A 13 base pair deletion in exon 1 of HPRTIllinois forms a functional GUG initiation codon

Genotype-phenotype correlations in neurogenetics: Lesch-Nyhan disease as a model disorder

Establishing meaningful relationships between genetic variations and clinical disease is a fundamental goal for all human genetic disorders. However, these genotype-phenotype correlations remain incompletely characterized and sometimes conflicting for many diseases. Lesch-Nyhan disease is an X-linked recessive disorder that is caused by a wide variety of mutations in the HPRT1 gene. The gene encodes hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, an enzyme involved in purine metabolism. The fine structure of enzyme has been established by crystallography studies, and its function can be measured with very precise biochemical assays. This rich knowledge of genetic alterations in the gene and their functional effect on its protein product provides a powerful model for exploring factors that influence genotype-phenotype correlations. The present study summarizes 615 known genetic mutations, their influence on the gene product, and their relationship to the clinical phenotype. In general, the results are compatible with the concept that the overall severity of the disease depends on how mutations ultimately influence enzyme activity. However, careful evaluation of exceptions to this concept point to several additional genetic and non-genetic factors that influence genotype-phenotype correlations. These factors are not unique to Lesch-Nyhan disease, and are relevant to most other genetic diseases. The disease therefore serves as a valuable model for understanding the challenges associated with establishing genotype-phenotype correlations for other disorders.

The spectrum of inherited mutations causing HPRT deficiency: 75 new cases and a review of 196 previously reported cases

In humans, mutations in the gene encoding the purine salvage enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) are associated with a spectrum of disease that ranges from hyperuricemia alone to hyperuricemia with profound neurological and behavioral dysfunction. Previous attempts to correlate different types or locations of mutations with different elements of the disease phenotype have been limited by the relatively small numbers of available cases. The current article describes the molecular genetic basis for 75 new cases of HPRT deficiency, reviews 196 previously reported cases, and summarizes four main conclusions that may be derived from the entire database of 271 mutations. First, the mutations associated with human disease appear dispersed throughout the hprt gene, with some sites appearing to represent relative mutational hot spots. Second, genotype-phenotype correlations provide no indication that specific disease features associate with specific mutation locations. Third, cases with less severe clinical manifestations typically have mutations that are predicted to permit some degree of residual enzyme function. Fourth, the nature of the mutation provides only a rough guide for predicting phenotypic severity. Though mutation analysis does not provide precise information for predicting disease severity, it continues to provide a valuable tool for genetic counseling in terms of confirmation of diagnoses, for identifying potential carriers, and for prenatal diagnosis.

Molecular cloning of a novel human I-mfa domain-containing protein that differently regulates human T-cell leukemia virus type I and HIV-1 expression

Regulation of viral genome expression is the result of complex cooperation between viral proteins and host cell factors. We report here the characterization of a novel cellular factor sharing homology with the specific cysteine-rich C-terminal domain of the basic helix-loop-helix repressor protein I-mfa. The synthesis of this new factor, called HIC for Human I-mfa domain-Containing protein, is controlled at the translational level by two different codons, an ATG and an upstream non-ATG translational initiator, allowing the production of two protein isoforms, p32 and p40, respectively. We show that the HIC protein isoforms present different subcellular localizations, p32 being mainly distributed throughout the cytoplasm, whereas p40 is targeted to the nucleolus. Moreover, in trying to understand the function of HIC, we have found that both isoforms stimulate in T-cells the expression of a luciferase reporter gene driven by the human T-cell leukemia virus type I-long terminal repeat in the presence of the viral transactivator Tax. We demonstrate by mutagenesis that the I-mfa-like domain of HIC is involved in this regulation. Finally, we also show that HIC is able to down-regulate the luciferase expression from the human immunodeficiency virus type 1-long terminal repeat induced by the viral transactivator Tat. From these results, we propose that HIC and I-mfa represent two members of a new family of proteins regulating gene expression and characterized by a particular cysteine-rich C-terminal domain.

Nucleotide sequence of crotamine isoform precursors from a single South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus)

A cDNA phage library was constructed from venom glands of a single adult specimen of crotamine-plus Crotalus durissus terrificus (South American rattlesnake) captured in a known region. Fifteen crotamine positive clones were isolated using a PCR-based screening protocol and sequenced. These complete cDNAs clones were grouped for maximal alignment into six distinct nucleotide sequences. The crotamine cDNAs, with 340-360 bases, encompass open reading frame of 198 nucleotides with 5' and 3' untranslated regions of variable size, signal peptide sequence, one crotamine isoform message, and putative poly(A+) signal. Of these six different crotamine cDNA precursors, two predict the identical amino acid sequence previously described by Laure (1975), and the other four a crotamine isoform precursor where the Leucine residue at position 19 is replaced by isoleucine by a single base change. On the other hand, nucleotide variation was observed in the 5' and 3' untranslated regions, with one interesting variant containing an 18 base pair deletion at the 5' untranslated region which results in the usual ATG initiator being replaced by the rarely used GUG start codon. Comparison by Northern blot analysis of poly(A+) RNA from venom glands of a crotamine-plus specimen to total and poly(A+) RNA from a crotamine-minus snake indicated that crotamine transcripts were not expressed in the crotamine-minus specimen.

The product of the murine homolog of the Drosophila extra sex combs gene displays transcriptional repressor activity

The heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K protein represents a novel class of proteins that may act as docking platforms that orchestrate cross-talk among molecules involved in signal transduction and gene expression. Using a fragment of K protein as bait in the yeast two-hybrid screen, we isolated a cDNA that encodes a protein whose primary structure has extensive similarity to the Drosophila melanogaster extra sex combs (esc) gene product, Esc, a putative silencer of homeotic genes. The cDNA that we isolated is identical to the cDNA of the recently positionally cloned mouse embryonic ectoderm development gene, eed. Like Esc, Eed contains six WD-40 repeats in the C-terminal half of the protein and is thought to repress homeotic gene expression during mouse embryogenesis. Eed binds to K protein through a domain in its N terminus, but interestingly, this domain is not found in the Drosophila Esc. Gal4-Eed fusion protein represses transcription of a reporter gene driven by a promoter that contains Gal4-binding DNA elements. Eed also represses transcription when recruited to a target promoter by Gal4-K protein. Point mutations within the eed gene that are responsible for severe embryonic development abnormalities abolished the transcriptional repressor activity of Eed. Results of this study suggest that Eed-restricted homeotic gene expression during embryogenesis reflects the action of Eed as a transcriptional repressor. The Eed-mediated transcriptional effects are likely to reflect the interaction of Eed with multiple molecular partners, including K protein.

Interpreting cDNA sequences: some insights from studies on translation

This review discusses some rules for assessing the completeness of a cDNA sequence and identifying the start site for translation. Features commonly invoked-such as an ATG codon in a favorable context for initiation, or the presence of an upstream in-frame terminator codon, or the prediction of a signal peptide-like sequence at the amino terminus-have some validity; but examples drawn from the literature illustrate limitations to each of these criteria. The best advice is to inspect a cDNA sequence not only for these positive features but also for the absence of certain negative indicators. Three specific warning signs are discussed and documented: (i) The presence of numerous ATG codons upstream from the presumptive start site for translation often indicates an aberration (sometimes a retained intron) at the 5' end of the cDNA. (ii) Even one strong, upstream, out-of-frame ATG codon poses a problem if the reading frame set by the upstream ATG overlaps the presumptive start of the major open reading frame. Many cDNAs that display this arrangement turn out to be incomplete; that is, the out-of-frame ATG codon is within, rather than upstream from, the protein coding domain. (iii) A very weak context at the putative start site for translation often means that the cDNA lacks the authentic initiator codon. In addition to presenting some criteria that may aid in recognizing incomplete cDNA sequences, the review includes some advice for using in vitro translation systems for the expression of cDNAs. Some unresolved questions about translational regulation are discussed by way of illustrating the importance of verifying mRNA structures before making deductions about translation.