Activity of surface-casting earthworms in a calcareous grassland under elevated atmospheric CO2

Evaluating the interaction of soil microorganisms and gut of soil fauna on the fate and spread of antibiotic resistance genes in digested sludge-amended soil ecosystem

Earthworms have shown their effectiveness in reducing the abundances of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) from solid waste. However, the mechanisms of the reduced ARGs by earthworm and whether the solid waste would affect the ARGs profile in earthworm gut were poorly understood. Herein, the patterns of ARGs and microbial communities in digested sludge-amended soil and earthworm gut after 80-day cultivation were investigated. Results show that the enrichment of ARGs (e.g., tetA, tetQ, and sulII) in soil caused by digested sludge-amendment was temporary and would recover to their original levels before amendment. In addition, earthworms could contribute to the further reduction of ARG abundances, which was mainly attributed to their gut digestion via shifting the microbial community (e.g., attenuating the anaerobes). However, the amended soil could significantly increase ARGs abundance in the earthworm gut, which may enhance the potential risk of ARGs spread via the food chain. These findings may provide a new sight on the control of ARGs occurrence and dissemination in sludge-amended soil ecosystem with consideration of earthworms.

Wormcasts produced by three earthworm species (Alma millsoni, Eudrilus eugeniae and Libyodrilus violaceus) exposed to a glyphosate-based herbicide reduce growth, fruit yield and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)

It remains unknown if casts produced by earthworms exposed to a glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) will retain their agricultural benefit. This study investigated the agricultural importance of surface casts produced by three earthworm species (Alma millsoni, Eudrilus eugeniae and Libyodrilus violaceus) exposed to a GBH on growth, fruit yield and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). We sprayed 60 buckets (i.e 20 buckets/earthworm species) containing 20 adult earthworms of each species with 115.49 ml/m2 of Roundup® Alphée (Exposed) while another 60 buckets with earthworm species were sprayed with water (Control). Surface casts produced by the earthworms were collected for 1st, 2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th week post herbicide application. Tomato planting experiment on soil treated with the casts, NPK fertilizer and normal soil were grouped into 32 treatments. Tomato growth performance, yield and quality were evaluated with standard methods. Only the tomatoes planted with the casts of the exposed earthworms were unable to set fruit. There was no significant difference (p < 0.05) in yields of tomatoes planted with the control casts of E. eugeniae and A. millsoni compared to those planted with fertilizer. Vitamin C and β-carotene contents increased in fruits of tomatoes planted with control cast of A. millsoni while reductions were recorded in the fruits of tomatoes planted with the control casts of E. eugeniae and L. violaceus relative to those planted with fertilizer. Surface casts of earthworms exposed to GBH could not enhance tomato growth while casts produced by unexposed earthworms greatly improved the performance of tomato plant.

Exotic earthworms maintain soil biodiversity by altering bottom-up effects of plants on the composition of soil microbial groups and nematode communities

Bottom-up effects of plants on soil communities can be modified by the activity of exotic earthworms, by altering resource availability for soil food webs through feeding, burrowing, and casting activities. The present study explored effects of plants (planting of shrubs) on soil micro-food webs (composition of soil microbial and nematode communities), and whether these effects were altered by the activity of exotic earthworms (exotic earthworms addition). Planted shrubs resulted in a non-significant increase of bacterial biomass and significantly increased the abundance of different nematode trophic groups and total nematode biomass, indicating that planted shrubs had significant bottom-up effects on soil bacteria and nematodes. Planted shrubs decreased nematode diversity, evenness, and richness, but increased nematode dominance in the plots where the abundance of exotic earthworms was not amended. By contrast, these effects of shrub presence on soil biodiversity were not found in the plots that received exotic earthworms. In addition, planted shrubs increased the total energy flux to the nematode community. By contrast, the elevated activity of exotic earthworms mitigated the increase in total energy flux to nematodes in the presence of shrubs, and increased the ratio of fungal to bacterial PLFAs. Both of these changes indicate reduced energy flux in the plots with added exotic earthworms. Nematode diversity decreased, while nematode dominance increased with increasing total energy flux to nematodes, probably because few species benefited from high energy flux. Our study indicates that exotic earthworms can maintain soil biodiversity by reducing the energy flux through soil food webs.

Occurrence of the invasive Spanish slug in gardens: can a citizen science approach help deciphering underlying factors?

BACKGROUND

The Spanish slug (Arion vulgaris, also known as A. lusitanicus) is considered one of the most invasive species in agriculture, horticulture and private gardens all over Europe. Although this slug has been problematic for decades, there is still not much known about its occurrence across private gardens and the underlying meteorological and ecological factors. One reason for this knowledge gap is the limited access of researchers to private gardens. Here we used a citizen science approach to overcome this obstacle and examined whether the occurrence of Arionidae in Austrian gardens was associated with meteorological (air temperature, precipitation, global solar radiation, relative humidity) or ecological factors (plant diversity, earthworm activity). Occurrence of the invasive A. vulgaris versus the similar-looking native A. rufus was compared using a DNA-barcoding approach.

RESULTS

Slugs were collected from 1061 gardens from the dry Pannonian lowland to the wet alpine climate (altitudinal range 742 m). Slug abundance in gardens was best explained and negatively associated with the parameters "sum of the mean air temperature in spring", "number of frost days in the previous winter" and "mean daily global solar radiation on the day of data collection". Precipitation, plant diversity and earthworm activity were also related to slug abundance, but positively. Out of our genetic sampling of collected slugs, 92% belonged to A. vulgaris.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed that citizen science (i) is a feasible approach to record species occurrence in restricted areas across a wide geographical range and (ii) could be more widely employed in order to identify underlying environmental factors of species occurrence.

Nitrogen deposition cancels out exotic earthworm effects on plant-feeding nematode communities

The activity and spread of exotic earthworms often are spatially correlated with N deposition because both arise from human activities. Exotic earthworms, in turn, can also greatly affect soil abiotic and biotic properties, as well as related ecological processes. Previous studies showed, for example, that earthworms can counteract the detrimental effects of plant-feeding nematodes on plant growth. However, potential interactive effects of N deposition and exotic earthworms on ecosystems are poorly understood. We explored the changes in density of plant-feeding nematodes in response to the presence of exotic earthworms, and whether these changes are altered by elevated N deposition in a two-factorial field mesocosm experiment at the Heshan National Field Research Station of Forest Ecosystem, in southern China. Our results show that earthworm addition marginally significantly increased the density of exotic earthworms and significantly increased the mass of earthworm casts. The total density of plant-feeding nematodes was not significantly affected by exotic earthworms or N deposition. However, exotic earthworms tended to increase the density of plant-feeding nematode taxa that are less detrimental to plant growth (r-strategists), while they significantly reduced the density of more harmful plant-feeding nematodes (K-strategists). Importantly, these earthworm effects were restricted to the ambient N deposition treatment, and elevated N deposition cancelled out the earthworm effect. Although exotic earthworms and N deposition interactively altered foliar N : P ratio in the target tree species, this did not result in significant changes in shoot and root biomass in the short term. Overall, our study indicates that N deposition can cancel out exotic earthworm-induced reductions in the density of harmful plant-feeding nematodes. These results suggest that anthropogenic N deposition can alter biotic interactions between exotic and native soil organisms with potential implications for ecosystem functioning.

Pesticide seed dressings can affect the activity of various soil organisms and reduce decomposition of plant material

BACKGROUND

Seed dressing with pesticides is widely used to protect crop seeds from pest insects and fungal diseases. While there is mounting evidence that especially neonicotinoid seed dressings detrimentally affect insect pollinators, surprisingly little is known on potential side effects on soil biota. We hypothesized that soil organisms would be particularly susceptible to pesticide seed dressings as they get in direct contact with these chemicals. Using microcosms with field soil we investigated, whether seeds treated either with neonicotinoid insecticides or fungicides influence the activity and interaction of earthworms, collembola, protozoa and microorganisms. The full-factorial design consisted of the factor Seed dressing (control vs. insecticide vs. fungicide), Earthworm (no earthworms vs. addition Lumbricus terrestris L.) and collembola (no collembola vs. addition Sinella curviseta Brook). We used commercially available wheat seed material (Triticum aesticum L. cf. Lukullus) at a recommended seeding density of 367 m(-2).

RESULTS

Seed dressings (particularly fungicides) increased collembola surface activity, increased the number of protozoa and reduced plant decomposition rate but did not affect earthworm activity. Seed dressings had no influence on wheat growth. Earthworms interactively affected the influence of seed dressings on collembola activity, whereas collembola increased earthworm surface activity but reduced soil basal respiration. Earthworms also decreased wheat growth, reduced soil basal respiration and microbial biomass but increased soil water content and electrical conductivity.

CONCLUSIONS

The reported non-target effects of seed dressings and their interactions with soil organisms are remarkable because they were observed after a one-time application of only 18 pesticide treated seeds per experimental pot. Because of the increasing use of seed dressing in agriculture and the fundamental role of soil organisms in agroecosystems these ecological interactions should receive more attention.

Pesticide seed dressings can affect the activity of various soil organisms and reduce decomposition of plant material

BACKGROUND

Seed dressing with pesticides is widely used to protect crop seeds from pest insects and fungal diseases. While there is mounting evidence that especially neonicotinoid seed dressings detrimentally affect insect pollinators, surprisingly little is known on potential side effects on soil biota. We hypothesized that soil organisms would be particularly susceptible to pesticide seed dressings as they get in direct contact with these chemicals. Using microcosms with field soil we investigated, whether seeds treated either with neonicotinoid insecticides or fungicides influence the activity and interaction of earthworms, collembola, protozoa and microorganisms. The full-factorial design consisted of the factor Seed dressing (control vs. insecticide vs. fungicide), Earthworm (no earthworms vs. addition Lumbricus terrestris L.) and collembola (no collembola vs. addition Sinella curviseta Brook). We used commercially available wheat seed material (Triticum aesticum L. cf. Lukullus) at a recommended seeding density of 367 m(-2).

RESULTS

Seed dressings (particularly fungicides) increased collembola surface activity, increased the number of protozoa and reduced plant decomposition rate but did not affect earthworm activity. Seed dressings had no influence on wheat growth. Earthworms interactively affected the influence of seed dressings on collembola activity, whereas collembola increased earthworm surface activity but reduced soil basal respiration. Earthworms also decreased wheat growth, reduced soil basal respiration and microbial biomass but increased soil water content and electrical conductivity.

CONCLUSIONS

The reported non-target effects of seed dressings and their interactions with soil organisms are remarkable because they were observed after a one-time application of only 18 pesticide treated seeds per experimental pot. Because of the increasing use of seed dressing in agriculture and the fundamental role of soil organisms in agroecosystems these ecological interactions should receive more attention.

Glyphosate-based herbicides reduce the activity and reproduction of earthworms and lead to increased soil nutrient concentrations

Herbicide use is increasing worldwide both in agriculture and private gardens. However, our knowledge of potential side-effects on non-target soil organisms, even on such eminent ones as earthworms, is still very scarce. In a greenhouse experiment, we assessed the impact of the most widely used glyphosate-based herbicide Roundup on two earthworm species with different feeding strategies. We demonstrate, that the surface casting activity of vertically burrowing earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) almost ceased three weeks after herbicide application, while the activity of soil dwelling earthworms (Aporrectodea caliginosa) was not affected. Reproduction of the soil dwellers was reduced by 56% within three months after herbicide application. Herbicide application led to increased soil concentrations of nitrate by 1592% and phosphate by 127%, pointing to potential risks for nutrient leaching into streams, lakes, or groundwater aquifers. These sizeable herbicide-induced impacts on agroecosystems are particularly worrisome because these herbicides have been globally used for decades.

Warming shifts 'worming': effects of experimental warming on invasive earthworms in northern North America

Climate change causes species range shifts and potentially alters biological invasions. The invasion of European earthworm species across northern North America has severe impacts on native ecosystems. Given the long and cold winters in that region that to date supposedly have slowed earthworm invasion, future warming is hypothesized to accelerate earthworm invasions into yet non-invaded regions. Alternatively, warming-induced reductions in soil water content (SWC) can also decrease earthworm performance. We tested these hypotheses in a field warming experiment at two sites in Minnesota, USA by sampling earthworms in closed and open canopy in three temperature treatments in 2010 and 2012. Structural equation modeling revealed that detrimental warming effects on earthworm densities and biomass could indeed be partly explained by warming-induced reductions in SWC. The direction of warming effects depended on the current average SWC: warming had neutral to positive effects at high SWC, whereas the opposite was true at low SWC. Our results suggest that warming limits the invasion of earthworms in northern North America by causing less favorable soil abiotic conditions, unless warming is accompanied by increased and temporally even distributions of rainfall sufficient to offset greater water losses from higher evapotranspiration.

Glyphosate herbicide affects belowground interactions between earthworms and symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi in a model ecosystem

Herbicides containing glyphosate are widely used in agriculture and private gardens, however, surprisingly little is known on potential side effects on non-target soil organisms. In a greenhouse experiment with white clover we investigated, to what extent a globally-used glyphosate herbicide affects interactions between essential soil organisms such as earthworms and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). We found that herbicides significantly decreased root mycorrhization, soil AMF spore biomass, vesicles and propagules. Herbicide application and earthworms increased soil hyphal biomass and tended to reduce soil water infiltration after a simulated heavy rainfall. Herbicide application in interaction with AMF led to slightly heavier but less active earthworms. Leaching of glyphosate after a simulated rainfall was substantial and altered by earthworms and AMF. These sizeable changes provide impetus for more general attention to side-effects of glyphosate-based herbicides on key soil organisms and their associated ecosystem services.

Earthworm effects on native grassland root system dynamics under natural and increased rainfall

Earthworms (EWs) can modify soil structure and nutrient availability, and hence alter conditions for plant growth through their burrowing and casting activities. However, few studies have specifically quantified EW effects by experimentally manipulating earthworm densities (EWDs). In an earlier field study in native grassland ecosystems exposed to ambient and experimentally elevated rainfall (+280 mm year(-1), projected under some climate change scenarios), we found no effects of EWDs (37, 114, 169 EW m(-2)) and corresponding EW activity on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP), even though soil nutrient availability likely increased with increasing EWDs. The lack of effects of EWDs on ANPP suggested that EWs may have adversely affected root systems in that study in some way. The objective of the present study was to quantify responses of root length density (RLD), using data collected from the same grassland plots during the earlier study. RLDs were highest in plots with low EWDs and decreased in plots with higher EWDs. Elevated rainfall primarily increased RLDs in the low EWD treatment (by almost +40%). Reductions in RLDs resulting from increased EWDs did not affect ANPP. Our results indicate that elevating EWDs above ambient levels may limit root growth through large increases in soil bioturbation, but concurrent increases in cast production and nutrient availability may compensate for the suppression of root nutrient absorbing surface area leaving ANPP unchanged, but with shifts in growth (biomass) allocation toward shoots. Similarly, reductions in EWDs appeared to promote higher RLDs that increased soil nutrient foraging in soil with lower amounts of nutrients because of reduced casting activity. Amplified responses observed when rainfall during the growing season was increased suggest that EWDs may mainly affect RLDs and above- vs. belowground growth (biomass) allocation under climate changes that include more frequent wetter-than-average growing seasons.

Herbivory of an invasive slug in a model grassland community can be affected by earthworms and mycorrhizal fungi

Invasion of non-native species is among the top threats for the biodiversity and functioning of native and agricultural ecosystems worldwide. We investigated whether the herbivory of the slug Arion vulgaris (formerly Arion lusitanicus; Gastropoda), that is listed among the 100 worst alien species in Europe, is affected by soil organisms commonly present in terrestrial ecosystems (i.e. earthworms-Annelida: Lumbricidae and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-AMF, Glomerales). We hypothesized that slug herbivory would be affected by soil organisms via altered plant nutrient availability and plant quality. In a greenhouse experiment, we created a simple plant community consisting of a grass, a forb, and a legume species and inoculated these systems with either two earthworm species and/or four AMF taxa. Slugs were introduced after plants were established. Earthworms significantly reduced total slug herbivory in AMF-inoculated plant communities (P = 0.013). Across plant species, earthworms increased leaf total N and secondary metabolites, AMF decreased leaf thickness. Mycorrhizae induced a shift in slug feeding preference from non-legumes to legumes; the grass was generally avoided by slugs. AMF effects on legume herbivory can partly be explained by the AMF-induced increase in total N and decrease in C/N ratio; earthworm effects are less clear as no worm-induced alterations of legume plant chemistry were observed. The presence of earthworms increased average AMF colonization of plant roots by 140 % (P < 0.001). Total shoot mass was significantly increased by AMF (P < 0.001). These data suggest that the feeding behavior of this invasive slug is altered by a belowground control of plant chemical quality and community structure.

Herbivory of an invasive slug is affected by earthworms and the composition of plant communities

BACKGROUND

Biodiversity loss and species invasions are among the most important human-induced global changes. Moreover, these two processes are interlinked as ecosystem invasibility is considered to increase with decreasing biodiversity. In temperate grasslands, earthworms serve as important ecosystem engineers making up the majority of soil faunal biomass. Herbivore behaviour has been shown to be affected by earthworms, however it is unclear whether these effects differ with the composition of plant communities. To test this we conducted a mesocosm experiment where we added earthworms (Annelida: Lumbricidae) to planted grassland communities with different plant species composition (3 vs. 12 plant spp.). Plant communities had equal plant densities and ratios of the functional groups grasses, non-leguminous forbs and legumes. Later, Arion vulgaris slugs (formerly known as A. lusitanicus; Gastropoda: Arionidae) were added and allowed to freely choose among the available plant species. This slug species is listed among the 100 worst alien species in Europe. We hypothesized that (i) the food choice of slugs would be altered by earthworms' specific effects on the growth and nutrient content of plant species, (ii) slug herbivory will be less affected by earthworms in plant communities containing more plant species than in those with fewer plant species because of a more readily utilization of plant resources making the impacts of earthworms less pronounced.

RESULTS

Slug herbivory was significantly affected by both earthworms and plant species composition. Slugs damaged 60% less leaves when earthworms were present, regardless of the species composition of the plant communities. Percent leaf area consumed by slugs was 40% lower in communities containing 12 plant species; in communities containing only three species earthworms increased slug leaf area consumption. Grasses were generally avoided by slugs. Leaf length and number of tillers was increased in mesocosms containing more plant species but little influenced by earthworms. Overall shoot biomass was decreased, root biomass increased in plant communities with more plant species. Earthworms decreased total shoot biomass in mesocosms with more plant species but did not affect biomass production of individual functional groups. Plant nitrogen concentrations across three focus species were 18% higher when earthworms were present; composition of plant communities did not affect plant quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the important role that both herbivores and earthworms play in structuring plant communities the implications of belowground-aboveground linkages should more broadly be considered when investigating global change effects on ecosystems.

Subsurface earthworm casts can be important soil microsites specifically influencing the growth of grassland plants

Earthworms (Annelida: Oligochaeta) deposit several tons per hectare of casts enriched in nutrients and/or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and create a spatial and temporal soil heterogeneity that can play a role in structuring plant communities. However, while we begin to understand the role of surface casts, it is still unclear to what extent plants utilize subsurface casts. We conducted a greenhouse experiment using large mesocosms (volume 45 l) to test whether (1) soil microsites consisting of earthworm casts with or without AMF (four Glomus taxa) affect the biomass production of 11 grassland plant species comprising the three functional groups grasses, forbs, and legumes, (2) different ecological groups of earthworms (soil dwellers-Aporrectodea caliginosa vs. vertical burrowers-Lumbricus terrestris) alter potential influences of soil microsites (i.e., four earthworms × two subsurface microsites × two AMF treatments). Soil microsites were artificially inserted in a 25-cm depth, and afterwards, plant species were sown in a regular pattern; the experiment ran for 6 months. Our results show that minute amounts of subsurface casts (0.89 g kg-1 soil) decreased the shoot and root production of forbs and legumes, but not that of grasses. The presence of earthworms reduced root biomass of grasses only. Our data also suggest that subsurface casts provide microsites from which root AMF colonization can start. Ecological groups of earthworms did not differ in their effects on plant production or AMF distribution. Taken together, these findings suggest that subsurface earthworm casts might play a role in structuring plant communities by specifically affecting the growth of certain functional groups of plants.

Loss of plant biodiversity eliminates stimulatory effect of elevated CO2 on earthworm activity in grasslands

Earthworms are among the world's most important ecosystem engineers because of their effects on soil fertility and plant productivity. Their dependence on plants for carbon, however, means that any changes in plant community structure or function caused by rising atmospheric CO2 or loss of plant species diversity could affect earthworm activity, which may feed back on plant communities. Production of surface casts measured during three consecutive years in field experimental plots (n = 24, 1.2 m(2)) planted with local calcareous grassland species that varied in plant species richness (diversity levels: high, 31 species; medium, 12; low, 5) and were exposed to ambient (356 μl CO2 l(-1)) or elevated (600 μl CO2 l(-1)) CO2 was only consistently stimulated in high diversity plots exposed to elevated CO2 (+120 %, 31 spp: 603 ± 52 under ambient CO2 vs. 1,325 ± 204 g cast dwt. m(-2) year(-1) under elevated CO2 in 1996; +77 %, 940 ± 44 vs. 1,663 ± 204 g cast dwt. m(-2) year(-1) in 1998). Reductions in plant diversity had little effect on cast production in ecosystems maintained at ambient CO2, but the stimulatory effect of elevated CO2 on cast production disappeared when plant species diversity was decreased to 12 and 5 species. High diversity plots were also the only communities that included plant species that an earlier field study showed to be among the most responsive to elevated CO2 and to be most preferred by earthworms to deposit casts near. Further, the +87 % CO2-induced increase in cast production measured over the 3 years corresponded to a parallel increase in cumulative total nitrogen of 5.7 g N m(-2) and would help explain the large stimulation of aboveground plant biomass production observed in high-diversity communities under elevated CO2. The results of this study demonstrate how the loss of plant species from communities can alter responses of major soil heterotrophs and consequently ecosystem biogeochemistry.

Earthworm-mycorrhiza interactions can affect the diversity, structure and functioning of establishing model grassland communities

Both earthworms and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important ecosystem engineers co-occurring in temperate grasslands. However, their combined impacts during grassland establishment are poorly understood and have never been studied. We used large mesocosms to study the effects of different functional groups of earthworms (i.e., vertically burrowing anecics vs. horizontally burrowing endogeics) and a mix of four AMF taxa on the establishment, diversity and productivity of plant communities after a simulated seed rain of 18 grassland species comprising grasses, non-leguminous forbs and legumes. Moreover, effects of earthworms and/or AMF on water infiltration and leaching of ammonium, nitrate and phosphate were determined after a simulated extreme rainfall event (40 l m(-2)). AMF colonisation of all three plant functional groups was altered by earthworms. Seedling emergence and diversity was reduced by anecic earthworms, however only when AMF were present. Plant density was decreased in AMF-free mesocosms when both anecic and endogeic earthworms were active; with AMF also anecics reduced plant density. Plant shoot and root biomass was only affected by earthworms in AMF-free mesocosms: shoot biomass increased due to the activity of either anecics or endogeics; root biomass increased only when anecics were active. Water infiltration increased when earthworms were present in the mesocosms but remained unaffected by AMF. Ammonium leaching was increased only when anecics or a mixed earthworm community was active but was unaffected by AMF; nitrate and phosphate leaching was neither affected by earthworms nor AMF. Ammonium leaching decreased with increasing plant density, nitrate leaching decreased with increasing plant diversity and density. In order to understand the underlying processes of these interactions further investigations possibly under field conditions using more diverse belowground communities are required. Nevertheless, this study demonstrates that belowground-aboveground linkages involving earthworms and AMF are important mediators of the diversity, structure and functioning of plant communities.

Stable isotope 15N and 13C labelling of different functional groups of earthworms and their casts: A tool for studying trophic links

Earthworms (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) have substantial effects on the structure and fertility of soils with consequences for the diversity of plant communities and associated ecosystem functions. However, we still lack a clear understanding of the functional role earthworms play in terrestrial ecosystems, partly because easy-to-use methods to quantify their activities are missing. In this study, we tested whether earthworms and their casts can be dual-labelled with 15N and 13C stable isotopes by cultivating them in soil substrate amended with 15N ammonium nitrate and 13C-glucose. Additionally, we also wanted to know whether (i) earthworms from different functional groups (soil-feeders vs. litter-feeders) and their casts would differ in their incorporation of stable isotopes, (ii) if enrichment levels are higher if the same amount of isotopes is applied in one dose or in staggered doses, and (iii) if isotopic enrichment in casts changes when they are stored in a conditioning cabinet or in a pot filled with soil placed in a greenhouse. Our findings show the feasibility of dual-labelling tissues and casts of both litter-feeding (Lumbricus terrestris) and soil-feeding (Aporrectodea caliginosa) earthworms using the same method. The advantage of this method is that earthworms and their casts can be labelled under realistic conditions by cultivating them for only four days in soil that received a one-time addition of commercially available stable isotopes instead of offering labelled plant material. In earthworms, the isotopic enrichment remained at a stable level for at least 21 days; labelled casts could be stored for at least 105 days without significantly decreasing their isotopic signals. This simple and efficient method opens new avenues for studying the role of these important ecosystem engineers in nutrient cycling and their functional relationships with other organisms.

Metal redistribution by surface casting of four earthworm species in sandy and loamy clay soils

Bioturbation of metal contaminated soils contributes considerably to redistribution and surfacing of contaminated soil from deeper layers. To experimentally measure the contribution of Allolobophora chlorotica, Aporrectodea caliginosa, Lumbricus rubellus and L. terrestris to soil surface casting, a time-course experiment was performed under laboratory conditions. Earthworms were incubated in perspex columns filled with sandy soil (2% organic matter, 2.9% clay) or loamy clay soil (15% organic matter, 20% clay), and surface casts were collected after up to 80 days. On the sandy soil, A. caliginosa and L. rubellus brought approximately 7.1-16 g dry wt. casts/g fresh wt. earthworm to the surface, which is significantly more than A. chlorotica and L. terrestris (2.5-5.0 g dry wt./g fresh wt.). A. caliginosa was the only species that produced significantly more surface casts in the sandy soil than in the loamy clay soil. In the loamy clay soil, no differences in biomass-corrected casting rates were found among the species. Surface casting rates tended to decrease after 20 days. Considering the densities of the different species in a Dutch floodplain area Afferdensche and Deestsche Waarden, surface cast production is estimated to amount to 2.0 kg dry soil/m2 after 80 days, which could be extrapolated to 2.7-9.1 kg/m2 per year. These amounts correspond to a surface deposition of a layer of approximately 1.9-6.5 mm/year, which is of the same order or even slightly higher than the sedimentation rate and much higher than the amount of soil brought to the soil surface by bioturbating small mammals.

Ecological impacts of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on terrestrial ecosystems

Global change has many facets, of which land use and the change of atmospheric chemistry are unquestioned primary agents, which induce a suite of secondary effects, including climatic changes. The largest single contribution to the compositional change of the atmosphere, CO(2) enrichment, has (besides its influence on climate) immediate and direct effects on plants. Quantitatively, CO(2) is the plant 'food' number one, and the rate of photosynthetic CO(2) uptake by leaves is not yet CO(2)-saturated. This abrupt change of the biosphere's diet does and will affect all aspects of life, including our food. However, the plant and ecosystem responses are more subtle than had been assumed from the results of responses of isolated, well-fertilized and well-watered plants in greenhouses during the early days of CO(2)-enrichment research. In this article, I discuss potential responses of complex natural grassland and diverse forests, and address three key themes: CO(2) and nutrients; CO(2) and water; CO(2) and plant-animal interactions. Examples from a suite of climatic regions emphasize that the most important ecosystem level responses to elevated CO(2) will be introduced by differential responses of species. Atmospheric CO(2) enrichment is a biodiversity issue. Classical physiological baseline responses of leaves to elevated CO(2) can be overrun by biodiversity effects to such an extent that some of the traditional predictions may even become reversed. For instance, biodiversity effects may cause humid tropical forests (those which avoid destruction) to become more dynamic and store less, rather than more, carbon as CO(2) enrichment continues. The abundance of certain life forms and species and their lifespans exert major controls over the half-life of carbon stored in forest biomass, and there is evidence that elevated CO(2) can affect these controls and most likely does so already. Also, long-term hydrological consequences of atmospheric CO(2) enrichment will be driven by biodiversity effects, given that some, but not all, species reduce their rate of water loss when exposed to a CO(2)-rich atmosphere. Such insights call for much more realistic experimental conditions and larger-scale test units, which permit biotic interactions across taxa and trophic levels to occur while simulating our CO(2) future. The evidence currently available suggests that ecosystem processes reflect the composition of their biological inventory and this will be affected by a shift in carbon supply.