms which underlie the aberrant Akt activation has received enormous attention. The PI3K-dependent Akt serine/threonine phosphorylation by PDK1 and mTORC2 has long been thought to be the primary mechanism accounting for Akt activation. However, this regulation alone does not sufficiently explain how Akt hyperactivation can occur in tumors with normal levels of PI3K/PTEN activity. Mounting evidence demonstrates that aberrant Akt activation can be attributed to other posttranslational modifications, which include tyrosine phosphorylation, O-GlcNAcylation, as well as lysine modifications: ubiquitination, SUMOylation and acetylation. Among them, K63-linked ubiquitination has been shown to be a critical step for Akt signal activation by facilitating its membrane recruitment. Deficiency of E3 ligases responsible for growth factor-induced Akt activation leads to tumor suppression. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of posttranslational modifications in Akt regulation will offer novel strategies for cancer therapy.