Atlas of currently-available human neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and escape by Omicron sub-variants BA.1/BA.1.1/BA.2/BA.3

Neutralization of EG.5, EG.5.1, BA.2.86, and JN.1 by antisera from dimeric receptor-binding domain subunit vaccines and 41 human monoclonal antibodies

BACKGROUND

The recently circulating Omicron variants BA.2.86 and JN.1 were identified with more than 30 amino acid changes on the spike protein compared to BA.2 or XBB.1.5. This study aimed to comprehensively assess the immune escape potential of BA.2.86, JN.1, EG.5, and EG.5.1.

METHODS

We collected human and murine sera to evaluate serological neutralization activities. The participants received three doses of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines or a booster dose of the ZF2022-A vaccine (Delta-BA.5 receptor-binding domain [RBD]-heterodimer immunogen) or experienced a breakthrough infection (BTI). The ZF2202-A vaccine is under clinical trial study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05850507). BALB/c mice were vaccinated with a panel of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 RBD-dimer proteins. The antibody evasion properties of these variants were analyzed with 41 representative human monoclonal antibodies targeting the eight RBD epitopes.

FINDINGS

We found that BA.2.86 had less neutralization evasion than EG.5 and EG.5.1 in humans. The ZF2202-A booster induced significantly higher neutralizing titers than BTI. Furthermore, BA.2.86 and JN.1 exhibited stronger antibody evasion than EG.5 and EG.5.1 on RBD-4 and RBD-5 epitopes. Compared to BA.2.86, JN.1 further lost the ability to bind to several RBD-1 monoclonal antibodies and displayed further immune escape.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data showed that the currently dominating sub-variant, JN.1, showed increased immune evasion compared to BA.2.86 and EG.5.1, which is highly concerning. This study provides a timely risk assessment of the interested sub-variants and the basis for updating COVID-19 vaccines.

FUNDING

This work was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the Beijing Life Science Academy, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and the Postdoctoral Fellowship Program of China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (CPSF).

Function and mechanism of bispecific antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2

As the dynamic evolution of SARS-CoV-2 led to reduced efficacy in monoclonal neutralizing antibodies and emergence of immune escape, the role of bispecific antibodies becomes crucial in bolstering antiviral activity and suppressing immune evasion. This review extensively assesses a spectrum of representative bispecific antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2, delving into their characteristics, design formats, mechanisms of action, and associated advantages and limitations. The analysis encompasses factors influencing the selection of parental antibodies and strategies for incorporating added benefits in bispecific antibody design. Furthermore, how different classes of parental antibodies contribute to augmenting the broad-spectrum neutralization capability within bispecific antibodies is discussed. In summary, this review presents analyses and discussions aimed at offering valuable insights for shaping future strategies in bispecific antibody design to effectively confront the challenges posed by SARS-CoV-2 and propel advancements in antiviral therapeutic development.

Key mechanistic features of the trade-off between antibody escape and host cell binding in the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant spike proteins

Since SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant emerged, it is constantly evolving into multiple sub-variants, including BF.7, BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB, XBB.1.5 and the recently emerged BA.2.86 and JN.1. Receptor binding and immune evasion are recognized as two major drivers for evolution of the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein. However, the underlying mechanism of interplay between two factors remains incompletely understood. Herein, we determined the structures of human ACE2 complexed with BF.7, BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB and XBB.1.5 RBDs. Based on the ACE2/RBD structures of these sub-variants and a comparison with the known complex structures, we found that R346T substitution in the RBD enhanced ACE2 binding upon an interaction with the residue R493, but not Q493, via a mechanism involving long-range conformation changes. Furthermore, we found that R493Q and F486V exert a balanced impact, through which immune evasion capability was somewhat compromised to achieve an optimal receptor binding. We propose a "two-steps-forward and one-step-backward" model to describe such a compromise between receptor binding affinity and immune evasion during RBD evolution of Omicron sub-variants.

Intra-Articular Injection of Interleukin-8 Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody Effectively Attenuates Osteoarthritis Progression in Rabbits

OBJECTIVE

Cytokines are implicated in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA), and this study aims to assess the therapeutic potential of an IL-8 neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) for OA intervention.

DESIGN

The study employed a rabbit model of OA induced by anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) surgery to investigate the effects of an interleukin (IL)-8 neutralizing mAb, with hyaluronic acid (HA) used as a positive control. Primary outcomes assessed in the rabbits included cartilage repair, synovitis, joint effusion, changes in footprints, and lower limb loading conditions.

RESULTS

Compared to HA, intra-articular injection of the IL-8 neutralizing mAb demonstrated a more pronounced attenuation of OA progression and enhancement of cartilage repair. We observed a reduction in synovitis and joint effusion, indications of bone marrow edema, as well as improvements in lower limb function. In knees treated with the neutralizing IL-8 mAb, there was a significant decrease in IL-8 levels within the synovial tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

The IL-8 neutralizing mAb exhibits promising therapeutic potential in the management of OA by attenuating inflammation and facilitating cartilage repair. However, further investigations are warranted to comprehensively elucidate the underlying mechanisms, optimize treatment protocols, and ensure the long-term safety and efficacy of this innovative therapeutic approach.

Identification of an IGHV3-53-Encoded RBD-Targeting Cross-Neutralizing Antibody from an Early COVID-19 Convalescent

Since November 2021, Omicron has emerged as the dominant severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variant, and its sublineages continue to appear one after another, significantly reducing the effectiveness of existing therapeutic neutralizing antibodies (NAbs). It is urgent to develop effective NAbs against circulating Omicron variants. Here, we isolated receptor binding domain (RBD)-specific single memory B cells via flow cytometry from a COVID-19 convalescent. The antibody variable region genes of the heavy chain (VHs) and light chain (VLs) were amplified and cloned into expression vectors. After antibody expression, ELISA screening and neutralizing activity detection, we obtained an IGHV3-53-encoded RBD-targeting cross-neutralizing antibody D6, whose VL originated from the IGKV1-9*01 germlines. D6 could potently neutralize circulating Omicron variants (BA.1, BA.2, BA.4/5 and BF.7), with IC50 values of less than 0.04 μg/mL, and the neutralizing ability against XBB was reduced but still effective. The KD values of D6 binding with RBD of the prototype and BA.1 were both less than 1.0 × 10-12 M. The protein structure of the D6-RBD model indicates that D6 interacts with the RBD external subdomain and belongs to the RBD-1 community. The sufficient contact and deep interaction of D6 HCDR3 and LCDR3 with RBD may be the crucial reason for its cross-neutralizing activity. The sorting and analysis of mAb D6 will provide important information for the development of anti-COVID-19 reagents.

Semisynthesis of homogeneous spike RBD glycoforms from SARS-CoV-2 for profiling the correlations between glycan composition and function

Vaccines have been the primary remedy in the global fight against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein, a critical viral immunogen, is affected by the heterogeneity of its glycan structures and relatively low immunogenicity. Here, we describe a scalable synthetic platform that enables the precise synthesis of homogeneously glycosylated RBD, facilitating the elucidation of carbohydrate structure-function relationships. Five homogeneously glycosylated RBDs bearing biantennary glycans were prepared, three of which were conjugated to T-helper epitope (Tpep) from tetanus toxoid to improve their weak immune response. Relative to natural HEK293-derived RBD, synthetic RBDs with biantennary N-glycan elicited a higher level of neutralising antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in mice. Furthermore, RBDs containing Tpep elicited significant immune responses in transgenic mice expressing human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Our collective data suggest that trimming the N-glycans and Tpep conjugation of RBD could potentially serve as an effective strategy for developing subunit vaccines providing efficient protection.

Defining a de novo non-RBM antibody as RBD-8 and its synergistic rescue of immune-evaded antibodies to neutralize Omicron SARS-CoV-2

Currently, monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) targeting the SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) of spike (S) protein are classified into seven classes based on their binding epitopes. However, most of these antibodies are seriously impaired by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and its subvariants, especially the recent BQ.1.1, XBB and its derivatives. Identification of broadly neutralizing MAbs against currently circulating variants is imperative. In this study, we identified a "breathing" cryptic epitope in the S protein, named as RBD-8. Two human MAbs, BIOLS56 and IMCAS74, were isolated recognizing this epitope with broad neutralization abilities against tested sarbecoviruses, including SARS-CoV, pangolin-origin coronaviruses, and all the SARS-CoV-2 variants tested (Omicron BA.4/BA.5, BQ.1.1, and XBB subvariants). Searching through the literature, some more RBD-8 MAbs were defined. More importantly, BIOLS56 rescues the immune-evaded antibody, RBD-5 MAb IMCAS-L4.65, by making a bispecific MAb, to neutralize BQ.1 and BQ.1.1, thereby producing an MAb to cover all the currently circulating Omicron subvariants. Structural analysis reveals that the neutralization effect of RBD-8 antibodies depends on the extent of epitope exposure, which is affected by the angle of antibody binding and the number of up-RBDs induced by angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 binding. This cryptic epitope which recognizes non- receptor binding motif (non-RBM) provides guidance for the development of universal therapeutic antibodies and vaccines against COVID-19.

Classification of five SARS-CoV-2 serotypes based on RBD antigenicities

The continuous evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has resulted in a significant number of variants, particularly with the emergence of Omicron with many sub-variants. These variants have exhibited increased immune escape, leading to reduced efficacy of existing vaccines and therapeutic antibodies. Given the diminished cross-neutralization observed among these variants, it is plausible that SARS-CoV-2 has developed multiple serotypes. As the major antigenic site, the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of viral spike (S) protein was chosen for serotyping. We selected 23 representative variants, including pre-Omicron variants and Omicron sub-variants, and classified them into five serotypes based on systematic evaluation of the antigenicities of their RBDs. Each serotype includes several genetically distinct variants. Serotype-I encompasses all pre-Omicron variants (with two subtypes), while the remaining four serotypes are all comprised of Omicron sub-variants at different stages of evolution. We propose that these serotypes can serve as a foundation for rapid classification of newly emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants, and guide the development of future broad-spectrum vaccines and neutralizing antibodies against the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Humoral immunogenicity assessment after receiving three types of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine

Several vaccines have been developed against SARS-CoV-2 and subsequently approved by national/international regulators. Detecting specific antibodies after vaccination enables us to evaluate the vaccine's effectiveness. We conducted a prospective longitudinal study among members of Tarbiat Modares University of Tehran, Iran, from 4 September 2021 until 29 December 2021. We aimed to compare the humoral immunogenicity of 3 vaccine types. Participants consisted of 462 adults. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain [RBD] IgG titer was compared in 3 groups, each vaccinated by available vaccines in Iran at the time: Oxford/AstraZeneca, COVIran Barekat, and Sinopharm. The median IgG titer was: 91.2, 105.6, 224.0 BAU/ml for Sinopharm, COVIran Barekat and Oxford/AstraZeneca respectively after the first dose; 195.2, 192.0, 337.6 BAU/ml after the second one. We also analyzed the frequency of antibody presence in each vaccine group, in the same order the results were 59.0%, 62.6% and 89.4% after the first dose and 92.1%,89.5% and 98.9% after the second. The comparison of results demonstrated that AstraZeneca vaccine is a superior candidate vaccine for COVID-19 vaccination out of the three. Our data also demonstrated statistically significant higher antibody titer among recipients with an infection history.

Cross-species recognition of bat coronavirus RsYN04 and cross-reaction of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies against the virus

Following the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), several severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-related coronaviruses have been discovered. Previous research has identified a novel lineage of SARS-CoV-2-related CoVs in bats, including RsYN04, which recognizes human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and thus poses a potential threat to humans. Here, we screened the binding of the RsYN04 receptor-binding domain (RBD) to ACE2 orthologs from 52 animal species and found that the virus showed a narrower ACE2-binding spectrum than SARS-CoV-2. However, the presence of the T484W mutation in the RsYN04 RBD broadened its range. We also evaluated 44 SARS-CoV-2 antibodies targeting seven epitope communities in the SARS-CoV-2 RBD, together with serum obtained from COVID-19 convalescents and vaccinees, to determine their cross-reaction against RsYN04. Results showed that no antibodies, except for the RBD-6 and RBD-7 classes, bound to the RsYN04 RBD, indicating substantial immune differences from SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, the structure of the RsYN04 RBD in complex with cross-reactive antibody S43 in RBD-7 revealed a potently broad epitope for the development of therapeutics and vaccines. Our findings suggest RsYN04 and other viruses belonging to the same clade have the potential to infect several species, including humans, highlighting the necessity for viral surveillance and development of broad anti-coronavirus countermeasures.

Immune escape of SARS-CoV-2 variants to therapeutic monoclonal antibodies: a system review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Omicron's high transmissibility and variability present new difficulties for COVID-19 vaccination prevention and therapy. In this article, we analyzed the sensitivity of vaccine-induced antibodies as well as the effect of booster vaccinations against Omicron sublineages.

METHODS

We looked for Randomized Controlled Trials and cohort studies that reported the COVID-19 vaccines against Omicron sublineages up to 28 July 2022 through PubMed, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and Web of Science. Quantitative synthesis was carried out using Stata 16.0 and RevMa5.3, then the serum NT50 and antibody sensitivity to neutralize Omicron sublineages were assessed before and after booster vaccination. This study was registered with PROSPERO number CRD42022350477.

RESULTS

This meta-analysis included 2138 patients from 20 studies, and the booster vaccination against Omicron sublineages showed a significant difference compared to 2 dosage: BA.1/BA.1.1 (SMD = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.75-0.85, P = 0.00), BA.2/BA.2.12.1 (SMD = 0.77, 95% CI: 0.69-0.85, P = 0.00), BA.3 (SMD = 0.91, 95% CI: 0.83-1.0, P = 0.00), and BA.4/5 (SMD = 0.77, 95% CI: 0.60-0.94, P = 0.00). The sensitivity of vaccines-induced antibodies decreased by at least 5-folds after booster vaccination, particularly in the case of BA.4/5 which had the most notable decline in vaccine effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

After the booster vaccination, the NT50 and the neutralization ability of vaccine-induced antibodies increased, but the susceptibility of antibodies decreased compared with the control virus, which may be a clue for future Omicron sublineages prevention.

Defining neutralization and allostery by antibodies against COVID-19 variants

The changing landscape of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein is linked to the emergence of variants, immune-escape and reduced efficacy of the existing repertoire of anti-viral antibodies. The functional activity of neutralizing antibodies is linked to their quaternary changes occurring as a result of antibody-Spike trimer interactions. Here, we reveal the conformational dynamics and allosteric perturbations linked to binding of novel human antibodies and the viral Spike protein. We identified epitope hotspots, and associated changes in Spike dynamics that distinguish weak, moderate and strong neutralizing antibodies. We show the impact of mutations in Wuhan-Hu-1, Delta, and Omicron variants on differences in the antibody-induced conformational changes in Spike and illustrate how these render certain antibodies ineffective. Antibodies with similar binding affinities may induce destabilizing or stabilizing allosteric effects on Spike, with implications for neutralization efficacy. Our results provide mechanistic insights into the functional modes and synergistic behavior of human antibodies against COVID-19 and may assist in designing effective antiviral strategies.

Development of a bispecific nanobody conjugate broadly neutralizes diverse SARS-CoV-2 variants and structural basis for its broad neutralization

The continuous emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants with increased transmissibility and profound immune-escape capacity makes it an urgent need to develop broad-spectrum therapeutics. Nanobodies have recently attracted extensive attentions due to their excellent biochemical and binding properties. Here, we report two high-affinity nanobodies (Nb-015 and Nb-021) that target non-overlapping epitopes in SARS-CoV-2 S-RBD. Both nanobodies could efficiently neutralize diverse viruses of SARS-CoV-2. The neutralizing mechanisms for the two nanobodies are further delineated by high-resolution nanobody/S-RBD complex structures. In addition, an Fc-based tetravalent nanobody format is constructed by combining Nb-015 and Nb-021. The resultant nanobody conjugate, designated as Nb-X2-Fc, exhibits significantly enhanced breadth and potency against all-tested SARS-CoV-2 variants, including Omicron sub-lineages. These data demonstrate that Nb-X2-Fc could serve as an effective drug candidate for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, deserving further in-vivo evaluations in the future.

A pan-coronavirus peptide inhibitor prevents SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice by intranasal delivery

Coronaviruses (CoVs) have brought serious threats to humans, particularly severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which continually evolves into multiple variants. These variants, especially Omicron, reportedly escape therapeutic antibodies and vaccines, indicating an urgent need for new antivirals with pan-SARS-CoV-2 inhibitory activity. We previously reported that a peptide fusion inhibitor, P3, targeting heptad repeated-1 (HR1) of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein, could inhibit viral infections. Here, we further designed multiple derivatives of the P3 based on structural analysis and found that one derivative, the P315V3, showed the most efficient antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants and several other sarbecoviruses, as well as other human-CoVs (HCoVs). P315V3 also exhibited effective prophylactic efficacy against the SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants in mice via intranasal administration. These results suggest that P315V3, which is in Phase II clinical trial, is promising for further development as a nasal pan-SARS-CoV-2 or pan-CoVs inhibitor to prevent or treat CoV diseases.

Computational studies on the interaction of Omicron subvariants (BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3) with ACE2 and polyphenols

INTRODUCTION

The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant BA.2 is spreading widely across the globe. The World Health Organization (WHO) designated BA.2 as a variant of concern due to its high transmission rate and pathogenicity. To elucidate the structural changes caused by mutations, we conducted a comparative analysis of BA.2 with variants BA.1 and BA.3.

OBJECTIVE

In the present study, we aimed to investigate the interactions of the spike glycoprotein receptor-binding domain (SGp RBD) of Omicron variants BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3 with the human receptor hACE2. Further, a library of 233 polyphenols was screened by molecular docking with the SGp RBDs of Omicron variants BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3.

METHODS

Protein-protein and protein-ligand molecular docking simulations were performed with AutoDock Vina and the ClusPro 2.0 server, respectively. The protein-ligand interactions were evaluated by BIOVIA Discovery Studio and ChimeraX 1.4. The molecular dynamics simulations for 100 ns were performed using GROMACS 2021.

RESULTS

Compared to other variants of concern, the structural changes in Omicron caused by mutations at key positions improved its ability to cause infection. Despite multiple mutations, many important polyphenols bind effectively at the RBDs of Omicron variants, with the required pharmacokinetic and ADME features and obeying the Lipinski rule.

CONCLUSION

Even though Omicron variants have multiple mutations and their transmission rate is relatively high, the computed binding affinities of lead polyphenols like epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate (EGCG) and luteolin-7-O-glucuronide (L7G) indicate that traditional medicines and proper immunity booster diets may be useful in the long-term fight against SARS-CoV-2.

Physicochemical effects of emerging exchanges on the spike protein's RBM of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants BA.1-BA.5 and its influence on the biological properties and attributes developed by these subvariants

Emerging in South Africa, SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant was marked by the expression of an exaggerated number of mutations throughout its genome and by the emergence of subvariants, whose attributes developed by them have been associated with amino acid exchanges that occur mainly in the RBM region of the spike protein. The RBM comprises a region within the RBD and is directly involved in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein interaction with the host cell ACE2 receptor, during the infection mechanism and viral transmission. Defined as the region from aa 437 to aa 508, there are several residues in certain positions that interact directly with the human ACE-2 receptor during these processes. The occurrence of amino acid exchanges in these positions causes physicochemical alterations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, which confer additional advantages and attributes to the agent. In addition, these exchanges serve as a basis for the characterization of new variants and subvariants of SARS-CoV-2. In this review, the amino acid exchanges that have occurred in the RBM of the subvariants BA.1 to BA.5 of SARS-CoV-2 that emerged from the Omicron are described. The physicochemical effects caused by them on spike protein are also described, as well as their influence on the biological properties and attributes developed by the subvariants BA.1, BA.2, BA.3, BA.4 and BA.5.

Exploring Conformational Landscapes and Cryptic Binding Pockets in Distinct Functional States of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1 and BA.2 Trimers: Mutation-Induced Modulation of Protein Dynamics and Network-Guided Prediction of Variant-Specific Allosteric Binding Sites

A significant body of experimental structures of SARS-CoV-2 spike trimers for the BA.1 and BA.2 variants revealed a considerable plasticity of the spike protein and the emergence of druggable binding pockets. Understanding the interplay of conformational dynamics changes induced by the Omicron variants and the identification of cryptic dynamic binding pockets in the S protein is of paramount importance as exploring broad-spectrum antiviral agents to combat the emerging variants is imperative. In the current study, we explore conformational landscapes and characterize the universe of binding pockets in multiple open and closed functional spike states of the BA.1 and BA.2 Omicron variants. By using a combination of atomistic simulations, a dynamics network analysis, and an allostery-guided network screening of binding pockets in the conformational ensembles of the BA.1 and BA.2 spike conformations, we identified all experimentally known allosteric sites and discovered significant variant-specific differences in the distribution of binding sites in the BA.1 and BA.2 trimers. This study provided a structural characterization of the predicted cryptic pockets and captured the experimentally known allosteric sites, revealing the critical role of conformational plasticity in modulating the distribution and cross-talk between functional binding sites. We found that mutational and dynamic changes in the BA.1 variant can induce the remodeling and stabilization of a known druggable pocket in the N-terminal domain, while this pocket is drastically altered and may no longer be available for ligand binding in the BA.2 variant. Our results predicted the experimentally known allosteric site in the receptor-binding domain that remains stable and ranks as the most favorable site in the conformational ensembles of the BA.2 variant but could become fragmented and less probable in BA.1 conformations. We also uncovered several cryptic pockets formed at the inter-domain and inter-protomer interface, including functional regions of the S2 subunit and stem helix region, which are consistent with the known role of pocket residues in modulating conformational transitions and antibody recognition. The results of this study are particularly significant for understanding the dynamic and network features of the universe of available binding pockets in spike proteins, as well as the effects of the Omicron-variant-specific modulation of preferential druggable pockets. The exploration of predicted druggable sites can present a new and previously underappreciated opportunity for therapeutic interventions for Omicron variants through the conformation-selective and variant-specific targeting of functional sites involved in allosteric changes.

Broad protective RBD heterotrimer vaccines neutralize SARS-CoV-2 including Omicron sub-variants XBB/BQ.1.1/BF.7

SARS-CoV-2 variants with severe immune evasion are a major challenge for COVID-19 prevention, especially the circulating Omicron XBB/BQ.1.1/BF.7 strains. Thus, the next-generation of broad-spectrum vaccines are urgently needed. Previously, we developed a COVID-19 protein subunit vaccine, ZF2001, based on the RBD-homodimer as the immunogen. To adapt SARS-CoV-2 variants, we developed chimeric RBD-heterodimers to induce broad immune responses. In this study, we further explored the concept of tandem RBD homotrimer and heterotrimer. Prototype SARS-CoV-2 RBD-homotrimer, prototype-Delta-BA.1 (PDO) RBD-heterotrimer and Delta-BA.2-BA.5 (DBA2BA5) RBD-heterotrimer were designed. Biochemical and cryo-EM structural characterization demonstrated total epitope exposure of the RBD-trimers. In mouse experiments, PDO and DBA2BA5 elicited broad SARS-CoV-2 neutralization. Potent protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants was observed in challenge assays and was correlated with neutralizing antibody titer. This study validated the design strategy of tandem RBD-heterotrimers as multivalent immunogens and presented a promising vaccine candidate, DBA2BA5, eliciting broad-spectrum immune responses, including against the circulating XBB/BF.7/BQ.1.1.

Broad-spectrum humanized monoclonal neutralizing antibody against SARS-CoV-2 variants, including the Omicron variant

Introduction

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein have been shown to improve the outcome of severe COVID-19 patients in clinical trials. However, novel variants with spike protein mutations can render many currently available mAbs ineffective.

Methods

We produced mAbs by using hybridoma cells that generated from mice immunized with spike protein trimer and receptor binding domain (RBD). The panel of mAbs were screened for binding and neutralizing activity against different SARS-CoV-2 variants. The in vivo effectiveness of WKS13 was evaluated in a hamster model.

Results

Out of 960 clones, we identified 18 mAbs that could bind spike protein. Ten of the mAbs could attach to RBD, among which five had neutralizing activity against the ancestral strain and could block the binding between the spike protein and human ACE2. One of these mAbs, WKS13, had broad neutralizing activity against all Variants of Concern (VOCs), including the Omicron variant. Both murine or humanized versions of WKS13 could reduce the lung viral load in hamsters infected with the Delta variant.

Conclusions

Our data showed that broad-spectrum high potency mAbs can be produced from immunized mice, which can be used in humans after humanization of the Fc region. Our method represents a versatile and rapid strategy for generating therapeutic mAbs for upcoming novel variants.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies against COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has led to hundreds of millions of infections and millions of deaths, however, human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) can be an effective treatment. Since SARS-CoV-2 emerged, a variety of strains have acquired increasing numbers of mutations to gain increased transmissibility and escape from the immune response. Most reported neutralizing human mAbs, including all approved therapeutic ones, have been knocked down or out by these mutations. Broadly neutralizing mAbs are therefore of great value, to treat current and possible future variants. Here, we review four types of neutralizing mAbs against the spike protein with broad potency against previously and currently circulating variants. These mAbs target the receptor-binding domain, the subdomain 1, the stem helix, or the fusion peptide. Understanding how these mAbs retain potency in the face of mutational change could guide future development of therapeutic antibodies and vaccines.

Dosing interval regimen shapes potency and breadth of antibody repertoire after vaccination of SARS-CoV-2 RBD protein subunit vaccine

Vaccination with different vaccines has been implemented globally to counter the continuous COVID-19 pandemic. However, the vaccine-elicited antibodies have reduced efficiency against the highly mutated Omicron sub-variants. Previously, we developed a protein subunit COVID-19 vaccine called ZF2001, based on the dimeric receptor-binding domain (RBD). This vaccine has been administered using different dosing intervals in real-world setting. Some individuals received three doses of ZF2001, with a one-month interval between each dose, due to urgent clinical requirements. Others had an extended dosing interval of up to five months between the second and third dose, a standard vaccination regimen for the protein subunit vaccine against hepatitis B. In this study, we profile B cell responses in individuals who received three doses of ZF2001, and compared those with long or short dosing intervals. We observed that the long-interval group exhibited higher and broader serologic antibody responses. These responses were associated with the increased size and evolution of vaccine-elicited B-cell receptor repertoires, characterized by the elevation of expanded clonotypes and somatic hypermutations. Both groups of individuals generated substantial amounts of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) against various SARS-CoV-2 variants, including Omicron sub-variants such as XBB. These bnAbs target four antigenic sites within the RBD. To determine the vulnerable site of SARS-CoV-2, we employed cryo-electron microscopy to identify the epitopes of highly potent bnAbs that targeted two major sites. Our findings provide immunological insights into the B cell responses elicited by RBD-based vaccine, and suggest that a vaccination regimen of prolonging time interval should be used in practice.

COVID-19 vaccine induced poor neutralization titers for SARS-CoV-2 omicron variants in maternal and cord blood

Introduction

Maternally derived antibodies are crucial for neonatal immunity. Understanding the binding and cross-neutralization capacity of maternal and cord antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 variants following COVID-19 vaccination in pregnancy can inform neonatal immunity.

Methods

Here we characterized the binding and neutralizing antibody profile at delivery in 24 pregnant individuals following two doses of Moderna mRNA-1273 or Pfizer BNT162b2 vaccination. We analyzed for SARS-CoV-2 multivariant cross-neutralizing antibody levels for wildtype Wuhan, Delta, Omicron BA1, BA2, and BA4/BA5 variants. In addition, we evaluated the transplacental antibody transfer by profiling maternal and umbilical cord blood.

Results

Our results reveal that the current COVID-19 vaccination induced significantly higher RBD-specific binding IgG titers in cord blood compared to maternal blood for both the Wuhan and Omicron BA1 strain. Interestingly, the binding IgG antibody levels for the Omicron BA1 strain were significantly lower when compared to the Wuhan strain in both maternal and cord blood. In contrast to the binding, the Omicron BA1, BA2, and BA4/5 specific neutralizing antibody levels were significantly lower compared to the Wuhan and Delta variants. It is interesting to note that the BA4/5 neutralizing capacity was not detected in either maternal or cord blood.

Discussion

Our data suggest that the initial series of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines were immunogenic in pregnant women, and vaccine-elicited binding antibodies were detectable in cord blood at significantly higher levels for the Wuhan and Delta variants but not for the Omicron variants. Interestingly, the vaccination did not induce neutralizing antibodies for Omicron variants. These results provide novel insight into the impact of vaccination on maternal humoral immune response and transplacental antibody transfer for SARS-CoV-2 variants and support the need for bivalent boosters as new variants emerge.

Omicron BQ.1.1 and XBB.1 unprecedentedly escape broadly neutralizing antibodies elicited by prototype vaccination

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron subvariants have seriously attacked the antibody barrier established by natural infection and/or vaccination, especially the recently emerged BQ.1.1 and XBB.1. However, crucial mechanisms underlying the virus escape and the broad neutralization remain elusive. Here, we present a panoramic analysis of broadly neutralizing activity and binding epitopes of 75 monoclonal antibodies isolated from prototype inactivated vaccinees. Nearly all neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) partly or totally lose their neutralization against BQ.1.1 and XBB.1. We report a broad nAb, VacBB-551, that effectively neutralizes all tested subvariants including BA.2.75, BQ.1.1, and XBB.1. We determine the cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of VacBB-551 complexed with the BA.2 spike and perform detailed functional verification to reveal the molecular basis of N460K and F486V/S mutations mediating the partial escape of BA.2.75, BQ.1.1, and XBB.1 from the neutralization of VacBB-551. Overall, BQ.1.1 and XBB.1 raised the alarm over SARS-CoV-2 evolution with unprecedented antibody evasion from broad nAbs elicited by prototype vaccination.

Discovery and characterization of potent pan-variant SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies from individuals with Omicron breakthrough infection

The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant evades most currently approved neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) and caused drastic decrease of plasma neutralizing activity elicited by vaccination or prior infection, urging the need for the development of pan-variant antivirals. Breakthrough infection induces a hybrid immunological response with potentially broad, potent and durable protection against variants, therefore, convalescent plasma from breakthrough infection may provide a broadened repertoire for identifying elite nAbs. We performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and BCR sequencing (scBCR-seq) of B cells from BA.1 breakthrough-infected patients who received 2 or 3 previous doses of inactivated vaccine. Elite nAbs, mainly derived from the IGHV2-5 and IGHV3-66/53 germlines, showed potent neutralizing activity across Wuhan-Hu-1, Delta, Omicron sublineages BA.1 and BA.2 at picomolar NT50 values. Cryo-EM analysis revealed diverse modes of spike recognition and guides the design of cocktail therapy. A single injection of paired antibodies cocktail provided potent protection in the K18-hACE2 transgenic female mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Status and Developing Strategies for Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody Therapy in the Omicron Era of COVID-19

The monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based treatment is a highly valued therapy against COVID-19, especially for individuals who may not have strong immune responses to the vaccine. However, with the arrival of the Omicron variant and its evolving subvariants, along with the occurrence of remarkable resistance of these SARS-CoV-2 variants to the neutralizing antibodies, mAbs are facing tough challenges. Future strategies for developing mAbs with improved resistance to viral evasion will involve optimizing the targeting epitopes on SARS-CoV-2, enhancing the affinity and potency of mAbs, exploring the use of non-neutralizing antibodies that bind to conserved epitopes on the S protein, as well as optimizing immunization regimens. These approaches can improve the viability of mAb therapy in the fight against the evolving threat of the coronavirus.

Licorice-saponin A3 is a broad-spectrum inhibitor for COVID-19 by targeting viral spike and anti-inflammation

Currently, human health due to corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been seriously threatened. The coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike (S) protein plays a crucial role in virus transmission and several S-based therapeutic approaches have been approved for the treatment of COVID-19. However, the efficacy is compromised by the SARS-CoV-2 evolvement and mutation. Here we report the SARS-CoV-2 S protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) inhibitor licorice-saponin A3 (A3) could widely inhibit RBD of SARS-CoV-2 variants, including Beta, Delta, and Omicron BA.1, XBB and BQ1.1. Furthermore, A3 could potently inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Omicron virus in Vero E6 cells, with EC₅₀ of 1.016 μM. The mechanism was related with binding with Y453 of RBD determined by hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) analysis combined with quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) simulations. Interestingly, phosphoproteomics analysis and multi fluorescent immunohistochemistry (mIHC) respectively indicated that A3 also inhibits host inflammation by directly modulating the JNK and p38 MAPK pathways and rebalancing the corresponding immune dysregulation. This work supports A3 as a promising broad-spectrum small molecule drug candidate for COVID-19.

Targetable elements in SARS-CoV-2 S2 subunit for the design of pan-coronavirus fusion inhibitors and vaccines

The ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused devastating impacts on the public health and the global economy. Rapid viral antigenic evolution has led to the continual generation of new variants. Of special note is the recently expanding Omicron subvariants that are capable of immune evasion from most of the existing neutralizing antibodies (nAbs). This has posed new challenges for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Therefore, exploring broad-spectrum antiviral agents to combat the emerging variants is imperative. In sharp contrast to the massive accumulation of mutations within the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD), the S2 fusion subunit has remained highly conserved among variants. Hence, S2-based therapeutics may provide effective cross-protection against new SARS-CoV-2 variants. Here, we summarize the most recently developed broad-spectrum fusion inhibitors (e.g., nAbs, peptides, proteins, and small-molecule compounds) and candidate vaccines targeting the conserved elements in SARS-CoV-2 S2 subunit. The main focus includes all the targetable S2 elements, namely, the fusion peptide, stem helix, and heptad repeats 1 and 2 (HR1-HR2) bundle. Moreover, we provide a detailed summary of the characteristics and action-mechanisms for each class of cross-reactive fusion inhibitors, which should guide and promote future design of S2-based inhibitors and vaccines against new coronaviruses.

Comprehensive structural analysis reveals broad-spectrum neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants

The pandemic of COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 continues to spread around the world. Mutant strains of SARS-CoV-2 are constantly emerging. At present, Omicron variants have become mainstream. In this work, we carried out a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the reported spike protein antibodies, counting the epitopes and genotypes of these antibodies. We further comprehensively analyzed the impact of Omicron mutations on antibody epitopes and classified these antibodies according to their binding patterns. We found that the epitopes of the H-RBD class antibodies were significantly less affected by Omicron mutations than other classes. Binding and virus neutralization experiments showed that such antibodies could effectively inhibit the immune escape of Omicron. Cryo-EM results showed that this class of antibodies utilized a conserved mechanism to neutralize SARS-CoV-2. Our results greatly help us deeply understand the impact of Omicron mutations. Meanwhile, it also provides guidance and insights for developing Omicron antibodies and vaccines.

Host immunological responses facilitate development of SARS-CoV-2 mutations in patients receiving monoclonal antibody treatments

BackgroundThe role of host immunity in emergence of evasive SARS-CoV-2 Spike mutations under therapeutic monoclonal antibody (mAb) pressure remains to be explored.MethodsIn a prospective, observational, monocentric ORCHESTRA cohort study, conducted between March 2021 and November 2022, mild-to-moderately ill COVID-19 patients (n = 204) receiving bamlanivimab, bamlanivimab/etesevimab, casirivimab/imdevimab, or sotrovimab were longitudinally studied over 28 days for viral loads, de novo Spike mutations, mAb kinetics, seroneutralization against infecting variants of concern, and T cell immunity. Additionally, a machine learning-based circulating immune-related biomarker (CIB) profile predictive of evasive Spike mutations was constructed and confirmed in an independent data set (n = 19) that included patients receiving sotrovimab or tixagevimab/cilgavimab.ResultsPatients treated with various mAbs developed evasive Spike mutations with remarkable speed and high specificity to the targeted mAb-binding sites. Immunocompromised patients receiving mAb therapy not only continued to display significantly higher viral loads, but also showed higher likelihood of developing de novo Spike mutations. Development of escape mutants also strongly correlated with neutralizing capacity of the therapeutic mAbs and T cell immunity, suggesting immune pressure as an important driver of escape mutations. Lastly, we showed that an antiinflammatory and healing-promoting host milieu facilitates Spike mutations, where 4 CIBs identified patients at high risk of developing escape mutations against therapeutic mAbs with high accuracy.ConclusionsOur data demonstrate that host-driven immune and nonimmune responses are essential for development of mutant SARS-CoV-2. These data also support point-of-care decision making in reducing the risk of mAb treatment failure and improving mitigation strategies for possible dissemination of escape SARS-CoV-2 mutants.FundingThe ORCHESTRA project/European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program.

Two pan-SARS-CoV-2 nanobodies and their multivalent derivatives effectively prevent Omicron infections in mice

With the widespread vaccinations against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we are witnessing gradually waning neutralizing antibodies and increasing cases of breakthrough infections, necessitating the development of drugs aside from vaccines, particularly ones that can be administered outside of hospitals. Here, we present two cross-reactive nanobodies (R14 and S43) and their multivalent derivatives, including decameric ones (fused to the immunoglobulin M [IgM] Fc) that maintain potent neutralizing activity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) after aerosolization and display not only pan-SARS-CoV-2 but also varied pan-sarbecovirus activities. Through respiratory administration to mice, monovalent and decameric R14 significantly reduce the lung viral RNAs at low dose and display potent pre- and post-exposure protection. Furthermore, structural studies reveal the neutralizing mechanisms of R14 and S43 and the multiple inhibition effects that the multivalent derivatives exert. Our work demonstrates promising convenient drug candidates via respiratory administration against SARS-CoV-2 infection, which can contribute to containing the COVID-19 pandemic.

Host range and structural analysis of bat-origin RshSTT182/200 coronavirus binding to human ACE2 and its animal orthologs

Bat-origin RshSTT182 and RshSTT200 coronaviruses (CoV) from Rhinolophus shameli in Southeast Asia (Cambodia) share 92.6% whole-genome identity with SARS-CoV-2 and show identical receptor-binding domains (RBDs). In this study, we determined the structure of the RshSTT182/200 receptor binding domain (RBD) in complex with human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) and identified the key residues that influence receptor binding. The binding of the RshSTT182/200 RBD to ACE2 orthologs from 39 animal species, including 18 bat species, was used to evaluate its host range. The RshSTT182/200 RBD broadly recognized 21 of 39 ACE2 orthologs, although its binding affinities for the orthologs were weaker than those of the RBD of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, RshSTT182 pseudovirus could utilize human, fox, and Rhinolophus affinis ACE2 receptors for cell entry. Moreover, we found that SARS-CoV-2 induces cross-neutralizing antibodies against RshSTT182 pseudovirus. Taken together, these findings indicate that RshSTT182/200 can potentially infect susceptible animals, but requires further evolution to obtain strong interspecies transmission abilities like SARS-CoV-2.

Epistasis lowers the genetic barrier to SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody escape

Waves of SARS-CoV-2 infection have resulted from the emergence of viral variants with neutralizing antibody resistance mutations. Simultaneously, repeated antigen exposure has generated affinity matured B cells, producing broadly neutralizing receptor binding domain (RBD)-specific antibodies with activity against emergent variants. To determine how SARS-CoV-2 might escape these antibodies, we subjected chimeric viruses encoding spike proteins from ancestral, BA.1 or BA.2 variants to selection by 40 broadly neutralizing antibodies. We identify numerous examples of epistasis, whereby in vitro selected and naturally occurring substitutions in RBD epitopes that do not confer antibody resistance in the Wuhan-Hu-1 spike, do so in BA.1 or BA.2 spikes. As few as 2 or 3 of these substitutions in the BA.5 spike, confer resistance to nearly all of the 40 broadly neutralizing antibodies, and substantial resistance to plasma from most individuals. Thus, epistasis facilitates the acquisition of resistance to antibodies that remained effective against early omicron variants.

Protection against SARS-CoV-2 BA.4 and BA.5 subvariants via vaccination and natural infection: A modeling study

With continuing emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants, understanding the proportion of the population protected against infection is crucial for public health risk assessment and decision-making and so that the general public can take preventive measures. We aimed to estimate the protection against symptomatic illness caused by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants BA.4 and BA.5 elicited by vaccination against and natural infection with other SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants. We used a logistic model to define the protection rate against symptomatic infection caused by BA.1 and BA.2 as a function of neutralizing antibody titer values. Applying the quantified relationships to BA.4 and BA.5 using two different methods, the estimated protection rate against BA.4 and BA.5 was 11.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.01-25.4) (method 1) and 12.9% (95% CI: 8.8-18.0) (method 2) at 6 months after a second dose of BNT162b2 vaccine, 44.3% (95% CI: 20.0-59.3) (method 1) and 47.3% (95% CI: 34.1-60.6) (method 2) at 2 weeks after a third BNT162b2 dose, and 52.3% (95% CI: 25.1-69.2) (method 1) and 54.9% (95% CI: 37.6-71.4) (method 2) during the convalescent phase after infection with BA.1 and BA.2, respectively. Our study indicates that the protection rate against BA.4 and BA.5 are significantly lower compared with those against previous variants and may lead to substantial morbidity, and overall estimates were consistent with empirical reports. Our simple yet practical models enable prompt assessment of public health impacts posed by new SARS-CoV-2 variants using small sample-size neutralization titer data to support public health decisions in urgent situations.

Cross-reaction of current available SARS-CoV-2 MAbs against the pangolin-origin coronavirus GX/P2V/2017

Since the identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological agent of COVID-19, multiple SARS-CoV-2-related viruses have been characterized, including pangolin-origin GD/1/2019 and GX/P2V/2017. Our previous study indicated that both viruses have the potential to infect humans. Here, we find that CB6 (commercial name etesevimab), a COVID-19 therapeutic monoclonal antibody (MAb) developed by our group, efficiently inhibits GD/1/2019 but not GX/P2V/2017. A total of 50 SARS-CoV-2 MAbs divided into seven groups based on their receptor-binding domain (RBD) epitopes, together with the COVID-19 convalescent sera, are systematically screened for their cross-binding and cross-neutralizing properties against GX/P2V/2017. We find that GX/P2V/2017 displays substantial immune difference from SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, we solve two complex structures of the GX/P2V/2017 RBD with MAbs belonging to RBD-1 and RBD-5, providing a structural basis for their different antigenicity. These results highlight the necessity for broad anti-coronavirus countermeasures and shed light on potential therapeutic targets.

Current strategies for SARS-CoV-2 molecular detection

The molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 is extremely important for the discovery and prevention of pandemic dissemination. Because SARS-CoV-2 is not always present in the samples that can be collected, the sample chosen for testing has inevitably become the key to the SARS-CoV-2 positive cases screening. The nucleotide amplification strategy mainly includes Q-PCR assays and isothermal amplification assays. The Q-PCR assay is the most used SARS-CoV-2 detection assay. Due to heavy expenditures and other drawbacks, isothermal amplification cannot replace the dominant position of the Q-PCR assay. The antibody-based detection combined with Q-PCR can help to find more positive cases than only using nucleotide amplification-based assays. Pooled testing based on Q-PCR significantly increases efficiency and reduces the cost of massive-scale screening. The endless stream of variants emerging across the world poses a great challenge to SARS-CoV-2 molecular detection. The multi-target assays and several other strategies have proved to be efficient in the detection of mutated SARS-CoV-2 variants. Further research work should concentrate on: (1) identifying more ideal sample plucking strategies, (2) ameliorating the Q-PCR primer and probes targeted toward mutated SARS-CoV-2 variants, (3) exploring more economical and precise isothermal amplification assays, and (4) developing more advanced strategies for antibody/antigen or engineered antibodies to ameliorate the antibody/antigen-based strategy.

The mechanisms of immune response and evasion by the main SARS-CoV-2 variants

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a global pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 carries a unique group of mutations, and the transmission of the virus has led to the emergence of other mutants such as Alpha (B.1.1.7), Beta (B.1.351), Gamma (P.1), Kappa (B.1.617.1), Delta (B.1.617.2) and Omicron (B.1.1.529). The advent of a vaccine has raised hopes of ending the pandemic. However, the mutation variants of SARS-CoV-2 have raised concerns about the effectiveness of vaccines because the data showed that the vaccine was less effective against mutation variants compared to the previous variants. Mutation variants could easily mutate the N-segment structure and receptor domain of its spike glycoprotein (S) protein to escape antibody recognition. Therefore, it is vital to understand the potential immune response and evasion mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 variants. In this review, immune response and evasion mechanisms of several SARS-CoV-2 variants are described, which could provide some helpful advice for future vaccines.

Emerging SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Subvariants: Challenges and Opportunities in the Context of COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has become the most devastating pandemic of the 21st century since its appearance in December 2019. Like other RNA viruses, continuous mutation is common for coronavirus to create several variants and subvariants. The main reason behind this mutation and evolvement of SARS-CoV-2 was its structural spike (S) glycoprotein. Coronavirus has become a threat to global public health due to its high mutation capability and antibody neutralizing capacity. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are 5 major variants of concern (VOC) are Alpha (B.1.1.7), Beta (B.1.351), Gamma (P.1), Delta (B.1.617.2), and Omicron (B.1.1.529). Recently, different Omicron subvariants have gained worldwide dominance, such as BA.1, BA.2, BA.3, BA.4, and BA.5. However, there is a discernible drop in this symptomatic sickness globally due to the success of numerous monoclonal antibodies and vaccinations. Here we also discussed the currently dominant Omicron subvariants and the effectiveness of antiviral agents and vaccines. Based on the available data and our knowledge, we can suggest that the global healthcare organizations can decide on the declaration of the end of the pandemic phase of COVID-19 soon; however, the covid-19 will continue.

When the Dust Has Settled: Calculation of Binding Affinities from First Principles for SARS-CoV-2 Variants with Quantitative Accuracy

Accurate determination of binding free energy is pivotal for the study of many biological processes and has been applied in a number of theoretical investigations to compare the affinity of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 variants toward the host cell. Diversity of these variants challenges the development of effective general therapies, their transmissibility relying either on an increased affinity toward their dedicated human receptor, the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), or on escaping the immune response. Now that robust structural data are available, we have determined with utmost accuracy the standard binding free energy of the receptor-binding domain to the most widespread variants, namely, Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron BA.2, as well as the wild type (WT) in complex either with ACE2 or with antibodies, namely, S2E12 and H11-D4, using a rigorous theoretical framework that combines molecular dynamics and potential-of-mean-force calculations. Our results show that an appropriate starting structure is crucial to ensure appropriate reproduction of the binding affinity, allowing the variants to be compared. They also emphasize the necessity to apply the relevant methodology, bereft of any shortcut, to account for all the contributions to the standard binding free energy. Our estimates of the binding affinities support the view that while the Alpha and Beta variants lean on an increased affinity toward the host cell, the Delta and Omicron BA.2 variants choose immune escape. Moreover, the S2E12 antibody, already known to be active against the WT (Starr et al., 2021; Mlcochova et al., 2021), proved to be equally effective against the Delta variant. In stark contrast, H11-D4 retains a low affinity toward the WT compared to that of ACE2 for the latter. Assuming robust structural information, the methodology employed herein successfully addresses the challenging protein-protein binding problem in the context of coronavirus disease 2019 while offering promising perspectives for predictive studies of ever-emerging variants.

A retrospective study of Pupingqinghua prescription versus Lianhuaqingwen in Chinese participants infected with SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants

Background: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) seriously endangers global public health. Pupingqinghua prescription (PPQH) is an herbal formula from traditional Chinese medicine used for treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. This study aims to evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of PPQH in Chinese participants infected with the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. Methods: A total of 873 SARS-CoV-2 (Omicron)-infected patients were included. Among them, the patients were divided into the PPQH group (653 cases) and LHQW group (220 cases) according to different medications. The effectiveness indicators (hematological indicators, Ct values of novel Coronavirus nucleic acid tests, and viral load-shedding time) and safety indicators (liver and kidney function and adverse events) were analyzed. Results: There was no significant difference in baseline characteristics between the PPQH group and the LHQW group, except the gender; After the treatment, the levels of IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, NK cells, and INF-α of the patients in the PPQH group showed a downward trend (p < 0.05); The viral load shedding time was 5.0 (5.0, 7.0) in the PPQH group and 5.0 (4.0, 7.0) in the LHQW group; both PPQH and LHQW can shorten the duration of symptoms of fever, cough, and sore throat. The re-positive rate of COVID-19 test was 1.5 % in the PPQH group and 2.3 % in the LHQW group. In terms of safety, the levels of γ-GTT decreased significantly (p < 0.01); gastrointestinal reaction was the primary adverse reaction, and the reaction rate was 4.7 % in the PPQH group and 9.5 % in the LHQW group. Conclusion: PPQH can shorten the length of hospital stay and improve clinical symptoms of patients with SARS-COV-2 (Omicron), and it also has a good safety profile.

Structural insights for neutralization of Omicron variants BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, and BA.5 by a broadly neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 antibody

In this study, by characterizing several human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) isolated from single B cells of the COVID-19–recovered individuals in India who experienced ancestral Wuhan strain (WA.1) of SARS-CoV-2 during early stages of the pandemic, we found a receptor binding domain (RBD)–specific mAb 002-S21F2 that has rare gene usage and potently neutralized live viral isolates of SARS-CoV-2 variants including Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron sublineages (BA.1, BA.2, BA.2.12.1, BA.4, and BA.5) with IC 50 ranging from 0.02 to 0.13 μg/ml. Structural studies of 002-S21F2 in complex with spike trimers of Omicron and WA.1 showed that it targets a conformationally conserved epitope on the outer face of RBD (class 3 surface) outside the ACE2-binding motif, thereby providing a mechanistic insights for its broad neutralization activity. The discovery of 002-S21F2 and the broadly neutralizing epitope it targets have timely implications for developing a broad range of therapeutic and vaccine interventions against SARS-CoV-2 variants including Omicron sublineages.

Immune Evasion of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Subvariants

Since the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) was declared a variant of concern (VOC) by the WHO on 24 November 2021, it has caused another global surge of cases. With extensive mutations in its spike glycoprotein, Omicron gained substantial capabilities to evade the antiviral immunity provided by vaccination, hybrid immunity, or monoclonal antibodies. The Omicron subvariants BA.1, BA.2, BA.2.12.1, BA.4 and BA.5 extended this immune evasion capability by having additional unique mutations in their respective spike proteins. The ongoing Omicron wave and emergence of new Omicron subvariants leads to additional concerns regarding the efficacy of the current antiviral measurements. To have a better understanding of the Omicron subvariants, this review summarizes reports of the immune evasion of subvariants BA.1, BA.2, BA.2.12.1, BA.4, and BA.5 as well as the molecular basis of immune evasion.

A comprehensive analysis of the efficacy and effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines

It is urgently needed to update the comprehensive analysis about the efficacy or effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines especially during the COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants. In general, the current COVID-19 vaccines showed a cumulative efficacy of 66.4%, 79.7%, and 93.6% to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection, symptomatic COVID-19, and severe COVID-19, respectively, but could not prevent the asymptomatic infection of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, the current COVID-19 vaccines could effectively prevent COVID-19 caused by the Delta variant although the incidence of breakthrough infection of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant increased when the intervals post full vaccination extended, suggesting the waning effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines. In addition, one-dose booster immunization showed an effectiveness of 74.5% to prevent COVID-19 caused by the Delta variant. However, current COVID-19 vaccines could not prevent the infection of Omicron sub-lineage BA.1.1.529 and had about 50% effectiveness to prevent COVID-19 caused by Omicron sub-lineage BA.1.1.529. Furthermore, the effectiveness was 87.6% and 90.1% to prevent severe COVID-19 and COVID-19-related death caused by Omicron sub-lineage BA.2, respectively, while one-dose booster immunization could enhance the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines to prevent the infection and COVID-19 caused by Omicron sub-lineage BA.1.1.529 and sub-lineage BA.2. Two-dose booster immunization showed an increased effectiveness of 81.8% against severe COVID-19 caused by the Omicron sub-lineage BA.1.1.529 variant compared with one-dose booster immunization. The effectiveness of the booster immunization with RNA-based vaccine BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273 was over 75% against severe COVID-19 more than 17 weeks after booster immunization whereas the heterogenous booster immunization showed better effectiveness than homologous booster immunization. In summary, the current COVID-19 vaccines could effectively protect COVID-19 caused by Delta and Omicron variants but was less effective against Omicron variant infection. One-dose booster immunization could enhance protection capability, and two-dose booster immunization could provide additional protection against severe COVID-19.

Epistasis lowers the genetic barrier to SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody escape

Consecutive waves of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been driven in part by the repeated emergence of variants with mutations that confer resistance to neutralizing antibodies Nevertheless, prolonged or repeated antigen exposure generates diverse memory B-cells that can produce affinity matured receptor binding domain (RBD)-specific antibodies that likely contribute to ongoing protection against severe disease. To determine how SARS-CoV-2 omicron variants might escape these broadly neutralizing antibodies, we subjected chimeric viruses encoding spike proteins from ancestral, BA.1 or BA.2 variants to selection pressure by a collection of 40 broadly neutralizing antibodies from individuals with various SARS-CoV-2 antigen exposures. Notably, pre-existing substitutions in the BA.1 and BA.2 spikes facilitated acquisition of resistance to many broadly neutralizing antibodies. Specifically, selection experiments identified numerous RBD substitutions that did not confer resistance to broadly neutralizing antibodies in the context of the ancestral Wuhan-Hu-1 spike sequence, but did so in the context of BA.1 and BA.2. A subset of these substitutions corresponds to those that have appeared in several BA.2 daughter lineages that have recently emerged, such as BA.5. By including as few as 2 or 3 of these additional changes in the context of BA.5, we generated spike proteins that were resistant to nearly all of the 40 broadly neutralizing antibodies and were poorly neutralized by plasma from most individuals. The emergence of omicron variants has therefore not only allowed SARS-CoV-2 escape from previously elicited neutralizing antibodies but also lowered the genetic barrier to the acquisition of resistance to the subset of antibodies that remained effective against early omicron variants.