Nanocatalysis in Flow

Development of 3α,7α-dihydroxy-6α-ethyl-24-nor-5β-cholan-23-sulfate sodium salt (INT-767): Process optimization, synthesis and characterization of metabolites

Herein we report our synthetic efforts in supporting the development of the bile alcohol sulfate INT-767, a FXR/TGR5 dual agonist with remarkable therapeutic potential for liver disorders. We describe the process development to a final route for large scale preparation and analogues synthesis. Key sequences include Grignard addition, a one-pot two-step shortening-reduction of the carboxylic side chain, and the final sulfation reaction. The necessity for additional steps such as the protection/deprotection of hydroxyl groups at the steroidal body was also evaluated for step-economy and formation of side-products. Critical bottlenecks such as the side chain degradation have been tackled using flow technology before scaling-up individual steps. The final synthetic route may be successfully employed to produce the amount of INT-767 required to support late-stage clinical development of the compound. Furthermore, potential metabolites have been synthesized, characterized and evaluated for their ability to modulate FXR and TGR5 receptors providing key reference standards for future drug investigations, as well as offering further insights into the structure-activity relationships of this class of compounds.

Direct integration of gold-carbon nanotube hybrids in continuous-flow microfluidic chips: A versatile approach for nanocatalysis

A carbon nanotube-based packed-bed microreactor was developed for the on-chip oxidation of silanes. The process is catalyzed by a heterogeneous gold-carbon nanotube hybrid that was embedded in the device using a micrometric restriction zone. Integration of the nanohybrid permitted efficient flow aerobic oxidation of the substrates into the corresponding silanols with high selectivity and under sustainable conditions.

Co Loading Adjustment for the Effective Obtention of a Sedative Drug Precursor through Efficient Continuous-Flow Chemoselective Hydrogenation of 2-Methyl-2-Pentenal

This work presents the effect of Co loading on the performance of CNR115 carbon-supported catalysts in the continuous-flow chemoselective hydrogenation of 2-methyl-2-pentenal for the obtention of 2-methylpentanal, an intermediate in the synthesis of the sedative drug meprobamate. The Co loading catalysts (2, 6, 10, and 14 wt.%) were characterized by Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), H2 temperature-programmed reduction (H2-TPR), temperature-programmed desorption of hydrogen (H2-TPD) analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for selected samples, and have been studied as hydrogenation catalysts at different pressure and temperature ranges. The results reveal that a certain amount of Co is necessary to achieve significant conversion values. However, excessive loading affects the morphological parameters, such as the surface area available for hydrogen adsorption and the particle size, preventing an increase in conversion, despite the increased presence of Co. Moreover, the larger particle size, caused by increasing the loading, alters the chemoselectivity, favouring the formation of 2-methyl-2-pentenol and, thus, decreasing the selectivity towards the desired product. The 6 wt.% Co-loaded material demonstrates the best catalytic performance, which is related to the formation of NPs with optimum size. Almost 100% selectivity towards 2-methylpentanal was obtained for the catalysts with lower Co loading (2 and 6 wt.%).

Biomass-derived chemical substitutes for bisphenol A: recent advancements in catalytic synthesis

Bisphenol A is an oil-derived, large market volume chemical with a wide spectrum of applications in plastics, adhesives and thermal papers. However, bisphenol A is not considered safe due to its endocrine disrupting properties and reproductive toxicity. Several functional substitutes of bisphenol A have been proposed in the literature, produced from plant biomass. Unless otherwise specified, the present review covers the most significant contributions that appeared in the time span January 2015-August 2019, describing the sustainable catalytic synthesis of rigid diols from biomass derivatives. The focus is thereupon on heterogeneous catalysis, use of green solvents and mild conditions, cascade processes in one-pot, and continuous flow setups. More than 500 up-to-date references describe the various substitutes proposed and the catalytic methods for their manufacture, broken down according to the main biomass types from which they originate.

Continuous 2-Methyl-3-butyn-2-ol Selective Hydrogenation on Pd/γ-Al2O3 as a Green Pathway of Vitamin A Precursor Synthesis

In this work, the effect of pretreatment conditions (10% H2/Ar flow rate 25 mL/min and 400 °C, 3 h or 600 °C, 17 h) on the catalytic performance of 1 wt.% Pd/γ-Al2O3 has been evaluated for hydrogenation of 2-methyl-3-butyn-2-ol in continuous-flow mode. Two palladium catalysts have been tested under different conditions of pressure and temperature and characterized using various physicochemical techniques. The catalytic performance of red(400 °C)-Pd/γ-Al2O3 and red(600 °C)-Pd/γ-Al2O3 are affected by the coexistence of several related factors like the competition between PdH and PdCx formation during the reaction, structure sensitivity, hydrogen spillover to the alumina support and presence or absence of Pd–Al species. High-temperature reduction leads to formation of Pd–Al species in addition to pure Pd. The Pd–Al species which reveal unique electronic properties by decreasing the Pdδ− surface concentration via electron transfer from Pd to Al, leading to a weaker Pd–Alkyl bonding, additionally assisted by the hydrogen spillover, are the sites of improved semi-hydrogenation of 2-methyl-3-butyn-2-ol towards 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol (97%)—an important intermediate for vitamin A synthesis.

Recent Progress in Continuous-Flow Hydrogenation

To achieve a safe, efficient, and sustainable (even fully automated) production for the continuous-flow hydrogenation reactions, which is among the most often used reactions in chemical synthesis, new catalyst types and immobilization methods as well as flow reactors and technologies have been developed over the last years; in addition, these approaches have been combined with new and transformational technologies in other fields such as artificial intelligence. Thus, attention from academic and industry practitioners has increasingly focused on improving the performance of hydrogenation in flow mode by reducing the reaction times, increasing selectivities, and achieve safe operation. This Minireview aims to summarize the most recent research results on this topic with focus on the advantages, current limitations, and future directions of flow chemistry.

Visible-Light Flow Reactor Packed with Porous Carbon Nitride for Aerobic Substrate Oxidations

A triphasic photocatalytic reactor employing a mesoporous carbon nitride photocatalyst and aerobic O₂ was assembled to operate under continuous flow conditions. This reactor design allows for facile downstream processing and reusability in multiple flow cycles. The selective aerobic oxidation of alcohols and amines was chosen to demonstrate the applicability and performance advantage of this flow approach compared to that of conventional batch photochemistry. This precious-metal-free photocatalytic flow system operates under benign reaction conditions (visible light, low pressure, and mild temperature) and will stimulate the exploration of other oxidative reactions in a sustainable, scalable, and affordable manner.

Metal- and solvent-free synthesis of aminoalcohols under continuous flow conditions

Multifunctional organocatalysts were immobilized on porous hollow fiber polymer and used as intelligent and cooperative heterogeneous catalysts and continuous flow reactor for sustainable chemical transformation.

MnO2 @Fe3 O4 Magnetic Nanoparticles as Efficient and Recyclable Heterogeneous Catalyst for Benzylic sp3 C-H Oxidation

Herein, we report a highly chemoselective and efficient heterogeneous MnO₂ @Fe₃ O₄ MNP catalyst for the oxidation of benzylic sp³ C-H group of ethers using TBHP as a green oxidant to afford ester derivatives in high yield under batch/continuous flow module. This catalyst was also effective for the benzylic sp³ C-H group of methylene derivatives to furnish the ketone in high yield which can be easily integrated into continuous flow condition for scale up. The catalyst is fully characterized by spectroscopic techniques and it was found that 0.424 % MnO₂ @Fe₃ O₄ catalyzes the reaction; the magnetic nanoparticles of this catalyst could be easily recovered from the reaction mixture. The recovered catalyst was recycled for twelve cycles without any loss of the catalytic activity. The advantages of MnO₂ @Fe₃ O₄ MNP are its catalytic activity, easy preparation, recovery, and recyclability, gram scale synthesis with a TOF of up to 14.93 h^-1 and low metal leaching during the reaction.

Reversible chemoselective transetherification of vinylogous esters using Fe-catalyst under additive free conditions

An additive/Brønsted acid/base free, highly efficient and chemoselective transetherification of electron deficient vinylogous esters and water mediated de-alkylation using an earth-abundant Fe-catalyst under very mild reaction conditions is described. This reaction is highly selective to primary alcohols over secondary alcohols, has good functional group tolerance, is scalable to gram scale and a purification free sequential transetherification in a continuous flow mode is demonstrated.

Emerging porous materials in confined spaces: from chromatographic applications to flow chemistry

Porous materials confined within capillary columns/microfluidic devices are discussed, and progress in chromatographic and membrane separations and catalysis is reviewed.

Nanoporous block copolymer membranes immobilized with gold nanoparticles for continuous flow catalysis

Nanoporous polymers with functionalizable surfaces are desired in the preparation of reactors for continuous flow catalysis.

Peroxidation of 2-oxindole and barbituric acid derivatives under batch and continuous flow using an eco-friendly ethyl acetate solvent

We have demonstrated the magnetically retrievable Fe(OH)₃Fe₃O₄catalyzed C–H peroxidation of 2-oxindole and barbituric acid derivatives under batch and continuous flow process for the first time.

Continuous Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol to Carboxylic Acids Using Nanosized Gold/Alumina Catalysts and a Liquid-Phase Flow Reactor

Here, we report the development of catalysts comprising highly dispersed Au on an alumina (Al₂O₃) support for the oxidation of glycerol to high-value carboxylic acids in a liquid-phase flow reactor. The catalysts were prepared by means of a deposition-precipitation method. To ensure that the catalysts could be used for long-term catalytic conversions in a liquid-phase flow reactor, we chose an alumina support with high temperature stability and a particle size (50-200 μm) large enough to prevent leakage of the catalyst from the reactor. One of the five catalysts had a high catalytic activity for the conversion of glycerol to the high-value carboxylic acids, glyceric acid and tartronic acid (conversion of glycerol >70%), and the catalyst retained its catalytic activity over long-term use (up to 1770 min). Pretreatment of the catalyst with fructose, a mild reductant, increased the activity of the catalyst. Scanning transmission electron microscopy revealed three Au species highly dispersed on the surface of the alumina support-Au nanoparticles (mode = 7.5-10 nm), Au clusters (1-2 nm), and atomic Au.

Low-Temperature Continuous-Flow Dehydration of Xylose Over Water-Tolerant Niobia-Titania Heterogeneous Catalysts

The sustainable conversion of vegetable biomass-derived feeds to useful chemicals requires innovative routes meeting environmental and economical criteria. The approach herein pursued is the synthesis of water-tolerant, unconventional solid acid monolithic catalysts based on a mixed niobia-titania skeleton building up a hierarchical open-cell network of meso- and macropores, and tailored for use under continuous-flow conditions. The materials were characterized by spectroscopic, microscopy, and diffraction techniques, showing a reproducible isotropic structure and an increasing Lewis/Brønsted acid sites ratio with increasing Nb content. The catalytic dehydration reaction of xylose to furfural was investigated as a representative application. The efficiency of the catalyst was found to be dramatically affected by the niobia content in the titania lattice. The presence of as low as 2 wt % niobium resulted in the highest furfural yield at 140 °C under continuous-flow conditions, by using H₂ O/γ-valerolactone as a safe monophasic solvent system. The interception of a transient 2,5-anhydroxylose species suggested the dehydration process occurs via a cyclic intermediates mechanism. The catalytic activity and the formation of the anhydro intermediate were related to the Lewis acid sites (LAS)/Brønsted acid sites (BAS) ratio and indicated a significant contribution of xylose-xylulose isomerization. No significant catalyst deactivation was observed over 4 days usage.

Immobilization of catalytic virus-like particles in a flow reactor

A functional microfluidic reactor is constructed by the immobilization of gold containing virus-based protein cages that catalyze the reduction of nitro-arenes with high efficiency.

A versatile, immobilized gold catalyst for the reductive amination of aldehydes in batch and flow

A process for the reductive amination of aldehydes in continuous flow catalyzed by gold nanoparticles immobilized onto mesoporous silica has been developed.

A mineralogically-inspired silver–bismuth hybrid material: an efficient heterogeneous catalyst for the direct synthesis of nitriles from terminal alkynes

A silver-containing hybrid material is reported as an effective heterogeneous catalyst for the direct synthesis of organic nitriles from terminal alkynes.

Sonochemical preparation of alumina-spheres loaded with Pd nanoparticles for 2-butyne-1,4-diol semi-hydrogenation in a continuous flow microwave reactor

A novel protocol for microwave-assisted alkyne semi-hydrogenation under heterogeneous catalysis in a continuous flow reactor is reported herein. This challenging task has been accomplished using a multifaceted strategy which includes the ultrasound-assisted preparation of Pd nanoparticles (average Ø 3.0 ± 0.5 nm) that were synthesized on the μ-metric pores of sintered alumina spheres (Ø 0.8 mm) and a continuous flow reaction under H₂ (flow rate 7.5 mL min⁻¹) in a microwave reactor (counter-pressure 4.5 bar). The semi-hydrogenation of 2-butyne-1,4-diol in ethanol was chosen as a model reaction for the purposes of optimization. The high catalyst efficiency of the process, in spite of the low Pd loading (Pd content 111.15 mg kg⁻¹ from ICP-MS), is due to the pivotal role of ultrasound in generating a regular distribution of Pd nanoparticles across the entire support surface. Ultrasound promotes the nucleation, rather than the growth, of crystalline Pd nanoparticles and does so within a particularly narrow Gaussian size distribution. High conversion (>90.5%) and selectivity to (Z)-2-butene-1,4-diol (95.20%) have been achieved at an alkyne solution flow rate of 10 mL min⁻¹. The lead-free, alumina-stabilized Pd catalyst was fully characterized by TEM, HR-TEM, EDX, IR, XRPD and AAS. Highly dispersed Pd nanoparticles have proven themselves to be stable under the reaction conditions employed. The application of the method is subject to the dielectric properties of substrates and solvents, and is therefore hardly applicable to apolar alkynes. Considering the small volume of the reaction chamber, microwave-assisted flow hydrogenation has proven itself to be a safe procedure and one that is suitable for further scaling up to industrial application.

A novel protocol for microwave-assisted alkyne semi-hydrogenation under heterogeneous catalysis in a continuous flow reactor is reported herein.

One-pot organometallic synthesis of alumina-embedded Pd nanoparticles

Herein we report a one pot organometallic strategy to access alumina-embedded Pd nanoparticles. Unexpectedly, the decomposition of the organometallic complex tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0), Pd₂(dba)₃, by dihydrogen in the presence of aluminum isopropoxide, Al(iPrO)₃, and without extra stabilizers, was found to be an efficient method to generate a Pd colloidal solution. Careful characterization studies revealed that the so-obtained Pd nanoparticles were stabilized by an aluminum isopropoxide tetramer and 1,5-diphenyl-pentan-3-one, which was produced after reduction of the dba ligand from the organometallic precursor. Moreover, calcination of the obtained nanomaterial in air at 773 K for 2 h resulted in a nanocomposite material containing Pd nanoparticles embedded in Al₂O₃. This stabilization strategy opens new possibilities for the preparation of transition metal nanoparticles embedded in oxides.

Renewable Wood Pulp Paper Reactor with Hierarchical Micro/Nanopores for Continuous-Flow Nanocatalysis

Continuous-flow nanocatalysis based on metal nanoparticle catalyst-anchored flow reactors has recently provided an excellent platform for effective chemical manufacturing. However, there has been limited progress in porous structure design and recycling systems for metal nanoparticle-anchored flow reactors to create more efficient and sustainable catalytic processes. In this study, traditional paper is used for a highly efficient, recyclable, and even renewable flow reactor by tailoring the ultrastructures of wood pulp. The "paper reactor" offers hierarchically interconnected micro- and nanoscale pores, which can act as convective-flow and rapid-diffusion channels, respectively, for efficient access of reactants to metal nanoparticle catalysts. In continuous-flow, aqueous, room-temperature catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol, a gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-anchored paper reactor with hierarchical micro/nanopores provided higher reaction efficiency than state-of-the-art AuNP-anchored flow reactors. Inspired by traditional paper materials, successful recycling and renewal of AuNP-anchored paper reactors were also demonstrated while high reaction efficiency was maintained.

The Hitchhiker's Guide to Flow Chemistry ∥

Flow chemistry involves the use of channels or tubing to conduct a reaction in a continuous stream rather than in a flask. Flow equipment provides chemists with unique control over reaction parameters enhancing reactivity or in some cases enabling new reactions. This relatively young technology has received a remarkable amount of attention in the past decade with many reports on what can be done in flow. Until recently, however, the question, "Should we do this in flow?" has merely been an afterthought. This review introduces readers to the basic principles and fundamentals of flow chemistry and critically discusses recent flow chemistry accounts.

Engineering Porous Polymer Hollow Fiber Microfluidic Reactors for Sustainable C-H Functionalization

Highly hydrophilic and solvent-stable porous polyamide-imide (PAI) hollow fibers were created by cross-linking of bare PAI hollow fibers with 3-aminopropyl trimethoxysilane (APS). The APS-grafted PAI hollow fibers were then functionalized with salicylic aldehyde for binding catalytically active Pd(II) ions through a covalent postmodification method. The catalytic activity of the composite hollow fiber microfluidic reactors (Pd(II) immobilized APS-grafted PAI hollow fibers) was tested via heterogeneous Heck coupling reaction of aryl halides under both batch and continuous-flow reactions in polar aprotic solvents at high temperature (120 °C) and low operating pressure. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analyses of the starting and recycled composite hollow fibers indicated that the fibers contain very similar loadings of Pd(II), implying no degree of catalyst leaching from the hollow fibers during reaction. The composite hollow fiber microfluidic reactors showed long-term stability and strong control over the leaching of Pd species.

Continuous-flow processes for the catalytic partial hydrogenation reaction of alkynes

The catalytic partial hydrogenation of substituted alkynes to alkenes is a process of high importance in the manufacture of several market chemicals. The present paper shortly reviews the heterogeneous catalytic systems engineered for this reaction under continuous flow and in the liquid phase. The main contributions appeared in the literature from 1997 up to August 2016 are discussed in terms of reactor design. A comparison with batch and industrial processes is provided whenever possible.

Grafted Polymethylhydrosiloxane on Hierarchically Porous Silica Monoliths: A New Path to Monolith-Supported Palladium Nanoparticles for Continuous Flow Catalysis Applications

Polymethylhydrosiloxane has been grafted on the surface of a hierarchically porous silica monolith using a facile catalytic reaction between Si-H and silanol to anchor the polymer. This easy methodology leads to the functionalization of the surface of a silica monolith, where a large amount of free Si-H bonds remain available for reducing metal ions in solution. Palladium nanoparticles of 15 nm have been synthesized homogeneously inside the mesopores of the monolith without any stabilizers, using a flow of a solution containing Pd²⁺. This monolith was used as column-type fixed bed catalyst for continuous flow hydrogenation of styrene and selective hydrogenation of 3-hexyn-1-ol, in each case without a significant decrease of the catalytic activity after several hours or days. Conversion, selectivity, and stereoselectivity of the alkyne hydrogenation can be tuned by flow rates of hydrogen and the substrate solution, leading to high productivity (1.57 mol g(Pd)^-1 h^-1) of the corresponding cis-alkene.

Applications of Continuous-Flow Photochemistry in Organic Synthesis, Material Science, and Water Treatment

Continuous-flow photochemistry in microreactors receives a lot of attention from researchers in academia and industry as this technology provides reduced reaction times, higher selectivities, straightforward scalability, and the possibility to safely use hazardous intermediates and gaseous reactants. In this review, an up-to-date overview is given of photochemical transformations in continuous-flow reactors, including applications in organic synthesis, material science, and water treatment. In addition, the advantages of continuous-flow photochemistry are pointed out and a thorough comparison with batch processing is presented.

Plastically deformed Cu-based alloys as high-performance catalysts for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol

Plastically deformed mesoscopic structures exposed to an etching procedure are demonstrated as highly catalytic in the reduction of 4-nitrophenol.